Process Improvements for Direct Reduced Iron Melting in the Electric Arc Furnace with Emphasis on Slag Operation
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High-Carbon Steels: Fully Pearlitic Microstructures and Applications
© 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance (#05140G) CHAPTER 15 High-Carbon Steels: Fully Pearlitic Microstructures and Applications Introduction THE TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE to pearlite has been de- scribed in Chapter 4, “Pearlite, Ferrite, and Cementite,” and Chapter 13, “Normalizing, Annealing, and Spheroidizing Treatments; Ferrite/Pearlite Microstructures in Medium-Carbon Steels,” which have shown that as microstructure becomes fully pearlitic as steel carbon content approaches the eutectiod composition, around 0.80% carbon, strength increases, but resistance to cleavage fracture decreases. This chapter describes the me- chanical properties and demanding applications for which steels with fully pearlitic microstructures are well suited. With increasing cooling rates in the pearlite continuous cooling trans- formation range, or with isothermal transformation temperatures ap- proaching the pearlite nose of isothermal transformation diagrams, Fig. 4.3 in Chapter 4, the interlamellar spacing of pearlitic ferrite and cementite becomes very fine. As a result, for most ferrite/pearlite microstructures, the interlamellar spacing is too fine to be resolved in the light microscope, and the pearlite appears uniformly dark. Therefore, to resolve the inter- lamellar spacing of pearlite, scanning electron microscopy, and for the finest spacings, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), are necessary to resolve the two-phase structure of pearlite. Figure 15.1 is a TEM mi- crograph showing very fine interlamellar structure in a colony of pearlite from a high-carbon steel rail. This remarkable composite structure of duc- © 2005 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance (#05140G) 282 / Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance tile ferrite and high-strength cementite is the base microstructure for rail and the starting microstructure for high-strength wire applications. -
Society, Materials, and the Environment: the Case of Steel
metals Review Society, Materials, and the Environment: The Case of Steel Jean-Pierre Birat IF Steelman, Moselle, 57280 Semécourt, France; [email protected]; Tel.: +333-8751-1117 Received: 1 February 2020; Accepted: 25 February 2020; Published: 2 March 2020 Abstract: This paper reviews the relationship between the production of steel and the environment as it stands today. It deals with raw material issues (availability, scarcity), energy resources, and generation of by-products, i.e., the circular economy, the anthropogenic iron mine, and the energy transition. The paper also deals with emissions to air (dust, Particulate Matter, heavy metals, Persistant Organics Pollutants), water, and soil, i.e., with toxicity, ecotoxicity, epidemiology, and health issues, but also greenhouse gas emissions, i.e., climate change. The loss of biodiversity is also mentioned. All these topics are analyzed with historical hindsight and the present understanding of their physics and chemistry is discussed, stressing areas where knowledge is still lacking. In the face of all these issues, technological solutions were sought to alleviate their effects: many areas are presently satisfactorily handled (the circular economy—a historical’ practice in the case of steel, energy conservation, air/water/soil emissions) and in line with present environmental regulations; on the other hand, there are important hanging issues, such as the generation of mine tailings (and tailings dam failures), the emissions of greenhouse gases (the steel industry plans to become carbon-neutral by 2050, at least in the EU), and the emission of fine PM, which WHO correlates with premature deaths. Moreover, present regulatory levels of emissions will necessarily become much stricter. -
Carbon Steel
EN380 12-wk Exam Solution Fall 2019 Carbon Steel. 1. [19 pts] Three compositions of plain carbon steel are cooled very slowly in a turned-off furnace from ≈ 830◦C (see phase diagram below). For each composition, the FCC grains of γ−austenite (prior to transformation) are shown in an optical micrograph of the material surface. Sketch and label the phases making up the microstructures present in the right hand micrograph just after the austenite has completed transformation (note: the gray outlines of the prior γ grains may prove helpful). (a) [4 pts] C0 = 0:42% C (by wt). 830◦C 726◦C EN380 12-wk Exam Solution Page 1 Fall 2019 EN380 12-wk Exam Solution Fall 2019 (b) [4 pts] C0 = 0:80% C (by wt). 830◦C 726◦C (c) [4 pts] C0 = 1:05% C (by wt). 830◦C 726◦C (d) [7 pts] For the composition of part (c), C0 = 1:05% C (by wt), calculate the fraction of the solid that is pearlite at 726◦C. CF e3C − C0 6:67% − 1:05% Wpearlite = Wγ at 728◦C = = = 95:74% Pearlite CF e3C − Cγ 6:67% − 0:8% EN380 12-wk Exam Solution Page 2 Fall 2019 EN380 12-wk Exam Solution Fall 2019 2. [11 pts] Write in the correct term for each of the following related to carbon steels[1 pt each] (terms will be used exactly once): This material features carbon content in excess of Cast Iron 2:0% and is known for its excellent hardness, wear resistance, machinability and castability. -
