STEPS TOWARD A COMPILER FOR BLISS-360
Richard Charles Bahler
HffiE 1 ihshL postgraduate school
Monterey, California
THESIS -
STEPS TOWARD A COMPILER FOR BLISS- 360
by
Richard Charles Bahler
Thesis Advisor: Gary A . Kildall
June 1972
Appiov&d ^oh. pubtic k.qA.qju> e; diA&iibntion untimittd.
Steps Toward a Compiler for BLISS-360
by
Richard Charles Bahler Major, United States Marine Corps Reserve B.A., University of Rochester, 1955
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
from the
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL June 1972
ABSTRACT
The design of a compiler for the IBM S/360 systems implementation language BLISS-360, a modification of the PDP-10 language BLISS- 10, is described. The compiler has a two-pass structure that is based upon the
XPL Compiler Generator System. The first of these passes, which uses the XPL prototype compiler Skeleton,, is examined in some detail. Funda- mental data structures are described for this pass, including a constant table, a dictionary for variable definitions, and an intermediate language table to retain the source program structure and semantics. Modifications which allow the Skeleton compiler to perform a syntax analysis of BLISS-
360 programs are discussed and demonstrated.
General requirements are defined for the functions to be performed by the second pass, including machine language code generation from the intermediate language, storage allocation and building program interface linkage.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 9
A. PROJECT GOAL 9
B. THESIS OBJECTIVES 9
II. A BLISS-360 COMPILER — POSSIBLE APPROACHES 11
A. REQUIREMENTS OF THE COMPILER 11
B. COMPILER CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES CONSIDERED 12
1. Rewrite BLISS 12
2. Write a New Compiler 13
3. Bootstrap - PDP-10 to S/360 13
4. XPL Systems 15
a. One-Pass 16
b. Multi-Pass 16
(1) Three-Pass 16
(2) More than Three Passes 17
(3) Two-Pass 17
C. THE APPROACH SELECTED 18
III. DESIGN OF THE TWO-PASS XPL SYSTEM 2
A. PASS 1 20
1. BNF 20
2. Scanning 20
3. Constants : 20
3
4. Identifiers 21
5. Intermediate Language 21
6. Miscellaneous 21
B. PASS 2 22
1. Machine Language Production 23
2. Storage Allocation 23
3. Program Output 24
IV. IMPLEMENTING THE SYSTEM - PASS 1 25
A. SYNTAX ANALYSIS 25
1. Scanning 25
2. Initialization 29
3. Recover 29
4. Debugging Aids 29
B. DATA TABLE DESIGN 30
1. Constant Table 30
2. Dictionary 32
C. INTERMEDIATE LANGUAGE PRODUCTION 36
1. Possible Forms of IL 37
2. Design of the IL Table 37
a. IL and its Operators 38
b. IL for Structure Access 38
V. PROGRAM EXAMPLES 43
A. TABLE DESIGN EXAMPLE "43
B. SYNTAX ANALYSIS EXAMPLES 43
4
VI. CONCLUSIONS 50
A. WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED 50
B. WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE 50
APPENDIX A BNF DESCRIPTION OF BLISS-360 52
APPENDIX B SAMPLE BLISS-360 PROGRAMS 60
APPENDIX C BLISS-360 SKELETON MODIFICATIONS 78
BIBLIOGRAPHY 97
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST 98
FORM DD 1473 99
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
TABLE I. Scan Routine Cases 26
TABLE II. Macro Table Definitions 28
TABLE III. Constant Table CONTAB and Related Control Variables 31
TABLE IV. Dictionary Table DICT and Related Access Control Variables 34
TABLE V. Intermediate Language Table IL 39
TABLE VI. Operation Codes for IL 40
TABLE VII. DICT Entries at Line 6, Fig. 5 46
TABLE VIII DICT Entries at Line 10, Fig. 5 47
TABLE IX. IL Entiles for Fig. 5 48
TABLE X. STRUCTIL Entries for Fig. 5 . 49
TABLE XI. CONTAB Entries for Fig. 5 : 49
LIST OF DRAWINGS
Figure Page
FIG. 1 T-Diagram - BLISS-10 to BLISS-360 14
FIG. 2 Two-Pass Compiler 18
FIG. 3 Macro Storage Structure 28
FIG. 4 Plit Storage Structure 33
FIG. 5 BLISS-360 Program Example 45
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A word of thanks to Drs . Wulf and Habermann of the Computer
Science Department of Carnegie-Mellon University for providing the documentation for BLISS- 10.
I. INTRODUCTION
An IBM S/360 version of the Basic Language for the Implementation
of System Software, BLISS-360, has been designed by Zavoyski [Ref. l|
from the BUSS language for the PDP- 10 [Ref. 2] . The next task then is to design and build a compiler for this language. With this objective in mind, the ultimate goal of the project and the specific objectives of this thesis are stated.
A. PROJECT GOAL
In order for BLISS-360 to become a viable tool for the production of
S/360 software programs it is necessary to have for it a compiler which will execute efficiently and produce effective machine language. The pro- duction of this compiler is the ultimate project goal.
B. THESIS OBJECTIVES
The primary thesis objective is to provide a basic structure for accomplishing the goal. This was planned as three basic phases.
First, define the approach by examining several alternative methods of compiler construction to select one suitable for the language and con- venient to implement.
Second, design the compiler. Based on the approach selected (a two-pass compiler the [Ref. using XPL Compiler Generator System 3J ) this phase was divided into two subgoals; first, provide a detailed design of pass one and second, provide the general requirements for pass two.
Third, provide sufficient programming for pass one (a modification
of the XPL Skeleton Compiler [Ref . ) to allow the syntax analysis 3J of programs written in BLISS-360.
