GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 523
Organic-Rich Shale of the United States and World Land Areas Organic-Rich Shale of the United States and World Land Areas
By Donald C. Duncan and Vernon E. Swanson
Geological Survey Circular 523
Washington 7965 United States Department of the Interior STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary
Geological Survey William T. Pecora, Director
REPRINTED 1966
Free on application to the U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. 20242 CONTENTS
Page Page Abstract----- ______1 Shale oil resources Continued Introduction- ______1 North America Continued Acknowledgments ______2 United States Continued Previous summaries______2 Shale associated with coal ______14 Definitions ______2 Other shale deposits ______15 Organic -rich shale ______2 Total shale oil resources.---- 16 Oil shale ______3 Other areas in North America ____ 16 Other terms ______3 Africa-___--__-_-_----_--_----_--- 17 Types of deposits______4 Total shale oil resources of Potential energy, oil, or gas yield of Africa ______17 the organic matter in shale ______4 Asia ______19 Status of the shale industry ______5 China ______19 World production ______5 Israel, Jordan, and Syria ______19 Byproducts ______5 Siberia ______20 Activities in the United States ____ 5 Thailand and Burma-______20 Classification of resources ______5 Turkey ______20 Known resources ______6 Total shale oil resources of Asia__ 21 Possible extensions of known Australia and New Zealand ______21 resources ______Total shale oil resources ______21 Undiscovered and unappraised Europe ______-___--__----_--_-- 21 resources ______Balkan Peninsula and adjacent Total resources ______areas ______22 Recoverable resources______Franee ______22 Marginal and submarginal Germany ______23 resources ______Great Britain ______23 Total resources of organic -rich Italy, Austria^and Switzerland----- 24 Luxembourg ______24 Shale oil resources ______8 Russia ______- 24 North America ______10 Spain and Portugal- ______-- 25 United States. ______10 Sweden______--___--_-----__---- 25 Green River Formation, Total shale oil resources of Colorado, Utah, and Europe______-__--_---_---- 25 Wyoming ______10 South America __-___--_____-___--- 26 Devonian and Mississippian Total shale oil resources of shale, Central and Eastern South America ______27 United States, ______13 References cited ______27 Marine shale, Alaska '______14
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page Figure 1. Map showing principal reported oil-shale deposits of the world ______8 2. Map showing principal reported oil-shale deposits of the United States ______-: n 3. Map showing distribution of oil shale in the Green River Formation, Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming ______-_-______-__---_--_------12
III IV CONTENTS
TABLES
Page Table 1. Order of magnitude of total stored energy in organic-rich shale of the United States and principal land areas of the world______- ______7 2. Shale oil resources of the United States ______9 3. Shale oil resources of the world land areas ______18 Organic-Rich Shale of the United States and World Land Areas
By Donald C. Duncan and Vernon E. Swanson
ABSTRACT Resources of organic-rich shale extending to maximum depths of 20,000 feet are estimated statistically in this report. A review of organic-rich shale deposits in the United States By this method the deposits in theUnited States are estimated and world land areas was conducted to estimate the energy to contain an order of magnitude of 72 trillion tons of organic and oil potential of these little-used resources. matter, which has an energy potential of 1,900 Q (10 18 Btu), or an alternative potential yield of about 170 trillion barrels Organic-rich shale is defined as fine-textured sedimentary of oil. An inventory of known oil-shale resources of the rock containing 5-65 percent combustible organic matter. United States includes 80 billion barrels of oil equivalent in The total organic content and the total thermal energy ob parts of higher grade accessible deposits that are considered tainable by combustion of the shale are estimated in grade recoverable under present conditions. About 2.1 trillion categories of units containing 10-65 percent organic matter barrels of oil equivalent in known lower grade or less ac and 5-10 percent organic matter. These shale deposits can cessible oil-shale deposits is considered marginal or sub- be made to yield oil or combustible gas by unconventional marginal resources. The possible extensions of the known experimental methods such as hydrogenolysis of the organic oil-shale deposits contain an order of magnitude of 3.2 tril matter. The total resources of oil thus technically extractable lion barrels oil equivalent. Undiscovered and unappraised from organic-rich shale are estimated in grade categories of organic-rich shale deposits that can be made to yield more units yielding more than 25 gallons per ton, 10-25 gallons than 10 gallons of oil per ton by one method or another are per ton, and 5-10 gallons per ton. The estimates are for oil believed to contain about 23 trillion barrels oil equivalent. equivalent in the deposits. The combustible gas potential of Very low grade organic-rich shale, which yields 5-10 gallons some deposits is considered, but a full inventory is not of oil per ton, contains approximately 140 trillion barrels attempted. oil equivalent.
Oil shale is defined as organic-rich shale that yields oil Organic-rich shale deposits of the world land areas (includ in substantial amounts by conventional destructive distilla ing the United States) contain an order of magnitude of 900 tion methods, such as those used by established industries. trillion tons of organic matter, which has an energy potential For purposes of the study the range of oil yield of deposits of about 24,000 Q (1018 Btu). These deposits have an alterna that are considered oil shale is from 10 to more than 100 tive potential yield of more than 2 quadrillion barrels of oil. gallons per ton of rock, corresponding to the range in grade An inventory of the known world shale oil resources includes of deposits used in oil shale industries. The shale oil re 190 billion barrels oil equivalent recoverable under approx sources of the known deposits and their possible extensions imately present conditions and more than 3.1 trillion barrels are estimated in grade categories of units that yield more in place in marginal and submarginal oil-shale deposits. The than 25 gallons per ton and units that yield 10-25 gallons possible extensions of known oil-shale deposits contain an per ton. The oil equivalent in some lower grade shale units order of magnitude of 10.6 trillion barrels oil equivalent; that yield 5-10 gallons per ton by conventional assay are undiscovered and unappraised organic-rich shale deposits also estimated, but such rock is considered too low grade to that can be made to yield oil, by one method or another in be classed as oil shale at present. amounts greater than 10 gallons per ton, contain an order of magnitude of 325.trillion barrels oil equivalent. Approximately Oil-shale and other organic-rich shale deposits are widely 1.7 quadrillion barrels oil equivalent is estimated in very distributed in unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks ranging low grade organic-rich shale which yields 5 10 gallons of in age from Cambrian to Tertiary. The major world deposits oil per ton. were formed in large marine embayments or basins and in in large lake basins. Some of the individual deposits are Details of these estimates are contained in discussions many thousands of square miles in extent and are interpreted of the resources of the United States and six continental to contain trillions of barrels of oil equivalent. Many deposits land areas. formed in smaller bodies of water and associated with coal- bearing rocks contain individually from about 1 million to a few billion barrels of oil equivalent. INTRODUCTION Oil-shale industries were developed in Europe in the 19th century and have since operated on a small scale in parts of Fine-grained sedimentary rocks contain Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia where petroleum was in ing substantial amounts of combustible or short or uncertain supply. Estimated world production from about 1850 to 1961 totaled about 400 million barrels from an ganic matter constitute an enormous low- assortment of deposits of varied size and grade. Shale from grade source of potential energy. Thus far, a few deposits is used as solid fuel or as the source from which combustible gas is produced. such deposits have been used as sources of ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS synthetic oil and combustible gas or as solid shale and cannel coal published by The In fuel only on a small scale, but their use is stitute of Petroleum (1938, 1951), Cadman expected to increase in the future as methods (1948), Guthrie and Thorne (1954), Jaffe of mining and processing are developed and (1962), and Thorne, Stanfield, Dinneen, and improved. The deposits included in this in Murphy (1962). Summaries covering parts of ventory vary widely in composition of or oil shale and black shale resources of the ganic matter and in mineral content. The United States include reports by Winchester group of deposits as a whole is herein desig (1923, 1928), U.S. Bureau of Mines (1960), nated 'organic-rich shale," and selected U.S. Geological Survey (1951), Rubel (1955), parts of these deposits that yield oil in sub Duncan (1958), Swanson (1960), and Shultz stantial amounts by conventional destructive (1962). distillation methods are designated "oil shale." These summaries reflect an increasing knowledge of shale oil resources and con ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tribute to a general increase in estimates of resources in known deposits. The estimates This review was prepared in large part of the better known shale oil resources in from published data, although the authors the United States have increased from about have substantially modified some resource 140 billion barrels in the 1920's to more than estimates to conform with different limita 2 trillion barrels in 1963, and the world tions and wider parameters selected for this known resource estimates from a few hun report. Important assistance and advice are dred billion barrels to more than 3 trillion gratefully acknowledged from the following barrels during the same period. Weeks 0-960) U.S. Geological Survey personnel: John R. estimated that "possible potential resources" Donnell, William B. Cashion, Jr., and William of the higher grade organic-rich shale in the C. Culbertson, for advice on selected oil- United States were about 2 trillion barrels shale deposits in Colorado, Utah, and Wyo oil equivalent and in the world about 12 tril ming; George V. Cohee, George W. Colton, lion barrels. and Wallace deWitt for information on the extent and nature of the Devonian black shale DEFINITIONS deposits in the Appalachian Basin and in Michigan; Earl Brabb, Irving Tailleur, Wil The organic matter of shale deposits is liam Patton, William Brosge, Ernest Lathram, variously described by many common and George Gryc, and George O. Gates for infor special terms that overlap in meaning and mation on oil-shale deposits in Alaska; Ken that are used differently by different author neth Englund and John W. Huddle for infor ities. Definitions and classifications of the mation on the cannel shale deposits of the organic matter of shales are discussed in Appalachian region; Alfred J. Bodenlos for reports by Jaffe'(1962, p. 2-4), Prien (1951, information on oil-shale resources of Brazil; p. 79), Swanson (1962, p. 69-70), Twenhofel James F. Pepper for data on land areas of (1950, p. 452-485), and Vine (1962, p. 117- sedimentary rocks; Z. S. Altschuler for data 120). The different classifications based on on organic carbon content of selected shale physical or chemical properties, on origin, deposits; and Mary D. Carter for search of or on use of the deposits are somewhat in literature, assembling oil-shale production compatible. The principal terms used in this data, and other assistance in the preparation report are discussed below. Other special of the report. Special thanks are also due or local terms relating to specific deposits Kenneth E. Stanfield, U.S. Bureau of Mines, are explained in the detailed descriptions. for discussion of several oil-shale deposits and the energy potential of organic matter. ORGANIC-RICH SHALE
PREVIOUS SUMMARIES For purposes of this report organic-rich shale is defined as a fine-textured sedimen No published summary of the total energy tary rock containing 5 to about 65 percent potential of organic-rich shale is known to indigenous organic matter, which consists of the authors. Previous summaries of world reduced carbon predominantly and smaller resources of oil shale include reports by the amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and Great Britain Mineral Resource Bureau sulfur. The organic matter of the deposits (1924), proceedings of two conferences on oil DEFINITIONS