Preparation and Mechanical Behavior of Ultra-High Strength Low-Carbon Steel
materials Article Preparation and Mechanical Behavior of Ultra-High Strength Low-Carbon Steel Zhiqing Lv 1,2,*, Lihua Qian 1, Shuai Liu 1, Le Zhan 1 and Siji Qin 1 1 Key Laboratory of Advanced Forging & Stamping Technology and Science, Ministry of Education of China Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China; [email protected] (L.Q.); [email protected] (S.L.); [email protected] (L.Z.); [email protected] (S.Q.) 2 State Key Laboratory of Metastable Material Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 16 December 2019; Accepted: 14 January 2020; Published: 18 January 2020 Abstract: The low-carbon steel (~0.12 wt%) with complete martensite structure, obtained by quenching, was cold rolled to get the high-strength steel sheets. Then, the mechanical properties of the sheets were measured at different angles to the rolling direction, and the microstructural evolution of low-carbon martensite with cold rolling reduction was observed. The results show that the hardness and the strength gradually increase with increasing rolling reduction, while the elongation and impact toughness obviously decrease. The strength of the sheets with the same rolling reduction are different at the angles of 0◦, 45◦, and 90◦ to the rolling direction. The tensile strength (elongation) along the rolling direction is higher than that in the other two directions, but the differences between them are not obvious. When the aging was performed at a low temperature, the strength of the initial martensite and deformed martensite increased with increasing aging time during the early stages of aging, followed by a gradual decrease with further aging. -
Chemical Analyses of Standard Sizes
SECTION P CPHEMICAL ANALYSES OF STANDARD SIZES STANDARD METALS AND DESIGNATION SYSTEMS . 2 EFFECTS OF COMMON ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL . 3-4 DESIGNATION OF CARBON STEELS . 5-7 DESIGNATION OF ALLOY STEELS .......................... 8-12 STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS .................. 13-17 HIGH TEMPERATURE HIGH STRENGTH ALLOYS . 18 DESIGNATION OF ALLUMINUM ALLOYS . 19-20 OIL TOOL MATERIALS . 21 API SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ....................... 22 Sec. P Page 1 STANDARD METALS AND DESIGNATION SYSTEMS UNS Studies have been made in the metals industry for the purpose of establishing certain “standard” metals and eliminating as much as possible the manufacture of other metals which vary only slightly in composition from the standard metals. These standard metals are selected on the basis of serving the significant metal- lurgical and engineering needs of fabricators and users of metal products. UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM: UNS is a system of designations established in accordance with ASTM E 527 and SAE J1086, Recommended Practice for Numbering Metals and Alloys. Its purpose is to provide a means of correlat- ing systems in use by such organizations as American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), as well as individual users and producers. UNS designa- tion assignments are processed by the SAE, the ASTM, or other relevant trade associations. Each of these assignors has the responsibility for administering a specific UNS series of designations. Each considers requests for the assignment of new UNS designations, and informs the applicants of the action taken. UNS designation assignors report immediately to the office of the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys the details of each new assignment for inclusion into the system. -
Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels Bruce L
Copyright © 1998 ASM International® Metals Handbook Desk Edition, Second Edition All rights reserved. J.R. Davis, Editor, p 153-173 www.asminternational.org Structure/Property Relationships in Irons and Steels Bruce L. Bramfitt, Homer Research Laboratories, Bethlehem Steel Corporation Basis of Material Selection ............................................... 153 Role of Microstructure .................................................. 155 Ferrite ............................................................. 156 Pearlite ............................................................ 158 Ferrite-Pearl ite ....................................................... 160 Bainite ............................................................ 162 Martensite .................................... ...................... 164 Austenite ........................................................... 169 Ferrite-Cementite ..................................................... 170 Ferrite-Martensite .................................................... 171 Ferrite-Austenite ..................................................... 171 Graphite ........................................................... 172 Cementite .......................................................... 172 This Section was adapted from Materials 5election and Design, Volume 20, ASM Handbook, 1997, pages 357-382. Additional information can also be found in the Sections on cast irons and steels which immediately follow in this Handbook and by consulting the index. THE PROPERTIES of irons and steels -