10
II. A BLISS-360 COMPILER— POSSIBLE APPROACHES
In the effective construction of a compiler it is necessary first to
examine the objectives intended for the compiler and then to balance these
objectives against the available construction techniques.
A. REQUIREMENTS OF THE COMPILER
The principal intent of BLISS-360 is to produce production quality
systems programs . Its compiler must therefore first meet the requirement
of efficient code production.
System programs provide essential services in the management and
use of computer resources. In general, however, they are part of the oper-
ating system overhead in terms of both time and storage space. Thus, it
is essential that a compiler for the production of system programs approach
the efficiency of good assembly language programming in its production of
machine language.
As an extension of the first requirement, run-time storage must be
managed effectively. Mechanisms must be established to keep central
memory requirements to a minimum, and relinquish unused areas of memory
for future use by other blocks of the program.
A paged environment places the additional burden of maintaining
contiguity of data wherever possible in order to minimize page faults.
BLISS-360 programs must be able to communicate with existing
operating systems, in particular OS/360 and CP/CMS. They must also
11
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be able to operate without the support of an operating system. Thus, multiple forms of interface may need to be created
In order to maintain its effectiveness, a compiler must be adaptable to changes in the language it implements and to changing requirements for its object code.
B. COMPILER CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES CONSIDERED
Several possible ways of building a BLISS-360 compiler were evalu- ated against the requirements of Sec. II. A. In addition, they were exam- ined to see whether a significant start could be made on a useful compiler in a limited time. The techniques evaluated were as follows.
1. Rewrite BLISS
One of the existing two versions of BLISS (for the PDP-10 and the PDP-11) could be rewritten, incorporating the changes for the S/360, in an existing S/360 language. This would have the advantage of working with an established BLISS system which has implementation information available j_Ref. 2J
Several languages are available on the S/360 for the rewrite
[_Ref. task. Examples of these languages include XPL 2] , PL360
[Ref . and S/360 Assembler [Ref. . 4J 5J
The existing BLISS compilers, however, are quite large and complex and would require a significant education period before anything worthwhile could be accomplished. Furthermore, the differences in archi- tecture between the PDP-10 and the S/360 cause many language changes
12
[kef. lj . In addition, these differences would create the need for modified storage management techniques.
This approach was discarded since the size of the effort
involved before any return could be seen was too large.
2 . Write a New Compiler
The idea of writing a completely new compiler was briefly considered. This approach has some advantages over a complete rewrite in that one is burdened neither with the idiosyncrasies of an existing pro- gram nor with the problem of working with two languages at once.
This approach was not taken because of the large amount of time required to get a useful start on a project of this magnitude.
3. Bootstrap - PDP-10 to S/360
Given the availability of a PDP-10, it is possible to bootstrap
BLISS from the PDP-10 to the S/360. The BLISS-10 compiler, which is written in BLISS-10, could be modified to produce S/360 machine language
(ML) for a subset of its functions sufficient to describe the compiler.
Language changes could mostly be avoided at this point as the PDP-10 has
a similar structure to the fixed point subset of the S/360 [_Ref . 6 and 7J .
Using this BLISS-10 to S/360 ML compiler to compile BLISS-10
on the PDP-10, one could produce a BLISS-10 to S/360 ML compiler which would execute on the S/360. At this point independence from the PDP-10
would be achieved and modifications to BLISS-10 to produce BLISS-360
could be accomplished by further bootstrapping on the S/360. The T-diagram
in Fig. 1 illustrates this process.
13
1<
ML
S/360
ML
B) S/360
(Mod ML BLISS-360
S/360
ML
A) S/360
(Mod ML ML BLISS-360 O S/360 ID S/360 CO
I 360 CO ML CO (ModA) I— BLISS- S/360 CQ B)
(360) (Mod o BLISS-360 BLISS-10 I— ML ML I S/360 CO Cn CO S/360 —I t-3 10 CQ ML BLISS- (inn) I PDP-10 I A) £
(360) (Mod J-l BLISS-10 ML BLISS-360 ML (0 --{ PDP-10 o S/360
10
BLISS- ML
PDP-10
(360)
BLISS-10 ML BLISS-10
360
10
BLISS-
(360) •
BLISS-10
14
An additional advantage to this approach is that the compiler is maintained in its own language. This reduces the number of languages with which a programmer must be intimately familiar, and improves the modifiability of the compiler since BLISS is well suited to compiler writing.
This would have been the most logical technique; unfortunately, a PDP-10 was not available for this project.
4. XPL Systems
The final method considerd, and the one which was eventually considered to be most suitable, was to make use of the XPL Compiler
Generator System [Ref. 3 . For convenience, this system will be referred to as the XPL System since it is written in the PL/l derivative pro- gramming language XPL.
The XPL System operates as follows. The syntax of the source language being compiled is defined in Backus-Naur Form (BNF) so that it is acceptable to McKeeman's Mixed Strategy Precedence parsing technique.
This BNF is processed by a BNF analyzer program which generates tables describing the terminal and non-terminal symbols of the language. The tables also define stacking and context checking decisions.
These tables are added to a program called the Skeleton. The
Skeleton is a prototype compiler which contains the scanning routines and the basic mechanisms for syntax analysis of a program written in the source language. The syntax analysis routine also calls an empty code synthesis procedure each time a reduction is performed on the source language.
15
.
a. One-Pass
In a one-pass XPL system the code synthesis procedure
Synthesize is responsible for building the symbol table or dictionary, looking up definitions, generating object code (eg. S/360 ML), and setting up run-time storage.
The one-pass system meets most of the requirements
set forth in Sec. II. A. Its greatest asset is its relative ease of initial construction, its modifiability, and its speed of execution.
