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S Lsymmetry CONCEPTS MODERN PHYSIC~ PAKISTAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION BHil'!;!' .,. ',0 Y LEMDl~JC' • , 'l"q ,.,11 _ _, ;r.·'.~ 2 L I 11"'>1\ ..•· . - -- i W44-3266 '. ,:S lSYMMETRY CONCEPTS IN MODERN PHYSIC~ / '6 ( .Iqbal Memorial Lectureij By ?-- '. ABDUS \SALAM M. A. (Pb.), Ph.D. (Cantab.), D. Sc. (Pb.), F. R. S., S. Pk. Professor of Theoretical Physics . Imperial College of Science & Technology, London (England). ATOMIC ENERGY CENTRE, LAHORE. -=t· 1 9 6 6 EDITORS' NOTE This book is essentially the Iqbal Memorial Lectures delivered by Professor Abdus Salam on Radio Pakistan in March, 1965. Some diagrams FAYYAZUDDIN and tables have been added. As Professor Salam has not read these lectures in the final M. A. RASHID form, we are responsible for all the errors. Fayyazuddin Muneer Ahmad Rashid Published by the Atomic Energy Centre, Lahore (Pakistan), 1966 PRINTED BY A, HAMllllD KHAN AT FllROZSONS LIMITED, LAHORll. v During March 1965, I was privileged to deliver the first Iqbal Memorial lectures at the invita­ tion of Radio Pakistan. This is a reprint of the lectures where I took as my theme Symmetry Concepts in Modern Physics. Iqbal was our greatest poet, our deepest thinker. I take pride in the association of his name with these lectures for two reasons. Firstly, as a true philosopher Iqbal fully recog­ nized that there is no finality in philosophical thinking and that the progress of all philoso­ phical thought must depend on new discoveries in the field of science. Again and again in his lectures on the reconstruction of Religious Thought, he points towards the possibility of breakthroughs still to come in the field of physics which may give a new outlook to philo­ sophy. This, indeed, is just what has happened since Iqbal's death twenty-seven years ago, and an account of these newer concepts will be the theme of my lectures. Even though Iqbal did not live to see the fulfilment of his own prediction, I am glad that Radio Pakistan has decided to dedicate these lectures to his memory which lives for ever. My second reason for welcoming Iqbal's association with these lectures is this. I believe that the rise of a great poet or a great writer or a great humanist in any civilization is not an isolated incident-that it is always accompanied by an equally significant emergence of men as great in sciences and philosophy. To give . one example, it is good to recall that at the last zenith of Islamic civilization, in the early part of the eleventh century, the Shahnama of Firdusi preceded the Encyclopaedic Qanun of Ibn-Sina and the equally Encyclopaedic Tanjim of Al­ Biruni by no more than twenty years. I am absolutely certain that Iqbal's greatness in poetry vii ------- -- and philosophy will not go unmatched so far as • the present Muslim renaissance in science is con­ cerned. I believe that, now that the nation has begun once again to aspire to higher things, the age of Iqbal, just like the age of Firdusi eight From the dawn of all civilization man has hundred years ago, will produce in Pakistan its wondered and asked questions-questions about great scientists who will rival the brilliance of the colour of the sunset, about the brilliance of Firdusi's contemporaries like lbn-Sina and the stars, about rainfall and cloud-burst, about Al-Biruni. the trajectory of a bullet and a space satellite, These lectures are an account of man's search and eventually, about life itself. But in all this for unity in the understanding of the physical questioning there has occurred one recurring universe and the ultimate nature of matter. theme. Man has always believed that the During these lectures I would like to show how answers to these questions, when they come, rewarding the faith in the eventual unity, the must follow from just a very few general prin­ eventual harmony, the eventual beauty of the ciples. Man has always held to an unreasoning basic laws of nature has proved in unravelling faith in an eventual unity, an eventual simplicity, some of the deeper insights we have achieved. an eventual symmetry in any basic laws which Some of these concepts are extremely deep. may govern the Universe. The history of I can only hope I have not relapsed into a misty science is the history of a search for such all profundity which is quite often in science a cloak embracing, such unifying concepts. Within for one's own ignorance. the compass of inanimate matter we shall discuss what we believe today to be the ultimate ABDUS SALAM constituents of all matter, and what we think are the fundamental