is mostly finely divided solid matter some methods has received some casual recogni times called "kerogen." Minor amounts of tion as possible oil sources, however (Mc- bitumen and oil (Forsman and Hunt, 1958) and Auslan, 1959; Hunt and Jamieson, 1958;Gejrot, varied amounts of hydrocarbon gas also may 1958). An inventory of shale yielding 5 10 be in the organic matter. The inorganic ma gallons of oil per ton by conventional meth terials of different deposits may include ods is included therefore with the assump predominantly siliceous minerals such as tion that such material may become usable. opal or chert, other silicate mineral mix tures such as clay minerals or feldspar and OTHER TERMS quartz detritus, or carbonate minerals such as calcite or dolomite. The mineral grains The term "black shale" is used to describe may range from clay (colloid) size to silt very dark (principally black) shale deposits, size. The term "shale," as used in this re most of which are colored by organic matter. port, therefore includes for convenience a It is generally applied to shale deposited in somewhat wider range of materials than are marine environments. Parts of such depos normally included as shale, particularly a its that contain substantial amounts of or few oil-yielding rocks that might be desig ganic matter are classed in this report as nated impure coal and impure limestone ac organic-rich shale, and parts yielding sub cording to some classifications. stantial amounts of oil by conventional de structive distillation are classed as oil shale. OIL SHALE "Cannel shale" is an oil shale that burns Oil shale is defined as organic-rich shale with a bright flame. Such shale yields sub that yields substantial quantities of oil by stantial amounts of illuminating gas and oil conventional methods of destructive distilla by thermal decomposition. Cannel shale is tion of the contained organic matter, which commonly associated with coal. The terms employ low confining pressures in a closed "torbanite," "tasmanite," "kerosene shale," retort system (Stanfield and Frost, 1949). and "maharahu" are synonyms that are ap For purposes of this report any part of an plied locally to selected foreign cannel shale organic-rich shale deposit that yields at deposits. least 10 gallons (3.8 percent) of oil per short ton of shale by such extraction methods is The term "carbonaceous shale" is gener considered oil shale. As thus defined, the ally applied to organic-rich shale containing term has economic implications that ignore coaly material, graphitic material, or other mode of origin and detail of composition of carbonaceous matter that is presumed to be the rock. The 10-gallon figure represents predominantly nonvolatile. The term is gen the approximate minimum oil yield of de erally avoided in discussion of known oil- posits that have been mined and processed yielding kinds of shale because the observers on commercial scale by the world oil-shale wish to emphasize oil-yielding characteris industries, and which thus may be considered tics. Such terms as "coaly shale" or "lignitic as possible sources of oil for future develop shale" are sometimes used as synonyms of ment by demonstrated recovery methods. In "carbonaceous shale,"but they may also im dividual deposits yield oil in greatly varying ply that a large percentage of organic matter amounts, some yielding little more than 10 (25 50 or 65 percent) may be present in the gallons per ton of shale, others yielding shale. (See Vine, 1962, p. 119; Schopf, 1956, more than 100 gallons per ton. Most of the p. 527). In practice, however, the term "car oil-shale deposits do not contain much oil or bonaceous shale" is used in many geologic bitumen as such; they contain predominantly reports to identify organic-rich shale asso solid organic matter, part of which is con ciated with coal-bearing rocks without im verted to oil and hydrocarbon gas, and part plication as to the amount of organic matter of which remains in the shale as coke or or to the potential oil yield. The term is al char when the shale is heated in a retort. so used to describe some carbon-rich ma rine shale that yields little oil by distillation. Deposits yielding less than 10 gallons of oil per ton by conventional extraction meth The term "bituminous," as applied to shale ods are not considered oil shale in this re and impure limestone, may imply that the port. Shale yielding a few gallons to 10 gal rock yields bitumen or oil by thermal de lons of oil per ton by conventional extraction composition of the contained organic matter. ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
It is used in technical literature, however, moisture-free organic matter yields 26 mil with assorted other meanings. Because the lion Btu. Most of the organic matter of dif term has varied undefined meanings, it is not ferent types of shale can be converted to used in this report except as quoted from se light oil or to combustible gas products by lected literature sources. one or more experimental extraction meth ods (Hubbard and Fester, 1959; Elliott and TYPES OF DEPOSITS others, 1961; Shultz, 1962), as for example, the hydrogenolysis of shale under high con Organic-rich shales were deposited in fining pressures. For purposes of estimat bodies of water that contained abundant aqua ing potential resources it is assumed that tic plants (and animals), or debris from land about half the energy potential of any or plants, under conditions that prevented oxida ganic-rich shale can be converted by such tion of much of the organic debris that ac methods to energy-producing light oil or gas cumulated on the bottom. The principal en products and that the remaining thermal en vironments in which the known organic-rich ergy of the organic matter can be used for shales were formed were (1) large lake ba the conversion process. Thus a ton of * aver sins, (2)large marine basins, and (3) smaller age" organic-rich shale containing 10 per bodies of water such as lakes, stagnant cent organic matter is assumed to yield 2.6 streams, and lagoons near coal-forming million Btu by direct combustion, or 10 gal swamps. Oil-shale deposits of various sizes lons of light-oil product, or 1,300 cubic feet and grade,and associated organic-rich shales, of gas per ton by such methods. which have low or undetermined oil yields are widely distributed in deposits formed in Many oil-shale deposits have been exa each of these environments. mined and sampled systematically. The prin cipal analytical data obtained, however, are analyses of oil that is extractable from the POTENTIAL ENERGY, OIL, OR GAS YIELD OF THE deposits by destructive distillation of the ORGANIC MATTER IN SHALE organic matter in a conventional retort. Data The potential thermal energy of organic- relating to gross energy content of the or rich shale deposits, which are considered in ganic matter, the energy content of produced this report, is based mainly on correlation of gas, or the residual char or coke after ex the estimated energy content of organic mat traction of the oil are generally incompletely ter with a few hundred actual calorimetric known except for the mined parts of some measurements of random shale samples re deposits. The energy extractable as heavier ported in the literature. oil by normal destructive distillation from selected deposits ranges from about 1/4 to The principal energy-producing materials 3/4 of the gross potential energy of the shale. of organic matter in shale are organic car In addition some unspecified amounts of hy bon, which by direct combustion yields about drocarbon gas and heat from residual char 14,500 Btu per Ib, and chemically combined or coke not included in the estimates would hydrogen, which yields 52,000 61,000 Btu per be produced and would be available for use in Ib. Inorganic or oxidized carbon such as that processing the shale or for marketed energy. contained in carbonate minerals and hydro gen combined with oxygen principally as wa Extraction methods other than the conven ter are excluded for purposes of estimating tional retort process applied either to oil energy content. Ratios of organic carbon to shale or other organic-rich shale perhaps combined hydrogen in the organic matter yield substantially different amounts and range from about 6:1 in some unmetamor- quality of oil and gas products. For example, phosed deposits (Smith, Smith, and Kommes, hydrogenolysis of numerous shales under 1959) to about 50:1 in some metamorphosed high confining pressure allows almost com deposits. A carbon-hydrogen ratio of 10:1 is plete conversion of the organic matter to oil assumed to be average for the moisture-free or gas, but the process consumes substantial organic matter in the principal unmetamor- energy herein assumed to be half the con phosed deposits that compose the resources tained energy of the organic matter. In situ considered in this report; thus, a pound of processing by partial combustion under organic matter containing 67 percent carbon ground or by extraction with catalysts or and 6.7 percent combined hydrogen yields on special solvents at high temperatures and the average about 13,000 Btu, and a ton of pressures would doubtlessly yield products STATUS OF THE SHALE INDUSTRY in different amounts. Many schemes to ex residual carbonaceous matter left in some tract energy or products are patented, but oil shale after distillation of oil and gas is few have been developed commercially. used to produce process heat or steam for power generation. STATUS OF THE SHALE INDUSTRY BYPRODUCTS WORLD PRODUCTION Nitrogen compounds and sulfur, which nor Although organic-rich shale has been used mally occur in the organic matter of shale, as a solid fuel and as a source of oil and but which are undesirable in fuels, are ex combustible gas in fuel-short areas of the tracted as useful byproducts in some of the world during the past 125 years, the world European oil-shale industries. Other mate production has been small, totaling by the rials such as vanadium, uranium, copper, close of 1961 an estimated 770 million tons trona, and phosphatic material are also of shale, which has an estimated energy con present in some deposits of oil shale in suf tent of about 4 4.5 quadrillion Btu. The en ficient amounts to be of commercial interest ergy recovered from the shale deposits was as coproducts. Other oil-shale industries marketed mostly in the form of oil which produce lime,brick, or lightweight aggregate probably contained about 2.3 quadrillion Btu. from the ash of the shale. Some oil-shale deposits associated with coal are mined as a Oil-shale deposits in Scotland, France, byproduct with the coal. Russia, Estonia, Sweden, Germany, Spain, South Africa, Australia, and Manchuria have ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES been mined at modest sustained commercial scale to produce a total of about 400 million In the Eastern United States minor high- barrels of oil to the end of 1961. The prin grade cannel shale and lower grade black cipal production had been from deposits in shale were mined to produce small amounts Scotland (about 100 million bbl), Estonia (pos of oil and illuminating gas prior to the dis sibly 100 million bbl), and Manchuria (prob covery of abundant petroleum in 1859. Sev ably more than 100 million bbl). Industries eral commercial experiments to produce each producing about 500 750 thousand bar shale oil in the United States have been con rels of shale oil per year closed down in ducted during the present century although Scotland and Sweden in 1962, but a similar no sustained production has been attained. small industry at that time was in operation Recent pilot-scale mining and extraction of in Spain. Expanding oil-shale industries in one of the higher grade oil-shale deposits in Estonia and Manchuria were reported during western Colorado by the U.S. Bureau of the same period; the larger Manchurian in Mines and by oil companies suggest that dustry was probably producing 40,000 bar shale oil can be produced from the higher rels of oil per day or more. grade deposits with demonstrated mining and retorting methods at prices somewhat Illuminating gas produced from cannel comparable to or a little above the present shale and other oil-shale deposits was used prices of similar petroleum or coal-tar in small amounts during the 19th century in products (about 5 cents per gallon). Some Europe, Eastern United States, and Australia. experiments to extract oil from shale in Shale gas, produced as a byproduct with shale place also have been conducted by commer oil, has been used locally for heating or pow cial concerns, but results have not been er generation in connection with several published. European oil-shale industries. The only sub stantial modern commercial shale gas pro CLASSIFICATION OF RESOURCES duction, however, is reported in Estonia and in the Leningrad region of Russia where As there is only minor use of oil shale or large quantities of low-heat-value gas have other organic-rich shale, under present con been produced since about 1950 for domestic ditions the deposits are generally consid and industrial purposes. ered uneconomic energy sources. In special situations, however, where other fuels are Shale has been used as solid fuel in a small in shorter uncertain supply and where shale way for domestic heat and for industrial pur industries are developed or contemplated, poses in parts of Europe. In addition, the
206-429 O - 66 - 2 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS selected deposits are provisionally consider The more accessible, higher grade parts of ed economically recoverable energy sources. such deposits are classed as "recoverable resources." In the United States these re KNOWN RESOURCES sources are assumed to include parts of oil- shale deposits yielding more than 25 gallons The known resources reported used in of oil per ton of shale in deposits 25 feet or tables 2 and 3 include parts of deposits for more thick that extend to limiting depths of which knowledge of organic content and oil 1,000 feet below surface. These limits are or gas yield is based on assays and for which based mainly on recent pilot-scale mining knowledge of size is based on measurements and processing experiments of the U.S. Bu and mapping. The known resources as rec reau of Mines and of commercial concerns ognized in this report include such categories in western Colorado. Both the thickness- used in literature as proven, measured, in grade-depth limits and amounts of recover dicated, minimum, and some inferred, pos able oil might be changed greatly, however, sible, and maximum "reserves" used in tech by use of different recovery or extraction nical reports. The so-called "inferred re methods, or by different market conditions. serves" and similar categories included In those foreign areas where oil shale1 in here in the known resources generally are dustries are established or have recently partly sampled and mapped, but the estima operated on a sustained basis, deposits that tor has considered his estimate to be sub have the grades and thicknesses of those al ject to large error. ready mined are considered recoverable. These can be roughly grouped as: (1) depos POSSIBLE EXTENSIONS OF KNOWN RESOURCES its yielding 25 100 gallons of oil per ton, in beds a few feet thick or more, extending to Parts of deposits in areas remote from depths of 1,000 feet below surface and (2) sampled and mapped parts are classed in a some lower grade deposits yielding 10 25 separate category as possible extensions of gallons of oil per ton, in units 25 feet thick known resources. The estimates of these or more, which are minable by open-pit possible resources are mostly conjectural. methods. About 50 percent of the oil shale They include some "inferred" resources of in place is assumed to be minable under some reports. present conditions, although larger percent ages could be recovered from parts of de UNDISCOVERED AND UNAPPRAISED RESOURCES posits minable by open-pit methods.