Once the BNF has been well defined and the basic
Synthesize functions written (eg. , symbol lookup, and object code genera- tion for the various S/360 instruction formats [Ref. code synthesis 7J ), constructions can be added gradually. A basic subset can first be defined in order to demonstrate the basic concepts. The more sophisticated con-
structions can then be added, or previously defined constructions can be modified
The one-pass system has many features to recommend it, but it was rejected for reasons which will be noted in Sec. II. C.
b. Multi-Pass
A multi-pass compiler produced using the XPL System uses the same basic mechanism as the single-pass system except that it
is split into more than one segment, each of which scans the entire program
or a modified form of the program.
(1) Three-Pass . An example of a multi-pass system
might be a three-pass system. The first pass would analyze a program
16
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only for block structure and declarations . It would completely build the data dictionary thereby simplifying the remaining grammar by removing potential data conflict problems such as forward function calls and label branches
The output of the first pass would be the original program without the declarations. This first pass could be built from a
Skeleton and an abbreviated grammar, but would most likely consist pri- marily of an exotic scan routine.
The second pass would analyze the modified pro- gram produced by the first pass using essentially the form of the one-pass system, but with these differences: the BNF would not contain declarations, and variable lookup would be performed by the scanner instead of by
Synthesize, Synthesize would no longer produce object code but would instead produce an intermediate language (IL) form of the program.
Finally, the third pass would use the IL and the data dictionary to produce machine language (ML) and set up run-time storage and external interface requirements.
(2) More than Three Passes . More passes could be added to further subdivide the functions of the existing passes in order to reduce the central memory requirements of each pass, or to provide some additional capability such as improved code optimization.
(3) Two-Pass . Another variant of the multi-pass sys- tem has just two passes. A logical form for this would be to combine the first two passes of the three-pass system mentioned above. Thus, as
17
. .
shown in Fig. 2, the first pass would scan the source statements, analyze their syntactical structure, perform a semantic analysis, and synthesize the IL. It would also produce dictionary and constant tables for use in the second 'pass
The second pass performs the same functions as the third pass of the three-pass system, producing an object module ready to be linked with other modules before loading for execution.
Pass 1 Pass 2
Source Lexical Scan ML Production Object Program Syntax Analysis IL Program Storage Module Module IL Synthesis Auxiliary Tables Allocation External Interface
Fig. 2. Two-Pass Compiler
C. THE APPROACH SELECTED
After consideration of the above techniques, a two-pass XPL system was selected as being most appropriate.
The two-pass system will be somewhat slower than an equivalent one-pass system. However, it should more than compensate for this through its potential for code optimization in the second pass, along with reduced central memory requirements for each pass during compilation. Having two passes also improves modularity through isolation of the analysis and synthesis functions from the detailed code generation, storage assignment, and interface handling functions
18
It should be noted that the three-pass system described above is not particularly suitable for a BLISS compiler as the declarations can contain or directly refer to expressions, thus making them very difficult to isolate from the rest of the language.
19
III. DESIGN OF THE TWO-PASS XPL SYSTEM
The general form of a compiler generated using the XPL System, and of a two-pass system in particular, is outlined in Sec. II. B. 4. Specific design requirements for the two-pass system will not be defined.
A. PASS 1
The overall structure of Pass 1 is similar to the Skeleton program
Ref . . All of the additions and modifications required to make Pass 1 J 3J completely operational are discussed here although, except for the BNF tables, only those detailed in Sec. IV are implemented at present.
1. BNF
The tables generated by processing the BLISS-360 BNF with the XPL BNF analyzer program [Ref. 1 replace the existing tables in the XPL Skeleton compiler.
2 . Scanning
The Scan routine of the Skeleton requires extensive reprogram- ming to recognize several new constant formats, bypass comments in two new formats, recognize macros for storage and retrieval and place charac- ter strings and hexadecimal numbers in the constant table.
3 . Constants
Pass 1 requires a different technique for handling constants than that presented in the Skeleton for two reasons. First, BLISS-360 recognizes any type of constant that the S/360 can manipulate. This
20
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type of constant, then can be resolved by having Scan recognize the invoking a routine to convert it to internal format. used immediately Second, since the values of constants are not
be constructed to save their in a two-pass system, constant tables must values for the second pass.
4. Identifiers
the Skeleton has no built-in identifier processing except for
therefore necessary process of identifying reserved words in Scan. It is
for entering and looking-up to establish a data dictionary and routines
identifiers
the Dictionary access must be structured so that it reflects
at the same time block structured scope of variables of BLISS-360 and
Pass 2. allows pertinent identifier information to be retained for
5. Intermediate Language
be developed A suitable form of intermediate language (IL) must
program and yet be direct- to represent the detailed semantics of the source
without further analysis. ly translatable into machine language by Pass 2 empty A Synthesize routine is then developed to replace the
produces the Synthesize routine in Skeleton. This new Synthesize routine
related function, appropriate IL whenever a parse reduction occurs. As a
Synthesize will also look-up and enter identifiers in the dictionary.
6. Miscellaneous these Several minor modifications are mentioned here. Some of
are not essential are required and some are merely useful additions which
to the system. 21
The Initialize routine of the Skeleton must be modified to allow for different terminal symbols, comments and data types.
Output routines will be required to allow the blocking of the various vectors which comprise the constant, dictionary, and IL tables into a record per track form which can be written onto disk for later retrieval by Pass 2.
The Recover routine, which attempts to recover from a source program syntax error in order that syntax checking can continue, should be revised to allow for the structure of BLISS-360.
A variety of optional debugging tools for use during compiler development and as an aid to source program checking should be developed.
This could include traces of the IL production, BNF reductions, subroutines executed, as well as dumps of the IL, constant and dictionary tables.