Hardening Characteristics of Plain Carbon Steel and Ductile Cast Iron Using Neem Oil As Quenchant
Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization & Engineering, Vol. 10, No.2, pp.161-172, 2011 jmmce.org Printed in the USA. All rights reserved Hardening Characteristics of Plain Carbon Steel and Ductile Cast Iron Using Neem Oil as Quenchant 1Hassan, S. B, 2Agboola. J.B, 1Aigbodion, V.S. and 1Williams, E.J. 1Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria. 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. E-mail, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT The hardening characteristics of medium carbon steel and ductile cast iron using neem oil as quenching medium has been investigated. The samples were quenched to room temperature in Neem oil. To compare the effectiveness of the neem oil samples were also quenched in water and SAE engine oil the commercial quenchants. The microstructures and mechanical properties of the quenched samples were used to determine the quench severity of the neem oil. The result shows that hardness value of the medium carbon steel increased from 18.30HVN in the as-cast condition to 21.60, 20.30and 20.70HVN while that of ductile cast iron samples increased from 18.90HVN in the as-cast condition to 22.65, 20.30 and 21.30HVN for water, neem oil and SAE40 engine oil respectively. The as-received steel sample gave the highest impact strength value and water quenched sample gave the least impact strength. The impact strength of the medium carbon steel samples is 50.84, 41.35, 30.50 and 45.15 Joule and that of ductile iron is 2.71, 1.02, 0.68 and 1.70 Joule for as-cast condition, neem oil, water and SAE 40 engine oil quenched respectively. -
Master's Thesis
MASTER'S THESIS Energy System Analysis in the Swedish Iron and Steel Industry Ernesto Ubieto Master of Science (120 credits) Mechanical Engineering Luleå University of Technology Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics Energy System Analysis of the Swedish Iron and Steel Industry Ernesto Ubieto Udina Table of contents 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 7 2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 8 3 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 9 3.1 Methodology of System Analysis ............................................................................... 9 3.1.1 Scope of the Analysis ....................................................................................... 10 3.1.2 Boundaries of the Analysis ............................................................................... 11 3.1.3 Time frames ..................................................................................................... 11 3.1.4 Components of the System .............................................................................. 12 3.1.5 Connections within the system ........................................................................ 13 3.1.6 Limitations of the study ................................................................................... 15 3.1.7 Tracking CO2 -
The Preparation of High-Purity Iron (99.987%) Employing a Process of Direct Reduction–Melting Separation–Slag Refining
materials Article The Preparation of High-Purity Iron (99.987%) Employing a Process of Direct Reduction–Melting Separation–Slag Refining Bin Li 1,2, Guanyong Sun 1,2, Shaoying Li 1,2, Hanjie Guo 1,2,* and Jing Guo 1,2 1 School of Metallurgical and Ecological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; [email protected] (B.L.); [email protected] (G.S.); [email protected] (S.L.); [email protected] (J.G.) 2 Beijing Key Laboratory of Special Melting and Preparation of High-End Metal Materials, Beijing 100083, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-138-0136-9943 Received: 9 March 2020; Accepted: 9 April 2020; Published: 14 April 2020 Abstract: In this study, high-purity iron with purity of 99.987 wt.% was prepared employing a process of direct reduction–melting separation–slag refining. The iron ore after pelletizing and roasting was reduced by hydrogen to obtain direct reduced iron (DRI). Carbon and sulfur were removed in this step and other impurities such as silicon, manganese, titanium and aluminum were excluded from metallic iron. Dephosphorization was implemented simultaneously during the melting separation step by making use of the ferrous oxide (FeO) contained in DRI. The problem of deoxidization for pure iron was solved, and the oxygen content of pure iron was reduced to 10 ppm by refining with a high basicity slag. Compared with electrolytic iron, the pure iron prepared by this method has tremendous advantages in cost and scale and has more outstanding quality than technically pure iron, making it possible to produce high-purity iron in a short-flow, large-scale, low-cost and environmentally friendly way. -
Carbon and Alloy Steels