Deposits that are inadequately sampled or MARGINAL AND SUBMARGINAL RESOURCES mapped for detailed appraisal along with de posits that are inferred to exist but are truly Except for the recoverable resources pre undiscovered are classed as undiscovered viously defined, oil-shale and other organic- and unappraised resources. rich shale deposits are considered unecono mic sources of oil or energy at present. TOTAL RESOURCES They are classed as marginal and submar- ginal resources. The deposits are class Total resources include all potential ener ified according to their organic content gy, oil, or gas resources of organic-rich or oil yield. No attempt is made here to shale including oil shale. Estimates of the classify the deposits according to thick order of magnitude of the total energy re ness, depth, or other factors that might sources of shale containing more than 5 per affect commercial use. cent organic matter are shown separately in table 1; their alternative potential oil yields Deposits that have not been assayed for oil are shown in tables 2 and 3. .yield are grouped into two categories ac cording to organic content: deposits which RECOVERABLE RESOURCES contain 10 percent or more organic matter and deposits which contain 5 10 percent or Oil-shale deposits that are mined or that ganic matter. The organic and energy con are in advanced stages of planned develop tent of these deposits are inventoried in ment and in areas where petroleum is in table 1, and their estimated oil potential is short or uncertain supply are considered us shown in tables 2 and 3. able at present for purposes of this report. TOTAL RESOURCES OF ORGANIC-RICH SHALE
Deposits that have been assayed for oil nitude of these organic-rich shale resources, yield are subdivided into units that yield 25 their contained organic matter and estimated 100, 10 25, and 5 10 gallons per ton. These energy potential in the United States, and by are inventoried in tables 2 and 3 as known extrapolation according to area other ma resources and their possible extensions. jor lands of the world are shown in table 1. They were estimated with the following as Minimum thicknesses of shale resources sumptions. The land areas including ter included in the inventory vary with the de rains underlain by both marine and nonma- posit and opinions of different estimators, rine sedimentary rocks were modified from from about 20 inches (or 50 cm) to 25 feet. summary data prepared by J. F. Pepper The principal known deposits generally lie (written commun., 1962). The average thick at depths less than a few thousand feet, but ness of sedimentary rocks extending to a in a few areas deposits as much as 10,000 maximum depth of 20,000 feet was assumed feet below surface are included. A limiting to be lj miles. About one-half the sedimen depth of 20,000 feet, roughly the present tary rock is shale. A cubic mile of organic- limit of commercial drilling, is used in the rich shale constitutes about 10 billion tons. inventory of undiscovered and incompletely The average combustion energy of 1 ton of appraised deposits. organic matter in shale is assumed to be 26 million Btu. TOTAL RESOURCES OF ORGANIC-RICH SHALE The estimates of tonnage and organic con According to data taken principally from tent are believed to be minimum amounts for Trask and Patnode (1942), somewhat more the grades of shale considered. More nearly than 5 percent of the sedimentary rocks in correct figures may be double the amounts the United States is shale, which contains 5 shown, if Rubey's (1951) speculation of 25 percent organic matter or more, and some quadrillion metric tons of reduced organic what more than 0.5 percent of the sedimen carbon, equivalent to about 35 quadrillion tary rocks is shale containing 10 percent or tons of organic matter, in sedimentary rocks ganic matter or more. The orders of mag of the earth is valid.
Table 1. Order of magnitude of total stored energy in organic-rich shale of the United States and principal land areas of the world [Estimates and totals rounded]
Shale containing 10 65 percent Shale containing 5 10 percent Approximate organic matter organic matter area underlain Minimum Minimum Continent by sedimen Shale in Shale in or organic Combustion organic Combustion tary rocks deposits deposits country [trillions content energy (trillions content energy (millions of (trillions content Q (trillions content Q square miles) of short of short tons) of short (1018 Btu) tons) of short (1018 Btu) tons) tons)
United States ___. 1.6 120 12 310 1,200 60 1,600
Africa. ______. 5.0 370 37 960 3,700 190 4,900 Asia. ______7.0 500 50 1,300 5,000 250 6,500 Australia ______1.2 90 9 230 900 45 1,200 Europe ______1.6 120 12 310 1,200 60 1,600 North America (including United States)-. 3.0 220 22 570 2,200 110 2,900 South America, 2.4 180 18 470 1,800 90 2,300
World total _ _ . 20 1,500 150 4,000+ 15,000 750 20,000+ ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
SHALE OIL RESOURCES The possible yield of oil shown as total re sources in tables 2 and 3 or gas (not tabu Although many organic-rich shale deposits lated) by processes known from laboratory are reported in the land areas of the world, experiments (Hubbard and Fester, 1959; information on quality, thickness, and extent Shultz, 1962)but not applied commercially is of most deposits is inadequate for detailed estimated to represent about half the con appraisal of their energy, oil, or gas poten tained energy, equivalent to about 2.38 bar tials. The reported appraised deposits shown rels of light-oil product, or 13,000 cubic feet in figure 1 are demonstrated to contain oil of 1,000 Btu gas per ton of organic matter. shale, and the principal available inventory Energy of the remaining organic matter in of their resources is that of their oil poten the shale would presumably be sufficient for tial which is summarized in tables 2 and 3 the conversion process. Shale that contains and in the following pages. Alternative re 5 10 percent organic matter is assumed to source potentials of combustion heat, or have a potential yield of 5 10 gallons of oil combustible gas obtainable from some of per ton and is included in total resources in these deposits, is discussed but not inven tables 2 and 3. Shale containing 10 65 per toried in detail. cent organic matter is assumed to have a potential oil yield equivalent to the combined The orders of magnitude of the total oil 10-25 and 25-100 gallon yields of shale potentials of organic-rich shale deposits of shown in tables 2 and 3. The estimate of the major land areas are derived from table 1. undiscovered and unappraised higher grade
Figure 1. Principal reported oil-shale deposits of the world. Diagonally lined areas include possible extensions of some major deposits. SHALE OIL RESOURCES
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i-Hc c ^ 2"- U .2 "fl 'M c 1^ g CD ^ C CM O 03 r-l r l O -1 C + » >> cd TJ OJO L. Cd ,G m iH (-1 * ; rH 03 /it n> jj UJ 03 ^ -s S -5 -s 5 w S a 0 s a s s 3 * g 3«M a o CD _< s X3 G 2cd ^° !K :it OJO Ll li^ 315 .a S,0 S S 2 » " S-g ^ rn1 -2 4J CD CD rt M 13 CD 03 CrtCC-yC,.. JH +e OJO S CD4->OCD nS "-| CDcD o £ rS ^ID >Uc^ b'cd^ H Li^JS S±e .3 0 Q S c^ O 10 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS shale is speculative. It is based on the as genolysis, about 65 percent of the gross en sumption that the shale oil resources in un ergy potential of the rich shale can be con discovered deposits yielding more than 25 verted to net energy in high-heat-value gas gallons per ton should be about one-twentieth (Elliottand others, 1961; Shultz, 1962). About of the resources in shale yielding 10 25 gal 100 cubic feet of fuel gas yielding 1,000 Btu lons per ton. per cubic foot reportedly could be produced by this alternative method for each gallon of NORTH AMERICA oil producible by conventional retort meth ods. Light-oil products in substantial a- UNITED STATES mounts are producible by hydrogenolysis under somewhat different conditions (Hub- Known oil shale deposits in the United bard and Fester, 1959). For lack of system States are distributed in rocks ranging from atic information these alternative energy or Ordovician to late Tertiary in age. Resource product potentials of the shale deposits of estimates of the principal better known de the Green River Formation are not treated posits are shown in table 2 and their loca in detail in this report. tions are shown on figure 2. Shale units that yield a few gallons to about GREEN RIVER FORMATION, COLORADO, UTAH, AND WYOMING 65 gallons of oil per ton are distributed throughout much of the Green River Forma The Green River Formation of Eocene age tion, which ranges in thickness from a few underlies about 16,000 square miles of sev hundred feet to about 7,000 feet. In general eral basin areas in Colorado, Utah, and the central parts of the Piceance Basin and Wyoming (fig. 3) and contains the largest the Uinta Basin contain thick rich oil-shale known higher grade oil-shale deposits in the sequences that grade to thinner and leaner United States. The regional extent and oil oil shale at the basin margins. Somewhat potential of these lake basin deposits are thinner and generally lower grade oil shale summarized by Winchester (1923), Bradley in the Green River basin and Washakie Ba (1931), and Duncan (1958). The oil-shale re sin, Wyoming, also show decrease in grade sources of the more completely explored of toward the basin margins. these deposits in the Piceance Basin, Colo., are reported in more detail by Donnell 0-961) and Stanfield, Smith, Smith, and Robb (1960). Combined estimates of the shale oil re Oil-shale resources of parts of the Uinta sources of the Green River Formation are Basin, Utah, are described by Cashion and shown in table 2. Although parts of the de Brown (1956), Cashion (1957, 1959, 1962, 1964), posits have been explored in detail by core Stanfield, Rose, McAuley, and Tesch (1954), drilling, the oil potentials of most of the de and Stanfield, Smith, and Trudell (1964). Re posits are known mainly from assays of ro sources of parts of the Green River basin, tary drill cuttings. These cuttings supply a Wyoming, are described by Culbertson (1964) general indication of the grade and thickness and Stanfield, Rose, McAuley, and Tesch of the deposits but probably also supply ana (1954). lytical data on the resource potential of higher grade shale that are conservative be The moisture and the ash-free organic cause of contamination of higher grade ma matter of the richer oil shale of the Green terial by interbedded leaner shale or barren River Formation yields about 16,000 Btu per rock (Stanfield and others, 1964, p. 17). The pound. Between 75 and 80 percent of the po estimates show the shale oil potential of tential energy is converted to energy in units 10 feet thick or more yielding 25 65, heavy shale oil, about 6 percent to energy in 10 25, and 5 10 gallons per ton of shale. The combustible gas, and the residue remains as estimates are somewhat different from some coke or char in the shale when processed by previous estimates by the U.S. Geological the standard Fischer retort assay (Stanfield Survey, as resources within each grade and others, 1951). The resource estimates range used in this report exclude resources that follow, however, include only the shale of other grade categories. In the previous oil producible by the conventional retort as estimates the higher grade shale was in say. By different extraction methods other cluded in each successively lower grade cat proportions of oil, combustible gas, and char egory, and cutoff values were not used. The can be produced. For example, by hydro- major resources of current interest are EXPLANATION
Tertiary deposits Green River Formation in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; Monterey Formation, California; middle Tertiary deposits in Montana. Black areas are known high-grade de posits
Mesozoic deposits Marine shale in Alaska
Permian deposits Phosphoria Formation, Montana
Devonian and Mississippian deposits (resource esti mates included for hachured areas only). Boundary dashed where concealed or where location is uncertain
Figure 2. Principal reported oil-shale deposits of the United States. 12 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
DAHO GREAT DIVIDE BASIN
WYOMING
Rock Springs
WASH UTAH BASIN Vernal i .£* I COLORADO
:; : UINTA 1 i« B AS I N '.! '. '
NAVAL OIL-SHALE RESERVES land J
NAVAL OIL-SHALE RESERVE 2
EXPLANATION
Area underlain by the Green River Area underlain by oil shale more Formation in which the oil shale than 10 feet thick,which yields is unappraised or low grade 25 gallons or more oil per ton of shale