A method should be developed for interpreting compile-time
control parameters. This must include a form for control statements (eg. ,
$LIST, and $DEBUG), a set of logical switches for retaining this informa- tion, and routines to execute the functions.
These parameters will take the place of the BLISS parameters and switches discussed in Ref. 2.
B. PASS 2
Since the XPL System was designed as a one-pass compiler, there is no structure available for the Pass 2 program. Therefore it must be designed completely to meet the requirements discussed below. In order
22
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to understand some of these requirements, it will be necessary to have read the BLISS language description in Ref. 2.
. 1. Machine Language Production
Routines must be developed to read the IL tables and produce a form of S/360 ML which executes independently of any monitor system.
As part of this function these routines must complete the implementation of the BLISS-360 structure access mechanism. This includes substitution of incarnation actual parameters for incarnation formal parameters in the structure size and structure access expressions, and inserting the IL for structure access expressions into the main IL sequence.
Some local code optimization capability should also be built in here
2 . Storage Allocation
Storage areas for constants and variables must be assigned in this pass. This includes such operations as computing the values of struc- ture size expressions, assigning fixed locations for global and own vari-
ables and constants , and generating dynamic allocation mechanisms to allow for recursion and the reuse of local storage.
The structure used in BLISS- 10 [Ref. 2j for both fixed and dynamic areas appears to be equally suitable for BLISS-360. It may be desirable, however, to split the fixed storage into several areas to allow these items to be stored nearer to their point of declaration. This could cost some memory space, for example, by having duplicate constant values, but should reduce the number of page faults in a time-shared environment by improving data contiguity. 23
.
3 . Program Output
The output format for the object program must be designed to
allow for linkage with other program modules . Communication links must be established for global and external routines and variables
Initially, these links should be compatible with the require- ments of the Linkage Editor routines of OS/360 in order to facilitate test- ing. However, the design should be sufficiently flexible that it can be
changed easily to interface with other systems .
24
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IV. IMPLEMENTING THE SYSTEM - PASS 1
The modifications to the Skeleton Compiler for BLISS-360 which have been completed are presented in detail in this section. In addition, a discussion of intermediate language, dictionary, and constant table production is presented, although these have generally not yet been programmed
Excerpts from the Skeleton containing the completed BLISS-360
changes are shown in Appendix C. Basic to the understanding of Section
IV is a knowledge of the data structures and procedures of the Skeleton
[kef. 3] and a familiarity with BLISS- 10 feef. . 2J
A. SYNTAX ANALYSIS
The modifications which are discussed below allow the Skeleton to
perform a complete syntax check of a BLISS-360 program based upon the
BNF in Appendix A. Some related additions, such as a diagnostic syntax
trace, are shown here also for convenience.
1. Scanning
The Scan routine is responsible for extracting the next terminal
symbol from the source program, and for setting the variable TOKEN to a
value indicating the type of symbol found. Its structure remains as in the
original Skeleton, although the individual cases for the terminal symbols
have largely been rewritten.
The function of each of these cases is listed in
Table I.
25
TABLE I.
Scan Routine Cases
Case Function
detect illegal character, print error message and bypass it
1 bypass blanks
2 extract character strings and insert them into the constant table
3 not used
4 identify reserved words and identifiers, store and retrieve macros
5 extract numerical constants , convert them to internal format and store them in the constant table - conversion occurs in Scan for hexadecimals and in Consvertfor all other types (ie. half word and full word integer, real, long real and packed decimal) -- only hexa- decimals and integers can be converted at present
6 bypass the two forms of BLISS-360 comments:
strings of characters bracketed either by %. . .% or by
? . . . end of a line
7 identify special characters
26
.
Macro manipulation is a special process of case 4. If the word MACRO is recognized, a call is made to the Putmac routine. This routine, which presently bypasses macros, will place the macro in the table defined in Table II.
Macros are placed in a special table instead of the combined symbol table and dictionary primarily to save space. The dictionary has many elements in each entry, most of which would not be needed for macros. Furthermore, the dictionary is designed to save information for
Pass 2 whereas macro processing is complete in Pass 1.
An example showing the construction of a macro table is given in Fig. 3
Macro retrieval is accomplished in case 4 by comparing each identifier name to the MACNAME entries to determine whether it is a macro call. If a match is made, the Getmac routine will be called.
This routine will be required to build a table of actual param- eters for insertion into the macro body in MACSTR. It will then start scanning this MACSTR entry as if it were any other input string, except
that when an ! is encountered, the appropriately numbered actual param- eter is inserted.
One problem with this technique is that nested macro calls are allowed in BLISS-360. This will require Getmac to provide for the stacking of parameter lists and the MACSTR entries being scanned.
Once the process of storing or retrieving a macro is completed,
Scan is reentered in order to retrieve the next symbol.
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TABLE II.
Macro Table Definitions
MACTOP Bit (16);/* Next available entry in the macro table */
MACMAX Literally '100'; /* Maximum number of active macros */
MACNAME (MACMAX) Character; /* Contains the macro name. If the number of characters in the macro is greater than 256, it will contain a dummy entry, eg. Ml, M2 for each additional block of 2 56 or fraction thereof. */
MACSTR (MACMAX) Character; /* The macro associated with the name in the same entry of MACNAME. As the macro is copied into MACSTR formal parameters from the macro's namelist will be
replaced by ! number where number is the order of that parameter in the list.*/
MACACS (DICACSMAX) Bit (16); /* Defines the scope of macro definitions. The entry specified by block level pointer ACSLEV contains the macro table entry number of the first entry at the current block level.*/
BEGIN MACRO TIMES (X,Y) = .X * .Y$, = SIM (I) I :=.I | 2$;
BEGIN MACRO PLUST (A,B,C) = .A+ TIMES (B,C)$:
MACNAME MACSTR MACACS
4 3
PLUST . !1+TIMES(!2, !3) 2 1 ACSLEV
SIM !1 := . !1 |2 1 * - TIMES . ! 1 . !2
Fig. 3. Macro Storage Structure
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2. Initialization
Changes to the Initialization routine are minor. They include primarily setting some new special indicators from the V table (a table containing all the terminal and non-terminal symbols in BLISS-360) and adding some CHARTYPE values to accommodate BLISS-360 comments and constants
3 . Recover
In the event of a source program syntax error the Recover routine attempts to find a meaningful place to allow the error to be by- passed and syntax checking to continue. The routine provided in Skeleton allows more to be bypassed than is necessary.
