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Expressing Feminism in Islam in Northern Nigerian Fiction Privately Empowered Privately Empowered Expressing Feminism in Islam in Northern Nigerian Fiction Shirin Edwin northwestern university press evanston, illinois Northwestern University Press www .nupress.northwestern .edu Copyright © 2016 by Northwestern University Press. Published 2016. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data are available from the Library of Congress. Except where otherwise noted, this book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. In all cases attribution should include the following information: Edwin, Shirin. Privately Empowered: Expressing Feminism in Islam in Northern Nigerian Fiction. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2016. The following material is excluded from the license: Earlier versions of revised work as outlined in the Acknowledgments For permissions beyond the scope of this license, visit www.nupress.northwestern.edu An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high-quality books open access for the public good. More information about the initiative and links to the open-access version can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org. Contents Acknowledgments vii Abbreviations ix A Note on Transcription xi Introduction Conjugating Feminisms: African, Islamic as African-​­Islamic Discourse 1 Chapter 1 Connecting Vocabularies: A Grammar of Histories, Politics, and Priorities in African and Islamic Feminisms 35 Chapter 2 Noetic Education and Islamic Faith: Personal Transformation in The Stillborn 77 Chapter 3 Historical Templates and Islamic Disposition: Personal Journeys in The Virtuous Woman 107 Chapter 4 Spiritual Legacies and Worship: Personal Spaces in The Descendants 135 Chapter 5 Frequent Functions and References: Personal Solutions in Sacred Apples and Destiny 163 Epilogue 189 Notes 195 Bibliography 217 Index 229 Acknowledgments This book would not have started without my husband Ayub’s loving suggestion that I should write it. After trying to find a publisher for a dissertation in French in the United States, and finding none, I rather belatedly realized that our thoughts are imprisoned by language— and language itself by place. So I am forced to write in English. But Ayub’s belief in me has exploded every line that can possibly be drawn by language, religion, or place. The odds that two people from two large minorities in an even larger country defy by living and laughing together on a daily basis are beyond the drama that a Bollywood film can ever hope to capture, and beyond my own linguistic abilities to describe, even in Hindi. On the other hand, I am able to express my deepest gratitude, if insufficiently, for the material ideas in this book that developed with a generous Enhancement Grant for Professional Development (EGPD) at Sam Houston State University (SHSU) in 2007. I am indeed fortunate to benefit from SHSU’s continued support for my research endeavors. Over the years, I was fortunate to present some ideas in this book at the African Literature Association Conferences, the Modern Language Association Conventions, and other venues to capitalize on so many conversations with colleagues across the disciplines—Suman Venkatesh, Gaurav Desai, Anouar Majid, Lynn Ramey, Robert Barsky, and Nouri Gana, in par- ticular, offered much- needed encouragement of my scholarly goals in the early stages of my career. Though not directly connected with this book, Carli Coetzee’s incisive reading skills sharpened my critical thoughts on literature and literary criticism and reminded me to think more and ask more. I am grateful to her for her intellectual engagement and encourage- ment of my work on African literatures. Gabeba Baderoon and Shaden Tageldin offered me the opportunity to talk about the work in this book, exposing me to invaluable feedback and a community of academics that enriches my work in immeasurable ways. I am lucky to have colleagues at SHSU who have helped me along the way and friends whose work habits and intellectual drive inspire me to continue in my scholarly pursuits. Grateful thanks are due to April Shemak, Shuangyue Zhang, Hiranya Nath, Manuel Triano- Lopez, Sharon Murphy- Manley, Alejandro Latinez, and, more recently, Peter Gachanja. The Interlibrary Loan staff at the Newton Gresham Library at SHSU— Erin Cassidy, Ann Jerabek, Bette vii viii Acknowledgments Craig, Sammie Phelps— have shown me more patience than I deserve as I feverishly requested books and materials for this project. From the start, Gianna Mosser at Northwestern University Press held my hand through- out the publication process with her enthusiasm and patience, generously