Figure 3. Distribution of oil shale in the Green River Formation, Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. SHALE OIL RESOURCES 13 parts of the deposits in which combined low- 2 50,000 square miles of the region (diagonal- grade and high-grade oil shale, excluding patterned area, fig. 3), are distributed in units very lean or barren rock units, range in ranging in thickness from a few feet to about thickness from a few hundred to 2,000 feet 800 feet, contain organic matter ranging from and average in oil yield from 15 30 gallons 5 25 percent of the shale, and yield as much per ton. as 7 million Btu per ton of shale by direct combustion. The yields of oil by conven Known parts of the deposits that yield 25 tional retort assay are small, generally 65 gallons of oil per ton contain about 450 representing from 25 40 percent of the full 500 billion barrels oil equivalent in the energy potential of the shale. The possible Piceance Basin, Colo., about 90 billion bar net yield of combustible gas (mostly methane) rels in the Uinta Basin, Utah, and about 30 by laboratory-scale hydrogasification proc billion barrels in the Green River basin, ess is larger, representing perhaps 50 60 Wyo., totaling about 600 billion barrels for percent of the full energy content (Shultz, the three basins. Approximately 160 billion 1962). The thicker sequences of the deposits barrels oil equivalent is in part of this higher generally average less than 10 gallons of oil grade shale averaging 30 35 gallons of oil per ton of shale at the few places where they per ton in units more than 25 feet thick and have been completely sampled. In some lying less than 1,000 feet below surface. As large areas, however, units 5 20 feet thick suming that approximately half of this higher yield 10 20 gallons of oil per ton. grade more accessible shale could be mined under present conditions, about 80 billion Previous estimates of the oil or gas po barrels of shale oil is herein considered re tential of the Devonian and Mississippian coverable by demonstrated mining and re black shale vary widely. Ashley (1917) esti torting methods. mated 100 billion barrels oil potential in shale yielding at least 10 gallons per ton in Known oil-shale deposits that yield 10 25 Indiana. Winchester (1928) estimated 18.6 gallons of oil per ton contain about 800 bil billion barrels was contained in near-surface lion barrels oil equivalent in the Piceance strippable deposits in Indiana and Kentucky. Basin, Colo.; about 230 billion barrels in the Grouse (1925) estimated about 60 billion bar Uinta Basin, Utah; and about 400 billion bar rels oil potential in near-surface deposits of rels in the combined Green River basin and five States extending from Indiana and Ohio Washakie Basin, Wyoming. to Alabama. Rubel (1955) estimated a total of about 1,500 billion barrels oil equivalent Known shale deposits that yield 5 10 gal in the Devonian and Mississippian shale, lons of oil per ton contain about 200 billion which yields a few gallons to 20 gallons per barrels oil equivalent in Colorado, 1,500 bil ton in several midcontinent and Eastern lion barrels in Utah, and approximately 300 States. Shultz (1962) estimated that the near- billion barrels in Wyoming. surface deposits in Kentucky and Indiana would yield 130 trillion cubic feet of methane The possible extensions and possible up by an alternative gasification process; this ward revisions of the oil-shale resources of estimate would correspond to Winchester's the Green River Formation are estimated to estimate of 18.6 billion barrel resources for be about equal to the known resources. The the same area. larger undiscovered better grade resources are perhaps in the deeply buried parts of the The resource estimates of this report re formation in the Uinta Basin. vised in part on modern analytical data (Swanson, 1960; Hoover, 1960; Lucas, 1953; Breger and Brown, 1962; Smith and Stanfield, DEVONIAN AND MISSISSIPPIAN SHALE, CENTRAL AND EASTERN UNITED STATES 1964) include deposits in Michigan and Texas not included in previous estimates and in Black shale deposits of marine origin are clude deposits projected to depths as much widely distributed in Upper Devonian and as several thousand feet in some areas. lowest Mississippian formations between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains (Conant and The principal known resources in zones 5 Swanson, 1961, pi. 14). Parts of these depos feet or more thick include parts of the depos its included in this inventory underlie about its where they are sampled and correlated in
206-429 O - i 14 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michi reported, although selected samples have gan, Ohio, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas, yielded 25 gallons of oil per ton (Irving Tail - and total about 200 billion barrels oil equiv leur, written commun., 1962). The Shale Wall alent in units that yield more than 10 gallons Member of the Seabee Formation of Late per ton and 200 billion barrels in units that Cretaceous age contains fissile black shale, yield 5 10 gallons per ton. The possible ex in zones as much as 400 feet thick, which ex tensions in unexplored or little-sampled tend 80 100 miles along the northern foot parts of the deposits are estimated to con hills belt. These deposits probably contain tain an order of magnitude of 800 billion bar some oil shale. High-grade oil shale in the rels oil equivalent in units that yield more Tiglukpuk Formation of Late Jurassic age is than 10 gallons per ton and 1,800 billion bar known from widely distributed float along the rels in units that yield 5 10 gallons per ton. northwestern foothills belt of the Brooks (See table 2.) The major resources here in Range. Samples, representing a few inches ferred are in the thicker shale sequences of to a few feet of shale, yield 30 140 gallons Ohio, of the Illinois basin, of the Michigan of oil per ton (Tailleur, 1964). The deposit basin, and in the midcontinent region of is herein inferred to contain an order of southern Oklahoma and adjacent parts of magnitude of 50 billion barrels oil equiva Texas. lent in high-grade shale. Black marine shale of Mississippian age exposed in the Brooks An alternative estimate of the potential Range yields about 7 gallons of oil per ton. methane yield of the total deposits, assuming a somewhat more complete conversion of Although the known oil-shale resources in organic matter to methane (Shultz, 1962), is Alaska are small, possible extensions are about 8 quadrillion cubic feet from the better estimated to contain an order of magnitude grade deposits and about 16 quadrillion cubic of 250 billion barrels oil equivalent in depos feet from the lower grade deposits. For its that yield more than 25 gallons per ton lack of data the estimates exclude correla and perhaps more than 200 billion barrels tive Devonian black shale in other large in deposits that yield 10 25 gallons per ton. areas of Western United States. (See table 2.) Deposits that yield 5 10 gal lons per ton are presumed to be large.
MARINE SHALE, ALASKA Incompletely appraised or little-studied SHALE ASSOCIATED WITH COAL marine oil-shale deposits, which are mostly Organic-rich shale is widely distributed of Triassic and Jurassic age, are reported in the coal fields of the United States in in several areas in Alaska (Smith and Mertie, rocks ranging in age from Mississippian to 1930; Miller and others, 1959). Tertiary. The general distribution of the coal fields containing associated shale is Upper Triassic oil-shale deposits, which shown on maps by Trumbull (1960) and are locally 200 feet thick, are exposed along Barnes (1961). 10 miles of outcrop adjacent to the Nation River, eastern Alaska. Known parts of the Some cannel-shale deposits in the United near-surf ace deposits, which yield about 30 States were used in a small way to produce gallons of oil per ton of shale, are estimated illuminating gas and oil in the middle 1800's, to contain about 2 million barrels of oil but they have not been used since. The small equivalent (Earl Brabb, written commun., number of deposits that have been appraised 1962). The order of magnitude of unexplored in detail seem to be comparable in size and possible extensions of similar-grade shale oil potential to many of the foreign cannel- oil resources of the region is herein esti shale deposits that have been mined in oil- mated to be about 200 billion barrels. short areas. Some of the United States de posits could be of commercial interest as Several marine black-shale units are wide sources for byproducts in modern or future spread in the northern foothills of the Brooks coal utilization. Range in northern Alaska. Black papery shale in the Shublik Formation of Triassic The shale beds of Pennsylvanian age in the age is intermittently exposed along a 300- Interior and Appalachian coal provinces mile belt in the northern foothills. Few anal generally range in thickness from 1 foot to a yses of their organic-matter content are few tens of feet. Some of the individual shale SHALE OIL RESOURCES 15 beds in the Interior coal provinces are per Although the oil potential of carefully ap sistent marine-shale units that underlie thou praised deposits in the United States is sands of square miles, but in the Appalachian small, the total potential in unappraised or coal province most of the individual organic- inadequately appraised deposits is believed rich shale bodies are less extensive nonma- to be large. The amount of organic-rich rine deposits. The reported individual high- shale probably exceeds the total statistically grade deposits that yield 25 100 gallons per estimated coal in place. Somewhat more than ton are generally small and contain an oil 4 billion tons of such shale is provisionally equivalent of a half million to tens of million estimated in the coal-bearing areas. barrels in shale in place (Ashley, 1918; Fettke, 1923). Winchester (1928) estimated Assuming that the shale in the northern selected appraised higher grade cannel- shale Interior coal province is fairly representa deposits in Pennsylvania and West Virginia tive, about 2 percent of the shale associated that yield about 1 barrel of oil per ton of with coal in the United States yields 25 100 shale to contain about 27.6 million barrels of gallons of oil per ton and contains about 60 oil equivalent. The estimate did not include billion barrels oil equivalent; about 20 per many deposits that were known at the time cent yields 10 25 gallons per ton and con but had not been appraised in detail. tains 250 billion barrels; and about 30 per cent yields 5 10 gallons per ton and contains Reeves (1922, p. 1099-1105) reported that 210 billion barrels. Estimates of these un shale zones above 5 of 16 coal beds in west appraised and undiscovered resources are ern Indiana yielded oil, which ranged in shown separately in table 2. amount from 7 54 gallons per ton and which averaged about 20 gallons per ton. Lamar, OTHER SHALE DEPOSITS Armon, and Simon (1956) reported that 31 shale beds in the coal-bearing rocks of Illi Organic-rich marine shale deposits of nois yielded a few gallons to 40 gallons per Ordovician age are extensive in the northern ton. About 3 percent of the sampled shale part of the Appalachian Basin, in the Great beds yielded more than 25 gallons per ton, Basin, and in the northern midcontinent re 26 percent yielded 10 25 gallons, and 25 per gion. Most are unappraised. The Upper Or cent yielded 5 10 gallons. Runnels, Kulstad, dovician Utica Shale in New York and the McDuffee, and Schleicher (1952) and Swanson Maquoketa Shale and other Ordovician shales (1960) reported that several shale units in in Illinois and Iowa, and the Middle and Lower Kansas, which were from 2 10 feet thick, Ordovician Vinini Formation in western Ne yielded 5 12 gallons of oil per ton. These vada are extensive marine black shales each units were estimated by Runnels to contain of which locally contains units that yield 10 an oil equivalent of about 3 billion barrels in 25 gallons of oil per ton. Although the oil rocks less than 100 feet below surface. potentials of these deposits are not reported in detail, they are presumably large. Reinemund (1955) reported that organic- rich shale associated with Triassic coal beds Thick sequences of marine organic-rich of the Deep River field in North Carolina shale of Carboniferous age are widely dis yielded a few gallons to 15 gallons of oil per tributed in the Great Basin, the southern ton. Rocky Mountains, and the southern midcon tinent region. The shale associated with coal in the Cre taceous and Tertiary rocks of the Western Black shale of marine origin in the Phos- United States and the Gulf Coast is mostly phoria Formation and in correlative units of untested for oil potential, because these coal- Permian age are widely distributed in Idaho, bearing areas were examined after interest Montana, Utah, and Wyoming. At some places in the oil potential of the associated shale the deposits contain 10 20 percent organic had subsided. Substantial oil yields are re matter but samples from Utah, Idaho, and ported, however, in shale from a few coal- Wyoming yield little oil (1 6 gal per ton) by bearing areas such as the Santa Tomas field conventional retort assay methods. Some in southwestern Texas, the Cannel King area sampled sections of the deposits in a 600- in Utah (Ashley, 1918), and a few other local square-mile area in southwestern Montana ities. (fig. 2) yield 10 15 gallons of oil per ton 16 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