The Recover routine was, therefore, replaced with the routine
used in Algol-E [Ref. 8] , modified to accommodate some additional terminal symbols of BLISS-360. Some further changes are still desirable, however, as a key place for the resumption of checking is immediately following a semi-colon, but the present version of BLISS-360 does not allow a semi-colon to follow the last expression in the block.
4 . Debugging Aids
First attempts to syntax check a test program with the BLISS-
360 modified Skeleton made it apparent that some simple debugging tools would be extremely useful. Thus, statements were inserted in many rou- tines to print the name of the location just entered whenever the key item
TESTIT has the value 1.
29
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Another aid, which should be particularly useful when Syn- thesize is being programmed, is a syntax production trace. Just before each production is reduced, the Prodtrace routine is called to print the number of the production and its BNF form.
B. DATA TABLE DESIGN
Constant and variable data element information must be available for Pass 1 and saved for Pass 2. This is accomplished by the creation of a constant table (referred to as CONTAB) and a dictionary table (referred to as DICT).
The lengths of the vectors comprising each table were chosen arbi- trarily and probably bear little relationship to what will be needed eventu- ally. Note, however, that the use of registers by the XPL compiler (XCOM) places a limit on the total combined size of all tables.
1. Constant Table
Constant values are entered in this table from either the Scan or the Cons vert routine. No attempt has been made to eliminate duplicate values. If desired, duplication could be removed in Pass 2 when constant storage assignment is performed.
The format for the constant table is given in Table III.
A plit is a special form of a constant [Ref . 1} . It is actually a sequence of constants which may be defined at compile time or load time, or may be another plit (referred to as a subplit)
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TABLE III
Constant Table CONTAB and Related Control Variables
CONMAX Literally '200'; /* Maximum number of constants */
STRMAX Literally '1000'; /* Maximum number of characters in all strings plus digits/2 in all packed decimal constants */
CTYPE (CONMAX) Bit (8); /* Data type for this entry: 1-hexadecimal, 2-integer, 3- half word, 4-real, 5-long real, 6-string, 7-packed decimal, 8-plit*/
VALPTR (CONMAX) Bit (16); /* Starting byte in CHARST for a string or packed decimal, or the word in NUMVAL containing the value of a hexadecimal, integer or real, or the first of two words in NUMVAL containing the value of a long real*/
CHARST (STRMAX) Bit (8); /* A sequence of entries defined by NUMPTR and VALPTR forms a character string or a packed decimal number*/
NUMVAL (CONMAX) Fixed; /* As defined by VALPTR each entry, or pair of entries for long real, contains an internal format numerical value */
PLTPT (CONMAX) Bit (16); /* Entry number in CONTAB or in DICT of the next entry in a plit chain */
PLTIND (CONMAX) Bit (8); /* Plit status of this entry: 0-not part of a plit, 1-PLTPT points to a CONTAB entry, 2-same as 1, but this is the last entry of a subplit, 3-PLTPT points to a DICT entry, 4-same as 3, but this is the last entry of a subplit, 5-end of a plit */
CONST Bit (16); /* Latest entry in CONTAB*/
CHARPTR Bit (16); /* Next available entry in the CHARST vector*/
NUMVALPTR Bit (16); /* Next available entry in the NUMVAL vector*/
CONVTEMP Character; /* Temporarily holds a number in external format for conversion by Cons vert*/
PLTLEV Bit (8); /* Level of nesting in a plit */
PLTLIST Bit (16); /* The most recent entry in the plit list*/
PLTLOC Bit (1); /* Table referred to by PLTLIST: 0-CONTAB, 1-DICT */
31
In order that the sequence comprising a plit be connected for proper storage allocation in Pass 2, its entries form a list with elements joined by PLTPT in CONTAB and DPLTPT in DICT. The head of the list will be in a special CONTAB entry. In order to control the plit list, the variables PLTLEV, PLTLIST and PLTLOC [Table III] are needed.
An example showing a typical plit is given in Fig. 4. Only the DICT and CONTAB variables pertaining to the structure are shown.
An example showing CONTAB without plits is presented in Sec. V.A.
2. Dictionary
Variable data elements are entered into this table as the appropriate form is recognized in Synthesize. DICT is a combined data definition and symbol table, with the entire table being used in Pass 1 and only the data definition saved for Pass 2. In Pass 1, names are entered and looked up through a hash table. In Pass 2 DICT entries are accessed directly through operand entries in the IL. The DICT format is shown in Table IV.
