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City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 6-2014 Run for Health: Health(icization), Supplements, and Doping in Non-Elite Road Running April D. Henning Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/223 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] RUN FOR HEALTH: HEALTH(ICIZATION), SUPPLEMENTS, AND DOPING IN NON- ELITE ROAD RUNNING By: April Henning A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Sociology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2014 © 2014 APRIL D. HENNING All Rights Reserved. ii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Sociology in satisfaction of the dissertation requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Professor Victoria Pitts-Taylor _____________ ______________________________________________________ Date Chair of the Examining Committee Professor Philip Kasinitz _____________ ______________________________________________________ Date Executive Officer Professor William Kornblum _______________________________________________ Professor Bryan Turner _______________________________________________ THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii Abstract RUN FOR HEALTH: HEALTH(ICIZATION), SUPPLEMENTS, AND DOPING IN NON- ELITE ROAD RUNNING By APRIL D. HENNING Advisor: Victoria Pitts-Taylor Running races are commonly viewed as one of the clearest examples of competition and it is less common to view training or racing as a non-competitive health practice. However, the majority of non-elite runners who participate in races do so in order to reap benefits from the training process many undertake in preparation for a race. This dissertation is a study of non-elite or amateur runners’ pursuit of health, their varied understandings of health, the ironies and inconsistencies of healthism, and the folk measures of health employed within the running community. Through qualitative interviews with amateur runners in New York City about their perceptions of running, health, doping, and supplements, I explore the value non-elite runners place on health and fitness, the ways running is used to signal one’s commitment to these values, and the relationship between healthist demands and training methods that border on harmful, such as the use of over the counter (OTC) pain medications to mask pain or use of unregulated and potentially dangerous dietary supplements. I demonstrate that non-elite runners rarely engage in training or participate in a race with the expectation or desire for a zero-sum victory. Rather, I argue that non-elite runners engage in running as part of iv healthicized body practice, through which each defines herself as a healthy, morally good neoliberal citizen. Performance enhancing substances (PES) are viewed as a way to circumvent the struggle, pain, need for intense dedication to improve one’s performance—the experiences that non-elites runners feel they must experience in order to claim the identity of runner. Non-elite runners avoid intentionally using PES in favor of nutritional supplements, based on the incorrect belief that such products marketed specifically to improve health or performance are well regulated for safety and regarded as effective. Often these products are unregulated and of questionable quality and safety—many of the same reasons offered by non-elite runners for avoiding banned PES. Given the contradictions inherent in healthiest practices undertaken by runners, the study also addresses the underlying ethos of healthicism at work, which I argue are rooted in neoliberalism. v Acknowledgements I am indebted to a number of individuals for supporting and enabling completion of this research and dissertation project. I must begin by thanking my dissertation committee. My adviser, Victoria Pitts-Taylor, provided invaluable feedback and guidance throughout this project and pushed me to think beyond my small world and focus on a bigger picture. I'm better for it, and so is my work. Bill Kornblum's curiosity and support since the first time I popped into his office to talk about sports paved the way for me to take sport as a central research interest. Bryan Turner graciously agreed to work with me and provided valuable specific ideas to improve my work and sharpen my focus. I am also grateful to other members of the Graduate Center faculty, including Barbara Katz Rothman for all of her invaluable advice on writing and career building, and Jim Jasper for his kindness and willingness to chat. A huge thank you also goes to the Behavioral Sciences Training program at the National Development and Research Institutes for providing intellectual and financial support. I must acknowledge the wonderful BST Fellows for their willingness to read chapter draft after chapter draft to provide insightful comments and to celebrate all the small victories and jump all the hurdles along the way. Specifically, Ross Aikins, Kate McLean, and Kelly Szott each helped shape various aspects of the project. Special thanks to BST director Greg Falkin for his continued support, professionalization, and faith that I may someday learn to actually run quantitative analyses. This work literally could not have been done without the NYC running vi community. Besides providing me with a research topic and participants, it has provided me a home and facilitated some of my most treasured friendships. My Athena New York teammates have covered hundreds, if not thousands, of miles with me, reminding me that this work is important outside of my little office and inspiring me to keep going. My non-academic friends also provided various forms of support including coffee dates, text messages, drinks, sports talk, and keeping me grounded and relevant in the social world. I also thank my family, including my mom, Robin Coats, who practically demonstrated the importance of education, and my parents-in-law, Dick and Dee Remy, who unfailingly were interested in and understanding of my work. I am deeply thankful for the influence of my grandparents. Vera Frecker taught me the values of kindness, curiosity, and baking, and will forever serve as my model of goodness and generosity. Bert Frecker continues to inspire me with his work ethic, wit, and genuine interest in the world. Thank you both for always encouraging me no matter how strange or extreme the idea and for your unconditional acceptance of my exploits. This brings me to Steve Remy. For possibly the first time—as Steve can attest—words fail me. Steve is my spouse, friend, favorite historian, number one fan, collaborator in ridiculousness, office mate, pusher up the hills, perspective giver, trusted editor, (extremely patient) sounding board, debate partner, fearless adventurer, and best human I can think of—and that’s just for starters. It would be impossible to articulate the profound influence he has had on all aspects of my life and how fortunate I am to have him in my life. Stev, you are my favorite. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Introduction Road Rules: Situating Non-Elite Road Running 1 Chapter I Zero-Sum vs. Non-Zero-Sum: The Character of Non-Elite Road Racing 41 Chapter II It’s Not About the Race: Process vs. Outcome Goods 75 Chapter III Choosing Health? Sources of Expertise for Non-Elite Runners 107 Chapter IV Supplementing Health? Risk and Reward of Enhancement Substances 133 Conclusion Running and Neoliberal Citizenship 160 Bibliography 169 viii Introduction Road Rules: Situating Non-Elite Road Running “You’re a mover and a sweater. Exercise is your Prozac, and running is a big part of your lifelong routine. When you hit the road or the treadmill, you run ’til you feel the burn and melt away your sins. You’re psyched to feel good and look good—even when you don’t break the tape.” -New York Road Runners Website1 Discussing the difficulty in finding a doctor you like and can trust, a friend of mine I will call Vanessa declared, “I really enjoy going to the doctor for my annual check-up. It’s like going to the class I’m really good at.” She explained how she enjoys the laudatory reaction of doctors when they go through the usual check-up routine of reviewing her blood work, taking her blood pressure, and listening to her breathing and heartbeat. She described that she would then remind the doctor that she was a life-long distance runner and this would elicit the type of “of course!” response that would bring a second round of pats on the back for partaking in her chosen hobby. Being told she was healthy and healthier than most in her early 30s age cohort by these medical metrics made her feel confident in what she considers her pro-health lifestyle choices: wellness visits with her doctor, following a vegetarian diet, bicycle commuting, and competitive running. What Vanessa did not disclose to her doctor was that she often has pain in her hamstrings and hips from her intense training, that her sleep is interrupted by stress-induced nightmares 1 http://www.nyrr.org/i-want-to/shape-stay-fit 1 about missing the start of a marathon she is supposed to run, or that she must use carbohydrate and electrolyte replacement supplements to prevent low blood sugar and dehydration while training. Like the positive results and feedback from her doctor, she accepted these other, often unpleasant, events as part of being a runner. This conversation took place nearly three years ago as we ran up to meet our running teammates for a weekly speed workout, but I was reminded of this exchange while writing this dissertation. Initially this project was focused on the ways non-elite runners—those who race for pleasure or reasons other than as an income source—understood and perceived doping at all levels of their sport.

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