(Bentley, 1963, p. 45; Swanson, 1960) and in tion is reportedly thicker at depth but has dicate that part of the deposits contain an not been assayed. The location of Tertiary order of magnitude of 5 10 billion barrels lake-basin deposits in the Western United oil equivalent. The shale oil potentials of States is shown by Feth(1963); some of these these deposits are not shown separately but deposits are reported to contain oil shale. are included with other unappraised deposits in table 2. TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES
Organic-rich shale beds of Cretaceous age The estimates of total shale oil resources are widespread in the Great Plains and Rocky of the United States shown in table 2 are de Mountains. Random samples of some of rived from data in table 1. The difference these deposits yield from 5 to about 15 gal between the total resources and the known lons of oil per ton (Winchester, 1923). Oil shale oil resources plus extensions of known potentials of the deposits are not reported in resources is shown as undiscovered and un detail but are believed to be large. appraised resources. A somewhat larger proportion of high-grade shale is estimated Diatomaceous shale of the Monterey Shale for the United States than for other world and other shale formations of Miocene age areas, for the reason that the deposits in the in southern California contains substantial Green River Formation may be uniquely amounts of organic matter (Trask and Pat- large. node, 1942, fig. 24). Rubel (1955) estimated that this shale in a 3,000-square-mile area OTHER AREAS IN NORTH AMERICA contains about 70 billion barrels oil equiva lent in beds that yield 3 30 gallons of oil per Many organic-rich shale deposits, which ton. (See fig. 2.) Although the deposits have range in age from Ordovician to Tertiary, not been reported in detail, possibly 1 billion are reported in Canada, although most have barrels of oil can be considered recoverable not been sampled or appraised in detail. from shallow higher grade parts that yield about 25 gallons of oil per ton. The more Restrictive estimates of near-surface deeply buried deposits perhaps contain about parts of the Albert Shale in New Brunswick 50 billion barrels oil equivalent in shale that include 30 million barrels oil equivalent in yields 10 25 gallons per ton and 20 billion zones that yield about 13 gallons per ton barrels in shale that yields 5 10 gallons per (Canada Department of Mines and Resources, ton. The resources of the Monterey Shale 1948). These lacustrine deposits are of Mis- are not tabulated separately but are included sissippian age and, as interpreted from map with other unappraised resources in table 2. ping and deeper subsurface exploration (Gus- sow, 1953), may underlie an area of about Middle Tertiary lake-basin deposits under 3,000 square miles in the Moncton Basin. lie about 280 square miles in Beaverhead The principal oil-shale-bear ing unit of the County, southwestern Montana (fig. 2), and Albert Shale averages about 500 feet in thick contain many oil-shale beds in a sedimentary ness in the subsurface throughout much of sequence that is about 1,000 feet thick the Moncton Basin (Greiner, 1962, p. 230). (Bentley, 1963; Winchester, 1923). These de The oil shale is a few feet to a few hundred posits are not appraised in detail, but they feet thick and yields from a few gallons to may contain an order of magnitude of tens of about 40 gallons of oil per ton. The size and billion barrels oil potential. Data on them grade of the deposit may be substantially are included with those of other unappraised more than previously estimated (King, 1963, deposits in table 2. Several other lacustrine fig. 3). About 50 billion barrels oil equiva shale deposits that are reported in Montana, lent is inferred in shale that yields more than Nevada, and Wyoming contain oil shale, but 25 gallons per ton, and 100 billion barrels in few have been adequately explored to deter shale that yields 10 25 gallons per ton. mine their oil potential. Near-surf ace parts of thin high-grade deposits in the Humboldt Laboratory experiments show that an al Formation of Miocene and Pliocene(?) age, ternative net yield of about 110 cubic feet of which are exposed near Elko, Nev., were es 1,000 Btu gas may be obtained from the Al timated by Winchester (1928, p. 13) to con bert Shale by hydrogasification for each gal tain about 6 million barrels oil potential. lon of oil recoverable by conventional retort The shale sequence of the Humboldt Forma (Shultz, 1962, p. 15, 18). SHALE OIL RESOURCES 17
Other reported deposits in Canada include was operated from 1935-1960. Most of the small amounts of high-grade cannel shale in reported oil-shale deposits are in the coal- Pennsylvanian coal-bearing, rocks of Nova bearing Karroo Series and its marine equi Scotia and large bodies of lower grade black valents of late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic shale in the Utica Shale of Ordovician age in age. Ontario and Quebec, in the Ohio Shale of De vonian age in Ontario, in shale of Cretaceous In South Africa several high-grade cannel age in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and in shale and other lower grade oil-shale depos shale of Mesozoic and Paleozoic age in the its associated with the coal-bearing rocks of Yukon and Northwest Territories (Great the Karroo Series have been partly explored Britain Mineral Resource Bureau, 1924; in small areas along a 250 mile belt (Cad- Swinnerton, 1938). Random analyses of some man, 1948; Petrick, 1937, p. 5-10). A small of the marine black shale deposits indicate oil-shale industry (Thorne and Kraemer, generally low oil yields that range from 1954), operated from 1935 through 1960, pro about 7 15 gallons of oil per ton; however, no duced about 3.5 million barrels of shale oil. specific estimates of size of individual de Reported "reserves* in selected tracts of de posits are available. posits that yield more than 25 gallons per ton contain about 80 million barrels oil equi In the Deer Lake region of Newfoundland, valent, and reported deposits that yield about oil-shale deposits of early Carboniferous 20 gallons per ton contain about 50 million age yield 16 50 gallons per ton and underlie barrels (Petrick, 1937). These deposits an area estimated at 150 750 square miles represent only a small fraction of the shale (Great Britain Mineral Resource Bureau, resources of the region. 1924, p. 68). The known resources of the Deer Lake deposits are small, but possible In the Stanleyville Basin of the Congo, ex extensions are herein estimated to be an or tensive deposits of oil shale of Triassic age der of magnitude of 10 billion barrels oil in several beds that aggregate about 30 feet equivalent, of which 2 billion barrels are al in thickness yield more than 25 gallons of located to deposits that yield 25 gallons per oil per ton. The estimated oil equivalent of ton or more and 8 billion barrels to deposits the known deposits is about 100 billion bar yielding 10 25 gallons per ton. rels (Gejrot, 1958), of which approximately 10 billion barrels is tentatively considered The oil yields of a few shale deposits in recoverable under present conditions. Other Mexico are reported, but not in sufficient de large deposits of undefined quality are re tail to permit estimate of resources of indi ported in the Mayumbe region of the Congo. vidual deposits. Oil shale that yields about 20 gallons of Although the known shale oil resources of 011 per ton is reported in the vicinity of the other areas in North America are small, Tangier, Morocco (Great Britain Mineral the possible extensions are interpreted to Resource Bureau, 1924, p. 186). contain an order of magnitude of 50 billion barrels oil equivalent in shale that yields 25 TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES OF AFRICA gallons per ton and 100 billion barrels in shale that yields 10 25 gallons per ton. The Other organic-rich shale deposits in Africa unappraised and undiscovered deposits are are known in rocks of the Karroo Series, in interpreted, however, to be large, possibly the Tertiary rocks of the coastal plain areas, about equal in total size to the deposits in the and in the marine sediments of northern United States even though the higher grade Africa, but they are not reported in litera deposits in the United States are interpreted ture adequately enough so that appraisal of to be uniquely large. Estimates of amounts individual deposits may be made. Some of of oil potential in the combined total North the large Cenozoic lake basins of the African American deposits are shown in table 3. Rift Valley region (Hutchinson, 1957, p. 10- 11) also might contain major undiscovered AFRICA oil-shale deposits. The total shale oil re sources of organic-rich shale of Africa are Oil-shale deposits have been of interest in shown in table 3. The estimates are derived central and southern Africa since the 1920*s, from table 1. and a small oil-shale industry in South Africa Table 3. Shale oil resources of the world land areas, in billions of barrels
[ne, no estimate. Estimates and totals rounded]
Order of magnitude Order of magnitude of possible exten of undiscovered and Order of magnitude Known resources sions of known unappraised of total resources resources resources Continents Recoverable under presenl Marginal and sub marginal (oil equivalent in deposits) Oil equivalent in conditions deposits
Range in grade (oil yield, in gallons per ton of shale)___ 10-100 25-100 10-25 5-10 25-100 10-25 5-10 25-100 10-25 5-10 25-100 10-25 5-10
Africa. ___ _ . ______,.__ 10 90 Small Small ne ne ne 4,000 80,000 450,000 4,000 80,000 450,000 Asia ______20 70 14 ne 2 3,700 ne 5,400 106,000 586,000 5,500 110,000 590,000 Australia and New Zealand _ Small Small 1 ne ne ne ne 1,000 20,000 100,000 1,000 20,000 100,000 Europe ______30 40 6 ne 100 200 ne 1,200 26,000 150,000 1,400 26,000 140,000 North America.. ______80 520 1,600 2,200 900 2,500 4,000 1,500 45,000 254,000 3,000 50,000 260,000 South America ______50 Small 750 ne ne 3,200 4,000 2,000 36,000 206,000 2,000 40,000 210,000
Total ______190 720 2,400 2,200 1,000 9,600 8,000 15,000 313,000 1,740,000 17,000 325,000 1,750,000 SHALE OIL RESOURCES 19
ASIA Data derived from the Communist China 5- year plans indicate that "proven reserves" The described oil-shale deposits in Asia of 60 billion metric tons of shale and "prob range in age from Cambrian to Tertiary. able reserves" of 360 billion metric tons were reported in 1959 (Rosu, 1959, p. 99). CHINA Assuming that one-half the "proven" oil shale is economically available, known recover able Extensive exploration and development of shale oil reserves of China are about 14 bil oil-shale deposits in China have been con lion barrels. Additional known resources ducted since the 1920's. Several deposits herein assigned to the marginal and submar were discovered and explored in Manchuria ginal category contain 14 billion barrels oil during the Japanese occupation; these dis equivalent; and "probable reserves" reported coveries led to the development of a substan by Rosu and herein assigned to possible ex tial shale oil industry. More recent search tensions of known deposits, 140 billion bar for deposits throughout China is reported to rels oil equivalent. All these shale deposits have resulted in discovery of about 180 are assigned average yields of 15 gallons of "commercial" oil-shale deposits distributed oil per ton, although some higher grade shale in 21 provinces. is reported.