Access to block levels in DICT is maintained through a table of pointers to the first entry of each active block. When a block is entered the number of the next available DICT entry is placed at the top of the access pointer table. Entries for the current block are then added to DICT with corresponding names going into the DNAME stack. As a block is ended, the access table entry for that block is removed and hash table entries referring to that block are reset to the location of the next previous entry in the chain, or to zero if the entry referred to was the end
32
BIND Y = PLIT(A,PLIT(B,C), PLIT 3H, 'DE5K3' ,13); DICT CONTAB DTYPE DNAME CONTINC DPLTIND DPLTPT CTYPE PLTIND PLTPT
7 Y - 8 3
DTYPE DNAME DPLTIND DPLTPT
s. 1 A 1 r 8 3 —/
8 1 /
1 C 2 3 2 —^ \ 2 5 - Fig. 4. Plit Storage Structure 33 TABLE IV. Dictionary Table PICT and Related Access Control Variables DICTMAX Literally '500'; /* Maximum number of definition entries in DICT */ DNAMEMAX Literally '150'; /* Maximum number of symbol entries active at any time */ DNSAVEMAX Literally '50'; /* Maximum number of external and global names */ DTYPE (DICTMAX) Bit (8); /* Data type for this entry: 1- variable, 2-formal parameter, 3-function, 4-machop, 5-map, 6-structure, 7-bind, 8-label */ SUBTP (DICTMAX) Bit (8); /* Subtype, for DTYPE of variable: 1-global, 2-own, 3-local, 4-register, 5-fpregister, 6-external; function: 1-local routine, 2-global routine, 3-external routine, 4-function, 5-forward function, 6-module; structure: number of STRUCTIL entries for the access expression */ DNSAVE (DNSAVEMAX) Character; /* Names saved for global and external variables and routines */ DNAME (DNAMEMAX) Character; /* Symbol name */ DNAMELOC (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* DNAME entry number for active blocks, DNSAVE entry number for inactive blocks */ PBACK (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* Next previous DICT entry with the same hash code, set to zero for the last entry in a chain */ HCODE (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* Hash code for the name in DNAME */ STRUCT (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* For DTYPE of variable, bind or map: the entry in DICT which defines the related structure, for the implied vector structure; structure: the first entry in STRUCTIL for this access expression */ ILENT (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* For DTYPE of bind: the IL entry specifying the value which is bound to the variable; label: the first IL entry of the expression to which it refers; map: the DICT entry of the variable being mapped; structure: the first entry in STRUCTIL for the size expression; if size expression is not specified; register type variable: the register number specified, -1 if a specific register is- not designated; any function type except external: the first IL entry of the first expression in the function */ 34 TABLE IV (Continued) CONTINC (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* Entry into CONTAB for a DTYPE of machop; variable, bind or map: first entry in the INCACT vector, if no incarnation actuals specified */ WDALIGN (DICTMAX) Bit (8); /* Word boundary alignment: 0-don't care, 1-half word, 2-full word, 3-double word; for DTYPE of structure: the number of STRUCTIL entries for the size expression */ DPLTPT (DICTMAX) Bit (16); /* Has the same meaning as PLTPT in CONTAB */ DPLTIND (DICTMAX) Bit (8); /* Has the same meaning as PLTIND in CONTAB */ NUMINC (DICTMAX)Bit (8); /* For DTYPE of variable, bind or map: the number of entries in INCACT*/ INC MAX Literally '300'; /* Maximum number of incarnation actuals*/ INCACT (INCMAX) Fixed; /* Incarnation actual values */ DICACSMAX Literally '100'; /* Maximum number of block levels */ DICACS (DICACSMAX) Bit (16); /* Access level pointers for active DICT blocks */ ACSLEV Bit (16); /* Current access level entry in DICACS */ DICTOP Bit (16); /* Next available entry in DICT */ DNAMECTR Bit (16); /* Most recent entry in DNAME */ DNSAVECTR Bit (16); /* Most recent entry in DNSAVE */ INCTOP Bit (16); /* Next available entry in INCACT*/ HASHT (251) Bit (16); /* Hash table for inserting and locating DICT entries */ 35 of a chain. Note, however, that DICTOP is not reduced, thus allowing the data to be preserved for transmission to Pass 2 although the entries have been removed from consideration in Pass 1. An additional block end function is the moving of global and external names to the DNSAVE vector with a corresponding resetting of DNAMELOC to point to the new location. The DNAMECTR will then be decremented by the number of entries in the block just ended and its corresponding entries in DNAME will be set to the null string. This scheme for handling names is used partly to save space, but primarily to accommodate a restriction of the XPL Compiler Generator System, which allows only a limited number of character descriptors. The variables which define the data elements must be saved for Pass 2. These variables are DTYPE, SUBTP, STRUCT, ILENT, CONTAB, WDALIGN, INCACT, DPLTPT and DPLTIND, shown in Table IV. DNAMELOC and DNSAVE must also be saved in order to provide essential interface information. An example showing the structure of DICT and its related access vectors is given in Sec. V.A. C. INTERMEDIATE LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Generation of the object program in an intermediate language (IL) form is one of the primary tasks of Pass 1. In this section the IL will be defined and some discussion concerning its use for some unique BLISS- 360 cases will be presented. 