offering to read, edit, and comment on the manuscript. I am deeply grate- ful to the two anonymous reviewers at the press and to Nathan MacBrien and his wonderful team for treating my work with such great care, patience, and efficiency. Warm thanks are also due to Serene Yang for her meticulous copy editing and for polishing and straightening many of my sentences and phrases. Deepest thanks to Steven Moore for his skill- ful indexing of the book. My friends Norma, Pat, Roxanne, Jill, Tracy, Maritza, and Fatma deserve special mention for tolerating my antisocial ways as I was writing this book. My parents, Lt. Col. (retired) R. B. K. Edwin and Anita Edwin, and my brother, Lt. Col. Sunil Edwin, have had more faith in me since I can remember and have brought me this far— I can’t express here or in words the gratitude I feel for their love and belief in my abilities, for motivating me from even before I understood the pur- pose of that encouragement. As they wondered why I was typing so much over these past few months, Sana, Shuaib, and Samreen have come to think of me as an “author” and have inquired if I will visit their elemen- tary school to read the stories I’m writing, and when they may borrow them from the local library. But most of all, they have enlivened my writ- ing experience by vastly improving my knowledge of Pokémon over the months. I dedicate this book to my little Jolteon, Bouffalant, and Leafeon. An early version of a small segment of my discussion on African feminism appeared in Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, and my discussion of Hauwa Ali’s Destiny is a revised version of a portion of an article that appeared in Women’s Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal. I am thankful to the University of Nebraska Press and Taylor and Francis for allowing me to use part of these publications here in modified forms. Abbreviations D Ali, Hauwa. Destiny. Enugu: Delta Fiction, 1988. SA Gimba, Abubakar. Sacred Apples. Ibadan: Evans Brothers, 1994. Also published in the United States as Golden Apples. New York: Vantage Press, 1997. Citations in Privately Empowered refer to the latter edition. TD Alkali, Zaynab. The Descendants. Zaria: Tamaza, 2005. TS Alkali, Zaynab. The Stillborn. Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1984. TVW Alkali, Zaynab. The Virtuous Woman. Ikeja: Longman, 1987. ix A Note on Transcription For romanization of words and phrases in Modern Standard Arabic, I have used the system outlined in the American Library Association– Library of Congress (ALA-LC). For African languages such as Hausa, Swahili, and others, I have italicized the words and parenthetically pro- vided their meanings wherever necessary. xi Introduction Conjugating Feminisms African, Islamic as African-​­Islamic Discourse Fiction is an act of willfulness, a deliberate effort to reconcile, to rearrange, to reconstitute nothing short of reality itself. Even among the most reluctant and doubtful of writers, this willingfulness must emerge. Being a writer means taking the leap from listening to saying, “Listen to me.” — Jhumpa Lahiri Islamic feminism is the unwanted child of political Islam. — Ziba Mir- Hosseini I focus on Arab women’s autobiographies and novels because it is there that one can most clearly see the individual creating alternative realities. — miriam cooke In 2001, Amina Lawal, a thirty-​­one- year- old Muslim peasant from Kat- sina State in northern Nigeria, was arrested on charges of adultery and sentenced to death-by- stoning, as laid down in the sharīᶜa or Islamic law.1 She appealed the death sentence for two years before being acquitted by an Islamic appeals court in 2003.2 Lawal’s case was not unique. The previous year, Safiya Husseini, another Muslim woman from Sokoto in northern Nigeria, was convicted on similar charges and condemned to death before being acquitted by an Islamic appeals court. Not unpredict- ably, details of these cases, especially the death sentence and the method, death- by- stoning, attracted the ire of the international community, from 1 2 Introduction international human rights groups, including women’s rights organiza- tions, to nongovernmental agencies, raining fire and brimstone on the purportedly archaic laws observed by twelve of the thirty- six Nigerian states that have adopted Islamic law.3 For years following these cause célèbres, European and American media scrutinized them as emblematic of the savagery sanctioned by Islam in northern Nigeria.4 Shortly after the international outcry over Lawal’s and Husseini’s cases, Islam in Nigeria found itself at the center of another storm when protests by conservative Islamic groups erupted
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