At Fushun, Manchuria, an oil-shale deposit ISRAEL, JORDAN, AND SYRIA of Oligocene age occupies a small monoclinal graben, ranges from 300 650 feet in thick Extensive deposits of oil shale which are ness, yields 2 15 percent oil, and overlies a mostly organic-rich marine marlstone are bituminous coal bed that ranges from 20 450 reported in rocks of Senonian and Danian feet in thickness. Oil shale in this area is (Cretaceous) age in Israel and Jordon (Blake, mined in open pits to expose the underlying 1930; Gil-Av and others, 1954; McKelvey, coal. Shale that yields 11 30 gallons of oil 1959; Nir, 1960). The deposits contain about per ton and that perhaps averages 15 gallons 5 20 percent organic matter and yield from per ton is processed. In 1961 reported shale 2.4 to about 12 percent oil (6 30 gal per ton) oil production was 40,000 barrels per day. on distillation. The deposit, which extends to depths of as much as 2,500 feet, contains about 6 billion Explored parts of the Um-Barek deposit in short tons of shale which has an oil equiva Israel were estimated to contain about 20 mil lent of 2.1 billion barrels (Quackenbush and lion barrels of oil equivalent from shale that Singwald, 1947; Sakamoto and Yabe, 1958). yields about 12.5 gallons of oil per ton. About 600 million tons of shale was consid Near-surface parts of the deposit that yield ered available in 1938 by open-pit mining the 17 gallons per ton and that contain 2.2 mil shale as a byproduct of coal (O'Hashi and lion barrels oil equivalent were in prelimi Fukuzawa, 1938). Possibly half the deposit nary phases of development in 1960 (Nir, representing 1 billion barrels of shale oil 1960). can be considered recoverable under present conditions; the remaining half containing In the Yarmuk Valley, Wadi Arab region, about 1 billion barrels should be considered and in the Nebi Musa area of Jordan similar marginal or submarginal. shale deposits of Cretaceous age that yield 5 8 percent oil are believed to contain many Other near-surface oil-shale deposits billions of barrels of oil equivalent. Most of mostly associated with coal-bearing rocks the deposits are too deeply buried for open- which range in age from Triassic to Tertiary pit mining, but near-surface parts contain been been reported in many areas in Man about 45 million barrels oil equivalent (Mc churia (Kobayashi and others, 1958; Ohki, Kelvey, 1959). Blake (1930, p. 18) indicated 1959, !960;Okada, 1956; Yube, 1955a,b, 1956). that the oil-shale sequence also extends un Some of these deposits, more recently des mapped into Syria. ignated the Heilungkiang province oil shale, are reported to contain 180 million tons of The explored parts of deposits yielding "proven" oil shale and 120 billion tons of 10 25 gallons of oil per ton in Israel, Jordan, "probable" oil shale (Rosu, 1959). Other large and Syria are interpreted to contain about 70 deposits are reported near Mowming, Kwan- million barrels oil equivalent. Possible ex tung province; near Urumchi, Sinkiang pro tensions of the same deposits are interpreted vince; and in Kansu Corridor (Rosu, 1959). to contain an order of magnitude of 50billion 20 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS barrels oil equivalent in shale of about the of oil per ton might well contain an order same quality. of magnitude of 3.5 trillion barrels of oil equivalent. SIBERIA Assuming that half of the "mumble shale" Although many deposits of oil shale and is recoverable, the Siberian deposits are combustible shale are reported in Siberia tentatively estimated to contain about 7 bil (Dobryansky, 1947; Shabarov and Tyzhnova, lion barrels oil equivalent in recoverable 1958), most of them are not appraised in de parts of known higher grade deposits. About tail. Large deposits in three areas have re 67 billion barrels oil equivalent is estimated ceived attention: the Kenderlick and other to be in known but less accessible deposits deposits in Kazakhstan, the Barzasski depos of similar grade; and possibly 3.5 trillion it in the Kuznetsk Basin, and deposits in the barrels, in lower grade extensions. northeastern Siberian platform (Hodgkins,
1961, p. 90). The shale resources that are THAILAND AND BURMA classed as "minable" by Russian standards include deposits, more than 0.5 meter (20 in.) Rich oil shale is known in several small thick, that yield more than 2,700 Btu per Tertiary coal basins in the region near Mae pound, or by destructive distillation more Sot, western Thailand, and in the nearby than 10 percent oil. The deposits are cate Amherst district of eastern Burma (Great gorized by depths approximating 1,000, 2,000, Britain Mineral Resource Bureau, 1924, p. and 6,000 feet, and the shallower deposits are 82 83). The oil-shale deposits are of lacus the ones considered "mumble." trine origin, in a coal-bearing sequence of Pliocene age; they range in thickness from Several oil-shale deposits in Kazakhstan a few feet to about 20 feet and yield 25-70 are described. The largest of these are the gallons of oil per ton. The known deposits in Upper Carboniferous and Permian Kenderlick Burma have been estimated to contain about deposits. Several oil-shale zones inter 2 billion tons of shale with an oil equivalent spersed with coal-bearing zones yield 10 70 of about 2 billion barrels. The explored gallons of oil per ton. These zones are re parts of the deposits in Thailand reportedly ported to contain about 4 billion metric tons contain about 500 million tons of shale and of shale, herein assigned 2.6 billion barrels yield about 67 gallons of oil per ton, or a oil equivalent. About 700 million tons of total of 800 million barrels. Possible ex shale, herein assigned 450 million barrels tensions may contain an order of magnitude oil equivalent, are near surface and "min- of 1.5 billion tons of similar grade shale or able." about 2 billion barrels oil equivalent (Oil and Gas Journal, 1958). In the Kuznetsk Basin, oil-shale beds in the Barzasski deposit of Late Devonian age are For purposes of this report about half the reported to contain about 1.5 billion metric known resources in the combined Burma- tons of shale, herein assigned 1 billion bar Thailand deposits, or 1.4 billion barrels oil rels oil equivalent. About 500 million tons, equivalent, is considered recoverable. An herein assigned 330 million barrels oil equi additional 1.4 billion barrels is considered valent, are considered "mumble." marginal or submarginal, and possible ex tensions are assigned 2.0 billion barrels oil In the northeastern Siberian platform large equivalent. marine oil-shale deposits of Early and Mid dle Cambrian age are reported to underlie TURKEY more than 58,000 square miles intheAnabar, Olenek, and Lena Rivers regions. The de Oil-shale deposits are reported near An posits range in thickness from 60 280 feet. kara, in northwest Turkey in the Eregli coal Known resources have been estimated to con field, and near Manisa. Known resources in tain about 112 billion metric tons of shale, the Eregli coal field and near Manisa contain herein assigned 78 billion barrels oil equiva about 25 million tons of shale, with possibly lent. About 22 billion tons, herein assigned 18 million barrels oil equivalent. Oil-shale 14 billion barrels of oil, are considered deposits associated with lignite are also "mumble" (Hodgkins, 1961). Unexplored ex known at Mersina in the Gulf of Iskanderun tensions which would yield 10 25 gallons SHALE OIL RESOURCES 21
(Cadman, 1948, p. 120; Great Britain Mineral Several small deposits of oil shale of Resources Bureau, 1924, p. 270). Tertiary age, some of them associated with lignite, are partly explored in southern New TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES OF ASIA Zealand. At Orepuki, shale underlying a small coastal terrace yields about 4 5 gallons The shale oil resources of Asia include of oil per ton and contains about 2 million more than 20 billion barrels oil equivalent in barrels (proven) and 7.5 million barrels (in recoverable resources and, in addition, 70 ferred) oil equivalent (Willett and Wellman, billion barrels in marginal and submarginal 1940). At Nevis, partly explored Tertiary resources that yield more than 25 gallons shale associated with coal yields 11 15 gal per ton and 14 billion barrels in resources lons of oil per ton and contains about 250 that yield 10 25 gallons per ton. Possible million barrels oil equivalent. Inferred ex extensions of selected deposits include 2 bil tensions contain a possible 300 million bar lion barrels oil equivalent in shale yielding rels oil equivalent (Willett, 1943, p. 250B). more than 25 gallons per ton and 3.7 trillion barrels in shale yielding 10 25 gallons per TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES ton. (See table 3.) Estimates of the total shale oil resources and of undiscovered and The known higher grade oil-shale deposits unappraised resources of Asia are derived and possible extensions in Australia and New from data in table 1. Zealand contain about 280 million barrels oil equivalent, and the lower grade shale that AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND yields 10 25 gallons per ton contains about 760 million barrels. These deposits are Many small high-grade oil-shale deposits shown as combined 10 25 gallons shale re associated with Permo-Carboniferous coal sources in table 3, along with estimated re measures are widely distributed in New South sources of the total and undiscovered shale Wales (Kraemer and Thorne, 1951, fig. 1). oil of these regions which are derived from At Glen Davis the principal oil-shale (tor- data in table 1. banite) seam is restrictively estimated to contain about 50 million barrels oil equiva EUROPE lent (Institute of Petroleum, 1951, p. 190). Oil-shale deposits were developed in many About 200 million barrels oil equivalent is European countries during the 19th and much inferred in less thoroughly explored cannel- of the present century under conditions of shale deposits of the region. local oil shortage. The amount of oil pro duced from individual deposits has not com Lacustrine oil-shale deposits of Tertiary monly been reported, although tonnage of age are reported in the region near Port shale is reported. A rough estimate of the oil Curtis, Queensland (Ball, 1915). The depos produced from shale in Europe from about its are as much as 80 feet thick, yield about 1875 to 1961 is about 250 million barrels, 15 gallons of oil per ton, and may contain most of which was produced in Scotland and more than 200 million barrels oil equivalent Estonia. Other deposits in France, Spain, (Jaffe", 1962). Sweden, and the Volga region of Russia have produced oil on a sustained basis, and exper Small oil-shale deposits locally known as imental or minor production has been ob tasmanite are distributed in Permo-Carbon tained from deposits in Austria, Bulgaria, iferous marine shale in the Latrobe district Germany, Italy, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslo of north-central Tasmania. "Proved re vakia. serves" of oil shale, which yield 25 35 gal lons of oil per ton in beds 3 6 feet thick, European oil-shale deposits are distrib were reported to be about 10 million tons of uted in rocks ranging from Cambrian to late shale; mapped but unsampled possible ex Tertiary in age. Marine shale deposits of tensions of the Tasmanian deposits may con Cambrian and Ordovician age are widespread tain about 25 million tons of shale. These in Sweden and the Baltic region of Russia. deposits perhaps contain about 20 million Deposits of Devonian age are reported in the barrels oil equivalent (Tasmania Geological southern Urals of Russia. Lower Carbon Survey, 1933). iferous deposits are known principally in 22 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