36 1. Possible Forms of IL Several forms for the internal representation of a program are by Gries [Ref . . Three of these forms were considered discussed 9J to be potentially acceptable: quadruples, triples, and indirect triples. The quadruples form of IL has four basic elements: operator , operand 1 , operand 2 and results . The operator defines the operational relationship between operand 1 and operand 2 . Results defines the loca- tion for storing the result of this operation. Each entry has a place for four elements although they are not all meaningful for some operations. Triples have a form that is identical to that for quadruples except that there is no results field . Thus , when results from a previous IL entry are required the operand field will refer directly to that entry. Indirect triples are a modification of the triples form that lends itself more readily to optimization. In this form, one table defines the order in which operations occur. The operations in the form of triples are in a second table. When a new triple is formed it is compared to the triples table. If it exactly matches an existing entry, the current entry of the operations table is set to that entry number. Otherwise, a new triples table entry is created with the. current operations table entry set to the new triples entry number. 2. Design of the IL Table The triples form was selected as the most suitable IL for a first implementation. It is simpler than quadruples in that it does not 37 . , require generating and keeping track of large numbers of temporary result registers. It also requires somewhat less storage space. Indirect triples are a potentially more useful form, although they would be more complex and time-consuming to generate. Further- more, if code optimization is desired at a later date, switching from the triples form would require relatively minor changes An example of the use of IL is given in Sec. V.A. a. IL and Its Operators The format of the IL table is given in Table V. Some operation codes which will be used in OPCODE are shown with their meanings in Table VI. The codes shown should be sufficient to represent a usable subset of BLISS-360, although more will be required to represent the entire language. Each code name is declared as a bit (8) variable which is assigned a numeric value by the Initialization routine in the order in which it is defined. Using the same definitions and initialization in Pass 2 will avoid conflicts when codes are added or deleted. b. IL for Structure Access BLISS-360 has a unique form of data structure access yief s . 1, 2, 10, and llj which creates some special requirements for IL generation. Structure size and structure access expressions are not executed at the position in the program structure where they are declared In addition, the definition of any variables in these expressions must be 38 TABLE V. Intermediate Language Table IL NUMBOPS Literally '46'; /* Number of IL operators */ ILMAX Literally '1000'; /* Maximum size of a segment of IL. (The IL table will be generated and written in segments with the breaks coming after function or block ends.) */ OPCODE (ILMAX) Bit (8); /* Operation code */ OP1 (ILMAX) Bit (16); /* Operand one. If OPTYPEl= 1, it refers to a DICT entry, =2 a CONTAB entry, =3 another IL entry, =4 a temporary value table entry */ OP2 (ILMAX) Bit (16); /* Operand two. If OPTYPE2= 1, it refers to a DICT entry, = 2 a CONTAB entry, =3 another IL entry, =4 a temporary value table entry */ OPTYPE1 (ILMAX) Bit (8); /* Type of OP1: 0-illegal, 1-variable, 2-constant, 3 -IL entry, 4-temporary */ OPTYPE2 (ILMAX) Bit (8); /* Type of OP2: 0-illegal, 1 - variable, 2-constant, 3 -IL entry, 4-temporary*/ OPDOTS1 (ILMAX) Bit (8); /* Level of indirect references for OP1*/ OPDOTS2 (ILMAX) Bit (8); /* Level of indirect references for OP2 */ 39 TABLE VI. Operation Codes for IL Operation Code Meaning ADDX , ADDP , ADDH , ADDE OP1 + OP2 , ADDL , , , OP1 - OP2 X suffix SUBX SUBP SUBH SUBE , the signifies SUBL integer arithmetic, P - packed decimal, H- half word, MULX,MULP,MULH, OP1 * OP2 E - real, L- long real MULE, MULL DIVX,DIVP,DIVE,DIVL OP1 / OP2 ASSG OPl:= OP2 UMIN -OP1 (unary minus) BLCK block entry OPl-block level, OP2-first DICT entry for the block BLKE block exit OPl-block level TEST compare OPl:OP2 BLSS branch on < BLEQ branch on 5= branch on the results BEQL branch on = of test, OP1 - IL entry of the test BNEQ branch on ^ OP 2 - IL entry branched to BGEQ branch on > if the condition is true BGTR branch on > BFLS branch on false OP1 is tested for 0(F) or 1(T) in the least Significant bit, OP2 - branch location BTRU branch on true BUNC unconditional branch OP 1- branch location, OP2 - location of exit value for leave SHFT OP1 | OP2 EQVL OP1 eqv OP2 EX OR OP1 xor OP 2 40 .2 TABLE VI (Continued) MODU OP1 mod OP 2 ORIT OP1 or OP2 ANDT OP1 and OP KNOT not OP1 FCTT function or routine declaration, OP1 - first related DICT entry FCTE end of function declaration FUNC function call, OP1 - DICT entry of the function, OP 2 - DICT, IL or CONTAB entry of an actual parameter value, OPDOTS1 - order of this parameter in the formal parameter list FUNE function call end - has the same format as FUNC usage: for each actual parameter expression except the last there will be one entry with the FUNC operator. The last parameter will be represented by a FUNE operator entry. RTRN return OP1 - entry of escape value expression, OP2 - DICT entry of related function STHD structure access, OP1 - DICT entry of variable being accessed, OP2 - access actual value STAC structure access end - has the same format as STHD usage: for each access actual expression except the last there will be one entry with the STHD operator. The last access actual