principles which govern its behaviour. Perhaps the first people in the history of mankind who made a systematic search for a unified and a rational explanation of "'the universe were the Greeks. The Greeks sought the ultimate principles governing nature to lie in four elements of which they believed all matter was made. These, in their view, were the ele­ ments of air, water, fire and earth. Greek thought permeated also early Islamic thinking and this classification of elements remained as the basis of mediaeval science. The real quantitative breakthrough, however, came in the nineteenth century as a result of thousands of painstaking and accurate laboratory experiments accom­ ... panied by the deepest analytical thinking. The viii nineteenth century chemist could show that in the last analysis all matter in the Universe, living or dead, and of whatever form­ absolutely everything-was made up of just 92 different types of elements, and that every element could be subdivided into tiny units­ the so-called atoms. These are the atoms of -, hydrogen, helium, lithium and beryllium, and so on. The science of chemistry is more or less summarized in the so-called periodic table of atoms (Table l); this is a chart, invented first by the Russian chemist Mandeleev, which orders the atoms in the manner we have described: hydrogen, helium, lithium, the table ending with the ninety-second entry uranium. The nineteenth century chemist believed that the atoms were indivisible, immutable entities, that they could not be divided any further. One found that the atoms attracted one another when they were a short distance apart; this was the chemical force responsible for building from atoms the complex forms in which matter mani­ fests itself. One also found that one could not push atoms too close together; they repelled each other on being squeezed too closely. This repulsion-this resistance to squeezing clearly meant that atoms could be pictured as objects with a definite size-as little hard balls. To get an idea of atomic sizes one may remember this. If a cricket ball is magnified to the size of the earth, then each atom in it will look as large as the original ball itself. The discovery that absolutely everything is made up of 92 types of atoms was something tremendous. The discovery made the nine­ M teenth century scientists absolutely dizzy with excitement. The atoms were the "elementary Fig. 1 particles"; the chemical force was the "elemen­ Electrons in hydrogen, helium, lithium and 11eo11 atoms whirling around tary force". In 1891 Lord Kelvin, addressing the the nucleus in different orbits. Electron forming the beginning of British Association for Advancement of Science, .. a new shell is indicated with a circle around it. 3 went so far as to say, "We have discovered in physical . sciences all that can be discovered. The rest IS more and more refined measurement". But by one of those curious accidents that seem so frequent in the history of science, this same Periodic Table ol the Elements year was destined to bring in a new revolution - ~n physics. This was the year that J. J. Thomson, KEY · ~ Atomic Mass(Weight) _ 12.0111 5 Ill the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge, .2 +2 _ common Oxidation States +4 VllA first demonstrated that atoms were after all not l IA Symbol _ -4 0 l .)01't7 ., t~19) • 1 4,0020 0 indivisible- that all atoms could be split into ~ c Atomic Number _ _Covalent Atomic Radius( A) GROUPS still ~ma il er uni ts . After some tbi rly years of 1 Electron Configuration _ 6 0.77- H 2-4 0.)0 He H 0.9'J o.:io feve nsh experimentation at Ca mbridge by two llA lllA IVA VA VIA I ' _, 't I0,111 •J 1101111 .1 t4 0067 ,, ·l ~ . t'l984- 10.11) 0 of the greatest men of this century, Sir J.J. 6.Ht •I t OtU • l ., ., 13 '""" Thomson and Lord Rutherford, there •l 2 -· ·• B N" I 0 F Ne emerged a synthesis still deeper than any the Be 0.1T 070 1 0.$6 0.64 IO Li t,\) c 1.,J Transition f le men ts • ... • •,_ , ,., >-l ,... ~ • 2•1' • ' . ' >·• '" chemist had proposed. One could now show JJ1"98 ,, Z4.tl2"' ., 26.~llj •3 Ul.OM ,, )0.9'1l •! H .06• ., U .•H ., J9.9ollll 0 . ~ ., that all atoms-all 92 of them-were divisible; v 'I ..., .._, 3 GROUPS VIII -· p·· that they were made of just three fundamental A Al Si er· o.CJP Ar Na 1. 0 1.11 ,, s 1.,. ... 1.0.5 .Mg VllB ... l6 'o~ J•l •I ; . 1· 2 1118 IV8 VB VIB r 18 118 l 8 •J 'l'l 4. 1 6·.5 '·'° J · I 6 2·&·1 l·I g units. These fundamental units are very tiny " " ,, " " 19. '19Z •I <(1 .04 ·2 44.li$6 •• ci-1.90 •2 so.•o- •2 51 .996 .1 h .uao •J.
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