Scotland. Numerous cannel-shale deposits Along the Morava Valley in eastern Yugo in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian slavia large and rich lacustrine oil-shale de coal-bearing rocks are distributed through posits of Oligocene age are known. They out Europe, the principal mined deposits have been explored at Alexinac where they being in England, Spain, and France. Triassic are 250-400 feet thick, yield 25-40 gallons of marine oil-shale units, mostly thin, are re oil per ton, and contain about 210 million ported at numerous localities in central barrels oil equivalent in the more accessible, Europe. Probably the most widespread oil explored shale (Organization for European deposits in Europe are in marine shale of Economic Cooperation, 1952, p. 13; Great Early Jurassic age. They include both thin Britain Mineral Resources Bureau, 1924, p. high-grade and thicker low-grade deposits 154; Jaffe, 1962, p. 6). Near Valjevo in the reported in Portugal, England, France, Ger Kolubara Valley near-surface lacustrine oil many, Luxembourg, the Russian Platform shale of Miocene age underlies an area of at and Bulgaria. Oil-shale deposits of Creta least 20 square miles, averages about 175 ceous age, associated with coal-bearing feet in thickness, and in part yields substan rocks, are reported in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, tial amounts of oil. The possible extensions Czechoslovakia, and France. Lacustrine oil- of the Tertiary deposits of Yugoslovia may shale beds of Tertiary age are reported in be large. Upper Cretaceous marine oil-shale Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Caspian re beds, about 60 feet thick and associated with gion of Russia, and Spain. Marine Tertiary coal, are reported near Zajecar on the east oil-shale deposits are reported in Sicily. ern Yugoslavia border. The deposits are not appraised in detail. Organic-rich shale of BALKAN PENINSULA AND ADJACENT AREAS Cretaceous age is associated with asphaltic limestone in the Dalmatian coastal region of In we stern Bulgaria near Bresnik the near- Yugoslavia and in parts of .Albania and surface parts of large oil-shale deposits of Greece. The deposits locally yield about 7 Jurassic age are as much as 160 feet thick percent bitumen. and contain shale zones as much as 20 feet thick yielding more than 30 gallons of oil per Oil shale in the Balkan Peninsula and ad ton. Known reserves are estimated to be jacent areas includes some large high-grade about 125 million barrels oil equivalent in deposits that perhaps could be commercially near-surf ace deposits (Jaffe, 1962). Numer developed. Known recoverable reserves in ous other exposures of the deposits in the Jurassic and Tertiary shale are herein con region including Bresnik, Sofia, Kustindil, sidered to be about 170 million barrels of Radomir, and Vratca are known, but their oil oil, or about one-half the reported 340 mil content is unreported (Great Britain Mineral lion barrels reported in explored deposits. Resource Bureau, 1924, p. 124). The possible The possible extensions are large, perhaps extensions of the deposits are presumably containing tens to hundreds of billions of large. barrels oil equivalent. Other deposits are reported in central Bulgaria near Stora Zagora and Kazanlik. FRANCE High-grade Tertiary cannel-shale deposits Of about 50 known oil-shale or organic- associated with lignite are reported in south rich shale deposits in France, only 4 have western Bulgaria, north of Gorna Djoumaya. been operated in recent decades. An oil- shale industry flourished in France from The Cypris Shale of Miocene age in the about 1838 to 1900 but had almost ceased by western Bohemian region of Czechoslovakia 1905. A few deposits continued to be produc is reported to underlie an area of 25 square tive under government subsidy until the in miles, to contain about 20 percent organic dustry closed in 1957. During the period matter, and to yield about 10 gallons of oil 1914 57 reported production ranged from per ton. In the Kladno Basin thin rich cannel 50,000 to nearly 500,000 tons of shale per shale which is associated with Permian coal year and totaled about 8 million tons of shale, and which has been used for gas making which possibly yielded 3 million barrels of (Schulz, 1938, p. 284) is reported to contain oil. about 6 million barrels oil equivalent. SHALE OIL RESOURCES 23
The principal reported oil-shale deposits Balingen and in the Hanover Basin near in France include those in coal-bearing rocks Braunschweig. The deposits have been oper of Permian age near Autun and St. Hilaire, ated during periods of oil shortage. Re marine deposits of Jurassic age at Ceverac- stricted estimates of resources in Wurttem le-Chateau and Creveney, and deposits of berg include a shale zone that averages 16 Cretaceous age near Vagnas. Other deposits feet in thickness and that yields about 12 gal ranging from Carboniferous to Tertiary in lons of oil per ton. This zone extends along age are reported (Guthrie and Klosky, 1951, approximately 105 miles of outcrop in a belt p. 18 and fig. 12; Cadman, 1948, p. 115). about 1.8 miles wide and contains a total of about 1.7 billion barrels oil equivalent. Near At Autun three or more oil-shale beds are Braunschweig, shale of about the same qual 3 11 feet thick and yield 10 18 gallons of oil ity is estimated to contain about 170 million per ton. Restrictive estimates of resources barrels oil equivalent (Guthrie and Klosky, of these deposits are about 9 million barrels 1951, p. 50). Gejrot (1958, p. 9) estimated proved and 80 million barrels inferred oil the known German deposits to contain about equivalent (Guthrie and Klosky, 1951, p. 38). 2 billion barrels oil equivalent. The possible In the 80 square mile basin (Cadman, 1948, extensions of the deposits are perhaps much p. 115), possible extensions of the deposits larger. may be large. Proven "reserves" of oil shale at St. Hilaire are estimated at about 3.3 mil GREAT BRITAIN lion barrels oil equivalent. Inferred "re serves" in the same deposits are about 80 Oil shale of the Lothians of central Scot million barrels (Guthrie and Klosky, 1951, land have been mined and processed to p. 18). produce oil since about 1850 (Guthrie and Klosky, 1951; Institute of Petroleum, 1938, At Severac-le-Chateau and at Creveney 1951). The deposits are of early Carboni oil-shale deposits of Jurassic age ranging ferous age and were laid down in shallow from 30 50 feet in thickness and yielding lacustrine or marine estuarine environ about 10 gallons of oil per ton have been of ments. About half of the dozen or more oil- some interest as sources of oil by in-place shale beds, ranging from 4 12 feet in thick processing. The deposits at Severac-le- ness, yield 16 40 gallons of oil per ton and Chateau contain about 8 million barrels oil have been mined extensively, mostly by un equivalent in "proven reserves" and about derground methods. The average yields of 250 million barrels in inferred deposits oil from earlier mining operations were at (Guthrie and Klosky, 1951, p. 18). Deposits least 30 gallons per ton, but the yields grad at Creveney may contain about 800 million ually decreased in recent decades to about barrels oil equivalent in shale yielding about 25 U.S. gallons of oil per ton. The industry 11 gallons per ton (Cadman, 1948, p. 115). was closed in 1963. The deposits were mined to depths in excess of 1,000 feet in parts of Oil-shale zones are associated with lignite a 75-square mile area, but oil shale that is in Cretaceous rocks near Vagnas. The thin little explored extends to depths as much as shale beds yield 20 30 gallons of oil per ton 5,000 feet west of the principal oil-shale and contain estimated reserves of 3 6 million mining area. "Reserves" of Lothian oil shale barrels oil equivalent. were estimated in 1948 to be 480 880 million long tons (Cadman, 1948, p. 114). These prob The known oil-shale deposits in France ably contain oil equivalent or 300 500 million yield 10 25 gallons of oil per ton and are es barrels. timated to contain about 425 million barrels oil equivalent,and possible extension perhaps Recoverable resources under present con greatly exceed the 1.1 billion barrels in re ditions assuming 50-percent recovery in ported "inferred reserves." mining are herein considered to be about 150 million barrels oil equivalent; additional
GERMANY known marginal and submarginal resources include 330 million barrels oil equivalent. Oil-shale deposits of Early Jurassic age Possible remote extensions of the deposits are widely distributed in Germany. The prin are perhaps several times larger than known cipal deposits are in Wurttemberg near resources. 24 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS
Oil-shale deposits of Jurassic age are ex barrels of oil (Organization for European tensive in Dorset and Norfolk, England. The Economic Cooperation, 1952, p. 13). deposits are thin (2 7 ft) and yield 10 45 gal lons of oil per ton; the higher grade has been RUSSIA used locally as solid fuel. The deposits are inferred to contain more than 1 billion bar Many of the higher grade oil-shale and rels oil equivalent (Jaffe, 1962, p. 6) and are combustible shale deposits in European Rus herein assigned to known resources of shale sia have been described in some detail by that average 10 25 gallons per ton. Dobryansky (1947). The deposits of most in terest are those that are more than 30 inches Many small cannel-shale deposits associ thick, have an organic content in excess of ated with Upper Carboniferous coal have been 20 percent, and have an oil yield of 10 per mined in Great Britain and used for produc cent or more, or heat value of more than tion of oil and illuminating gas. The cannel- 2,700 Btu per pound. The described deposits, shale production started about 1850 and was however, include many units having less or virtually closed down by 1900. From incom ganic content, heat yield as little as 900 Btu plete records (Institute of Petroleum, 1938, per pound of shale, and small oil yield. Re p. 86, 87, 93, 424-430) production of cannel sources estimates have been prepared for shale in Great Britain may have totaled a few some of the more promising deposits (Sha- million tons yielding about a barrel per ton. barova and Tyzhnova, 1958; Hodgkins, 1961). Impure * cannel reserves" in Scotland, which High-grade oil shale deposits in the Baltic include coal and shale, are estimated at region and in the Kuibyshev-Saratov area about 80 million tons of material containing along the Volga River have produced sub oil equivalent of 80 million barrels (Institute stantial amounts of shale since the 1920's. of Petroleum, 1938, p. 429), but no separate About 15 million tons, of which about 10 mil estimate of cannel-shale resources is avail lion tons was from Estonia, was reported able. mined in Russia in 1959. This shale was 1 used as a solid fuel and for production of oil and gas. ITALY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND Thin oil-shale deposits of Triassic age Oil shale known as kukersite, which is a have been mined for centuries at several marine deposit of Late Ordovician age un localities in Austria, northern Italy, and derlying, at shallow depths, broad areas in Switzerland to produce ichthyol. Known shale Estonia and the adjacent Leningrad region, resources at individual localities are small contains an estimated 22 billion tons of shale (Jaffe', 1962, p. 6, 7; Great Britain Mineral of which 15 billion tons is considered, by Resource Bureau, 1924, p. 122-123, 144-146, Russian standards, rich and thick enough to 181 182), but the possible extensions of the mine. The thickest and richest part of the deposits may be large. kukersite deposit in Estonia yields about 50 gallons of oil per ton in beds aggregating In Sicily a deposit of diatomaceous shale about 10 feet in thickness (Lutz, 1938, p. 127; of Tertiary age averages 16 feet in thick Baukov, 1958, p. 51). Estimated recoverable ness, yields about 25 gallons of oil per ton, resources reportedly contain about 10 billion and is estimated to contain about 35 billion barrels of oil equivalent. barrels oil equivalent (Biagio, 1951; Gejrot, 1958), of which about 7 billion barrels is In the eastern and northeastern part of the herein considered recoverable. Possible ex Russian Platform, oil-shale deposits of Ju tensions in more deeply buried and lower rassic age have been prospected at many grade parts of the deposit may be large. localities. Estimated minable reserves of these deposits in the Izhem, Sysolsk, Tartar- LUXEMBOURG Ulyanovsk, and Kuibyshev-Saratov areas in clude about 18.7 billion tons of "minable" Deposits of Jurassic oil shale have been shale, and 1.5 billion tons of substandard explored in an area of about 55 square miles shale. The oil yield of these deposits is pre in Luxembourg, where the deposits, averag sumed to be about 25 gallons per ton and to ing 30 feet in thickness and yielding 10 gal total about 13 billion barrels. Of this amount, lons of oil per ton, contain about 700 million about 5 billion barrels is in the Middle Volga SHALE OIL RESOURCES 25 region from Tartar to Saratov provinces yielding 10 gallons oil per ton or more. where oil-shale industries are established, About 10 million barrels of shale oil were and is herein considered to be recoverable produced during the period 1942 62, after reserves. The remaining 8 billion barrels which the industry was shut down. The shale oil equivalent in the deposits is considered industry at Kvarntorp, Narke province, was marginal or submarginal in this report. As developed as a byproduct industry and yield the Jurassic shale deposits underly larger ed substantial amounts of oil, combustible areas of the Russian platform, their oil po gas, heat for electric-power generation, sul tential in possible extensions is probably fur, ammonia, lime, and brick (Gejrot, 1958). much larger than the reported "reserves." Some zones of the oil shale also contain sub stantial amounts of vanadium, uranium, and SPAIN AND PORTUGAL potassium.