will be represented by a STAC operator 41 those in effect at the point of the structure declaration, not those in effect at the time of execution. These expressions, therefore, must be syntactically and semantically analyzed when they are declared, then saved for inser- tion where needed to compute a structure storage size or to access a variable. A method for saving the structure expressions is to generate a special IL table (STRUCTIL) for them. The form of STRUCTIL is exactly that of IL except that it has the additional variables POSIND1 and POSIND2. These variables indicate the position of operands OP1 and OP2, respectively, in the formal parameter list of the structure declaration. If either of the position indicators is zero, the corresponding operand is not a parameter. If either one is not zero, then the corres- ponding indirect reference variable (OPDOTS1 or OPDOTS2) has an addi- tional meaning. This meaning is that if the OPDOTS variable is zero, then the corresponding operand is an incarnation formal. If it is not zero, the corresponding operand is an access formal. 42 V. PROGRAM EXAMPLES Sample BLISS-360 programs are presented here to illustrate the implementation features of Sec. IV. A. TABLE DESIGN EXAMPLE In this section the DICT, CONTAB and IL tables are shown for the program in Fig. 5. The DICT table, and its related tables HASHT, DNAME, DNSAVE, DICACS and INCACT are shown as they would appear when the program had been analyzed to line 6 in Table VII and again after it had been analyzed to line 10 in Table VIII. This serves to illustrate the effects of closing one block, then opening another. IL, STRUCTIL and CONTAB are shown as they would appear upon completion of Pass 1 of the compiler in Tables LX, X, and XI. The DICT and CONTAB variables associated with plits are not shown since they are not pertinent to the example. Whenever a dash appears for a variable's value that variable has no meaning for that DICT entry. No algorithm was used to compute entry values in the hash table HASHT. Numbers were chosen arbitrarily for illustrative purposes. B. SYNTAX ANALYSIS EXAMPLES Two additional examples of BLISS-360 programs are shown in Appendix B. These programs were each syntactically analyzed 43 successfully by the BLISS-360 Skeleton |_Appendix CJ . Program 2 was also run with synthesis tracing turned on. Partial results of that run are also presented in Appendix B. 44 < < i CQ II s a w i H a CO + Ow CO O CM J < CD o o •-H > o 6 X A w a 6 + A CO LO fO O &u V LO A & o CM -•-I s-. V (X, Oh n V o "* CM CD A A CO O CD O A a s X I r—l CO CU o CM < a Q P CO V V V o H O Q i-H CO CQ OQ CM CM o < o 1-1 Cd o O CM CO ^T LO CO co en CM CO "^ 45 I Fig. TABLE VII. DICT Entries at Line 6, 5 o o O >-l O o w w I— P S Pu 6 1-1 O O < < S W O £> A CQ o t-5 ffi Q Q o S 13 12 11 -e DICT OP 10 11 9 8 11 _6_ 7 6 11 5 JLL J3 4 _2 3 XL 2 0_ 1 INCACT HASHT DNAME DICACS 5 5 16 9 4 «INCTOP «- 15 8 RX DNAME 3 14 5 7 C3 CTR ^ACSLEV 2 13 6 C2 1 12 5 CI 11 7 4 Q 3 10 DNSAVE 9 2 VEC2 3 8 9 AB 2 7 AA 1 6 1 5 8 4 fDNSAVECTR 3 2 3 1 46 < t ) TABLE VIII. DICT Entries at Line 10, Fig. 5 O O O U H o O w W i— 1—4 »— w p ^ tj H H H 1-1 O < 5 S3 £ 2 < w S 03 p PQ O 5 g o |3 H Pl, ffi P co 1— o s P CO 13 eDICTOP 12 13 7 9 - - - 11 5 6 4 1 3 - 10 4 11 5 - 2 - - - - 9 11 4 - - - - - 8 3 - - - 7 1 3 2 2 1 - - - 6 3 2 2 1 - - - 5 14 4 2 - - 4 2 11 3 2 - - 3 2 2 3 6 3 1 - 2 11 1 1 1 1 3 - - 1 6 1 3 ------ HASHT DNAME DICACS INCACT 16 9 5 6 15 8 4 5 *INCTOP 14 5 7 X kDNAME 3 4 13 12 6 KD CTR 2 10 f«-ACSLEV 3 12 5 DD 1 1 2 11 10 4 O 1 10 3 P 9 2 VEC2 DNSAVE 8 1 BB 7 AA 6 1 5 11 C2 <-DNSAVECTR 4 CI 3 2 3 1 47 TABLE DC. IL Entries for Fig. 5 OPCODE OP1 OPTYPE 1 OPDOTS 1 OP 2 OPTYPE 2 I DPDOTS 2 - - - - 1 BLCK 1 1 2 ADDX 1 D 1 1 C - 3 ASSG 1 D 2 I 4 BLCK 2 - - 6 - - - 5 BFLS 8 D 1 10 I 6 STHD 6 D 2 c - - 7 STAC 6 D 3 c 8 DIVX 8 D 2 9 D 9 ASSG 7 I 8 I - 10 BLKE 2 - - - - - 11 BLCK 2 - - 10 - 12 ASSG 12 D 8 c - - 13 ASSG 1 D 9 c 14 SHFT 10 D 12 D 15 MODU 10 D 1 12 D 16 ASSG 14 I 15 I 17 ADDX 12 D 10 C - 18 STAC 11 D 17 I 19 SUBX 18 I 10 D 1 - - 20 BLKE 2 - - - - - 21 BLKE 1 - - References to DICT - D, CONTAB - C, IL - I 48 I i < i i ) 1 I 1 i CM HPi P \—i CM i—i CM CM CO O o 0- CM E-i CO CO H Pi o Pi CO Pi K O < o o i— i-H O < p O O Lo^rcocM>-«ocT)Cor^mm^cocM<-H o CM r-H r-H i—1 i-H r-H l— w HPi p P P P PL, E-i Oh u-> o in • cn CM ID 1—4 X w X p-l H w v-h Ph 1—, CD CO t>* CO in ^r CO CM i-H p P i— O O -H H PQ CO < < O r-t H CO r— <* CO CM CO 1 1 1 ' 1 I 1 1 1 1 oPL, p w X X X P X p-l P P P 03 O r— CM CM CM CM P P P ID & CM CD CM CM CM CM U < < < CO H op. o i-H CM CO ST r-lOoicoMDin^roN'-< o 49 VI. CONCLUSIONS Designing and writing a compiler for a language with the complexity and versatility of BLISS-360 is a large undertaking. The work described in this thesis has provided a beginning for this task. A. WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED An organized approach on which to base continuing activity on the compiler has been presented in this thesis. A two-pass compiler structure was designed based upon the XPL Compiler Generating System [_Ref. 2| . The first of these passes, which is based on the XPL prototype compiler Skeleton, was examined in some detail. Key tables were designed to be added to this program. In addi- tion, the Skeleton was modified to perform a syntax analysis of BLISS- 360 programs. General requirements were defined for the functions to be performed by the second pass. B. WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE Producing a working BLISS-360 compiler from the foundation provided in this thesis is the task ahead. 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