Carbon and Alloy Steels • All of these steels are alloys of Fe and C – Plain carbon steels (less than 2% carbon and negligible amounts of other residual elements) • Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon) • Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%) • High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%) – Low Alloy Steel – High Alloy Steel – Stainless Steels (Corrosion-Resistant Steels) – contain at least 10.5% Chromium AISI - SAE Classification System AISI XXXX American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) • classifies alloys by chemistry • 4 digit number – 1st number is the major alloying element – 2nd number designates the subgroup alloying element OR the relative percent of primary alloying element. – last two numbers approximate amount of carbon (expresses in 0.01%) Plain Carbon Steel Plain Carbon Steel • Lowest cost • Should be considered first in most application • 3 Classifications • Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon) • Med Carbon (0.3% to 0.6%) • High Carbon (0.6% to 0.95%) Plain Carbon Steel • Again, alloy of iron and carbon with carbon the major strengthening element via solid solution strengthening. • If carbon level high enough (greater than 0.6%) can be quench hardened (aka: dispersion hardening, through hardened, heat treated, austenized and quenched, etc..). • Can come in HRS and CRS options • The most common CRS are 1006 through 1050 and 1112, 1117 and other free machining steels Plain Carbon Steel 1. Low Carbon (less than 0.3% carbon) • Low strength, good formability • If wear is a potential problem, can be carburized (diffusion hardening) • Most stampings made from these steels • AISI 1008, 1010, 1015, 1018, 1020, 1022, 1025 2. -
The Future of Steelmaking– Howeuropean the MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
05.2020 The future of steelmaking – How the European steel industry can achieve carbon neutrality MANAGEMENT SUMMARY The future of steelmaking / How the European steel industry can achieve carbon neutrality The European steelmaking industry emits 4% of the EU's total CO2 emissions. It is under growing public, economic and regulatory pressure to become carbon neutral by 2050, in line with EU targets. About 60% of European steel is produced via the so-called primary route, an efficient but highly carbon-intensive production method. The industry already uses carbon mitigation techniques, but these are insufficient to significantly reduce or eliminate carbon emissions. The development and implementation of new technologies is underway. With limited investment cycles left until the 2050 deadline, the European steelmaking industry must decide on which new technology to invest in within the next 5-10 years. We assess the most promising emerging technologies in this report. They fall into two main categories: carbon capture, use and/or storage (CCUS), and alternative reduction of iron ore. CCUS processes can be readily integrated into existing steel plants, but cannot alone achieve carbon neutrality. If biomass is used in place of fossil fuels in the steelmaking process, CCUS can result in a negative carbon balance. Alternative reduction technologies include hydrogen-based direct reduction processes and electrolytic reduction methods. Most are not well developed and require huge amounts of green energy, but they hold the promise of carbon-neutral steelmaking. One alternative reduction process, H2-based shaft furnace direct reduction, offers particular promise due to its emissions-reduction potential and state of readiness. -
AP-42 12.13 Final Background Document for Steel Foundries
BACKGROUND REPORT AP-42 SECTION 12.13 STEEL FOUNDRIES Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency OAQPS/TSD/EIB Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 1-103 Pacific Environmental Services, Inc. P.O. Box 12077 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 919/941-0333 1-103 AP-42 Background Report TECHNICAL SUPPORT DIVISION U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 ii This report has been reviewed by the Technical Support Division of the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, EPA. Mention of trade names or commercial products is not intended to constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. Copies of this report are available through the Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1 2.0 INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION ......................................... 2 2.1 GENERAL ................................................... 2 2.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION1 ..................................... 2 2.3 EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS1,19 ................................ 8 2.4 REVIEW OF REFERENCES ..................................... 9 2.5 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 2 ............................... 11 3.0 GENERAL EMISSION DATA REVIEW AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURES ... 13 3.1 LITERATURE SEARCH AND SCREENING ....................... 13 3.2 EMISSION DATA QUALITY RATING SYSTEM ................... 14 3.3 EMISSION FACTOR QUALITY RATING SYSTEM ................. 16 3.4