Oil-shale deposits are known in several The richest Alum Shale deposit, in the vi provinces of Spain and Portugal. A small cinity of Kvarntorp, contains about 25 per oil-shale industry near Puertollano, Ciudad cent organic matter, yields about 3,600 Btu Real, has operated since 1918, and total pro per pound of shale, 4 7 percent oil, and about duction to 1962 was about 8 million short tons 6 percent sulfur, and contains an estimated of shale which yielded about 5.5 million bar 600 million barrels oil equivalent. The de rels of oil. The shale, which is in several posits in Oestergotland and in Oland, each beds associated with coal in a sequence of yielding about 3.8 percent oil, contain about Carboniferous age, is as much as 15 feet 1.9 billion barrels oil equivalent; those in thick and yields about 30 gallons of oil per Vastergotland yielding about 1.7 percent ton. Estimated oil-shale "reserves" of about oil contain about 350 million carrels oil 115 million tons (Thorne and Kraemer, 1950, equivalent (Gejrot, 1958, p. 7). In Skane Pro p. 4) containing about 80 million barrels of vince a correlative deposit containing more oil equivalent are in explored parts of a than 10 billion tons of carbonaceous shale small structural basin at Puertollano. yields almost no oil, but has been considered of interest as a source of solid fuel (Brynie- Several oil-shale deposits of Tertiary age Isson, 1956, p. 231). are partly explored in southern and eastern Spain. These include some high-grade lacus For purposes of this report the deposits at trine deposits of unreported size. Small Narke, Oestergotland, and Oland, containing a high-grade oil-shale deposits of Early Ju total of about 2.5 billion barrels oil equiva rassic age are reported at three areas in lent, are considered to be known marginal Portugal (Cadman, 1948, p. 118; Great Britain and submarginal resources yielding more Mineral Resource Bureau, 1924, p. 174). than 10 gallons per ton, as is the deposit in Vastergotland, which yields about 5 gallons of Known oil-shale deposits in Spain were es oil per ton and which contains about 350 mil timated by Gejrot (1958, p. 9) to contain about lion barrels oil equivalent. 280 million barrels oil equivalent in deposits that yield more than 25 gallons per ton; of TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES OF EUROPE this 280 million barrels about 40 million bar rels, or the equivalent of half the explored The recoverable shale oil resources in Puertollano deposit, is considered recover Europe contain atotal of more than 30 billion able; the remaining 240 million barrels is barrels oil equivalent mostly in shale that considered marginal or submarginal. yields more than 25 gallons per ton. Addi tional known resources, herein considered SWEDEN marginal and submarginal, include about 40 billion barrels oil equivalent in shale yield The Alum Shale, a marine black shale of ing 25 gallons or more per ton and about 6 Cambrian and Ordovician age, is widely dis billion barrels in shale yielding from 10 25 tributed in Sweden. The deposits have been gallons per ton. described in great detail by Westergard, Eklund, and others of the Swedish Geological Possible extensions of selected major Eu Survey. Three areas in the provinces of ropean deposits perhaps contain, in the ag Narke, Oland, and Gotland contain shale gregate, orders of magnitude in excess of ranging from 30 50 feet in thickness and 100 billion barrels oil equivalent in higher 26 ORGANIC-RICH SHALE OF THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD LAND AREAS grade shale (25+ gallons) and 200 billion bar barrels (Bastos, 1951). Nearly one-half this rels in lower grade shale (10 25 gal). Major amount or 50 billion barrels, available in extensions are interpreted for the widespread near-surface deposits and minable by open- marine Jurassic deposits throughout Europe pit methods, is herein considered recover and the more restricted Tertiary lake basin able under present conditions. Other esti and marine shale deposits of southern Eu mates of the "exploitable" oil of the Iraty rope. The possible extensions of many of the Shale range from 300 billion barrels (United other reported deposits also are presumably Nations Economic Commission for Latin orders of magnitude larger than the reported America, 1957, p. 231) to 800 billion barrels "reserves." The unappraised, undiscovered, (Kraemer, 1950, p. 16) and are restrictive in and total shale oil resources shown on table that they include a relatively narrow belt of 3 are derived from table 1. shale along approximately 1,000 miles of outcrop length. Assuming that the deposit SOUTH AMERICA underlies almost all the 250,000 square miles underlain by Upper Permian rocks of the Oil-shale deposits have been explored in Parana basin and that it yields about 5 per several areas in South America. Deposits in cent oil (13 gal per ton) through a 30-foot- Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay have thick sequence, the deposit would contain received some consideration for develop about 4 trillion barrels of oil equivalent. ment, but many other organic-rich shales Thicker zones of lower grade shale in the ranging in age from Cambrian to Tertiary deposit that yields 5 10 gallons per ton would have not been reported for their potential contain an additional 4 trillion barrels. energy or oil content. For purposes of this report the Iraty Shale The Iraty Shale of Late Permain age un is interpreted to contain 800 billion barrels derlies the Parana basin in southern Brazil, oil equivalent, of which 50 billion barrels is Uruguay, and eastern Paraguay. The deposit recoverable, in known resources of shale that is exposed principally along the eastern out yield 10 25 gallons of oil per ton and 3.2 crop of a broad area which extends for about trillion barrels in possible extensions. Re 1,000 miles in a north-south direction and sources that yield 5 10 gallons of oil per ton which is as much as 380 miles wide in an are assigned 4 trillion barrels oil equivalent east-west direction. Explored parts of the in possible extensions. deposit in the States of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, in Tertiary (Pliocene) lacustrine oil shale Brazil, indicate that the Iraty Shale ranges lies near the surface in the Paraiba River from 100-328 feet in thickness and that the Valley, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. The deposits higher grade parts, which are as much as 30 are known along a 90-mile length of the val feet thick (Araujo and Mariti, 1938; Bastos, ley, are as much as 60 feet thick, and yield 1951; Kraemer, 1950), yield about 5-8 per oil in amounts that range from 12 50 gallons cent oil (13 20 gal per ton). The deposits has per ton (Kraemer, 1950, p. 23; Smith and also been studied in the State of Cerro Largo, others, 1959, p. 5, 25), and perhaps average northeastern Uruguay, where it is reported 15 18 gallons per ton. Their estimated oil to yield about 3.6 5 percent oil (Schroeder, content is about 2 billion barrels (Jaffe, 1962, 1935, p. 208). p. 6).
Several restrictive estimates of the oil Algal or lignitic shale yielding oil is re potential of explored, more accessible parts ported in the Tertiary sediments in several of the Iraty Shale have been made. For ex areas in Brazil. Deposits at Marahu are ample, a 35-square mile area near Sao perhaps the most notable. Individual depos Mateus do Sul in southern Parana State has its so far reported generally yield a barrel been closely sampled by drilling and contains or more oil per ton. Reported "reserves" a proven oil equivalent of about 600 million herein considered marginal and submarginal barrels (Ertl, 1961). Part of the deposit along contain about 1 million barrels of oil equi the 220 miles of outcrop in the State of Pa valent. rana in a belt 12 miles wide has been esti mated to contain about 200 billion metric Oil-shale deposits are reported in several tons of shale having an oil content of 16 bil localities in Argentina (Schroeder, 1935, lion metric tons, or approximately 110 billion p. 167 169). Estimated "reserves" of shale REFERENCES CITED 27
oil in Argentina are about 400 million bar Baukov, S. S., 1958, Zakonomernostiveshches- rels (Parker, 1962). tvennogo sostava goryuchego slantsa Pri- baltiiskogo slantsevogo basseina: Esti NSV At Lonquimay in Cautin Province of Chile Teaduste Akad., Geol. Inst., v. 2, p. 49-72. a shale of Eocene age exposed along the Bio- Bentley, C. B., 1963, Oil shale, in U.S. Geo Bio River has been studied in some detail. logical Survey, Mineral and water resources Thin higher grade explored parts of the de of Montana: U.S. 88th Cong., 1st sess., posit, which yield about 20 gallons of oil per Senate Comm. on Interior and Insular ton, contain about 21 million barrels oil equi Affairs, Comm. print, p. 45 46. valent; parts that yield about 6 gallons of oil Biagio, Giunta, 1951, Bituminous rocks of per ton contain about 140 million barrels Sicily, in Oil shale and cannel coal: London, (Chile Departmento de Minas y Petroleo, Inst. Petroleum v. 2, p. 178-179. 1936, p. 85-86). Blake, G. S., 1930, The mineral resources of Palestine and Transjordan: Geol. Advisor Some other organic-rich shale deposits in Palestine Govt., Jerusalem, no. 2, 41 p. South America are discussed by Schroeder Bradley, W. H., 1931, Origin and microfossils (1935), Kraemer (1950), and others but the of the oil shale of the Green River Forma tonnage, organic content or oil potential are tion of Colorado and Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 168, 58 p. not reported in detail. Some of the marine Breger, I. A., and Brown, Andrew, 1962, Devonian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary deposits Kerogen in shale: Sci., v. 137, p. 221-224. are large, however. Brynielsson, Harry, 1956, Sweden's energy outlook, in Peaceful uses of atomic energy: TOTAL SHALE OIL RESOURCES OF SOUTH AMERICA United Nations Proc., v. l,p. 229-232. The known oil-shale resources of South Cadman, W. H., 1948, The oil shale deposits America (table 3) are interpreted to contain of the world and recent developments in 50 billion barrels of recoverable shale oil, their exploitation and utilization, reviewed plus 750 billion barrels oil equivalent in to May 1947: Inst. Petroleum Jour., v. 34, marginal and submarginal deposits that yield no. 290, p. 109-132. 10 25 gallons per ton. There are possible Canada Department of Mines and Resources, extensions in selected deposits of about 3.2 1948, Summary of investigations on New trillion barrels in shale that yields 10 25 Brunswick oil shales: Rept. 825, 24 p. gallons per ton and 4 trillion barrels in Cashion, W. B., Jr., 1957, Stratigraphic re shale that yields 5 10 gallons per ton. Esti lations and oil shale of the Green River mates of the total shale oil resources of Formation in the eastern Uinta Basin [Utah], South America are derived from table 1. in Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geol ogists Guidebook, Eighth Ann. 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U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1966 O - 206-429