Urban and Rural Public Spaces: Development Issues and Qualitative Assessment

Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series, No. 45 (2019): 75–93 http://doi.org/10.2478/bog-2019-0025

BULLETIN OF GEOGRAPHY. SOCIO–ECONOMIC SERIES

journal homepages: https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/bog/bog-overview.xml ISSN 1732–4254 quarterly http://apcz.umk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/BGSS/index

Michał Micek1, CDFMR, Sylwia Staszewska2, CDFMR

Adam Mickiewicz University, 1e-mail: [email protected] (corresponding author), 2e-mail: [email protected]

How to cite: Micek M. and Staszewska S. (2019). Urban and Rural Public Spaces: Development Issues and Qualitative Assessment. Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series, 45(45): 75-93. DOI: http://doi.org/10.2478/bog-2019-0025

Abstract. This paper presents selected issues related to the observation, assessment Article details: and development of urban and rural public spaces. Therefore, its initial part fo- Received: 27 March 2019 cuses on the specific nature of these spaces, and in particular on their functions Revised: 12 May 2019 and on problems in their development. It also describes features of urban and ru- Accepted: 6 June 2019 ral public spaces, which will be a prelude to the issue of qualitative assessment of the subject at hand. The method applied here can be used for the analysis of each urban space selected, thus strengthening the practical nature of this study. While Key words: over 80 public spaces have been analysed, the paper itself focuses only on the case Public spaces, studies that demonstrate the specific nature of the analysis that was carried out. development issues, The analysis process as a whole is only referred to in the summary. qualitative assessment

Contents: 1. Introduction ...... 76 2. Public space: definition and development issues ...... 76 3. Urban public spaces: meaning and development ...... 78 4. Rural public spaces: issues and good practices in spatial planning ...... 79 5. Qualitative assessment of public spaces with respect to their social and spatial nature . . . . . 81 6. Analysis and assessment of urban and rural public spaces: examples ...... 83 7. Evaluation of the applied method and the specific nature of urban and rural public spaces: conclusions ...... 87 Notes ...... 88 References ...... 90

© 2019 (Michał Micek and Sylwia Staszewska) This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommer- cial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 76 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93

1. Introduction 2. Public space: definition and development issues Public spaces are of great importance both in people’s lives and in the development of society. In order A public space is: any area that is available to any- to better understand their functions, it is necessary one and free; any physical area in which any human to focus on how people build their social relation- being may find themselves; any area of particular ships. There are three types of bonds that each hu- significance for the fulfilment of the needs of its man being establishes in the course of their life. The residents and for the improvement of their quality first is the family bond, which accompanies human of life; and any area favourable to establishing so- beings from the beginning and helps them to devel- cial contacts due to its location and both function- op properly and become autonomous members of al and spatial characteristics (Ustawa o planowaniu society. Secondly, there are bonds that human be- i zagospodarowaniu przestrzennym). Types of pub- ings form when staying in places where they meet lic spaces are as follows: representative spaces (most other people with whom they spend free time. And often a square built as a symbol of the prevailing lastly, there are bonds which are the highest in the social relations, in a developed monumental and ge- hierarchy and which are created through participa- ometrical form, usually associated with objects of tion in various social groups. For all those bonds to particular significance), traffic spaces (streets, sepa- exist, a place for their development must be created. rate vehicle and pedestrian traffic areas), commer- Public spaces are just those areas in which such re- cial spaces (used for commercial purposes, bazaars), lationships can be formed and developed. ordinary spaces (intended for use, and with vari- Nowadays, the needs of urban residents differ ous functions, including mostly a residential one), from those of rural residents. Therefore, it is neces- church spaces (stemming from medieval traditions sary to create public spaces that will play different of cathedral squares, related to religious ceremo- roles in urban and rural areas. The sheer number nies), green spaces (recreational function, com- of functions performed by urban and rural public bined with parkland), recreational spaces – squares spaces also varies, depending on their sizes and na- (leisure-related purposes, often within a residential ture as expressed through the lifestyles of their us- zone) and town marketplaces (important urban ar- ers. eas created when a town was built or even earlier; The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the is- in widely differing forms) (Gorlach, 2004). sues concerning the development of public spaces Public spaces have been undergoing changes. in urban and rural areas. Readers will find here a While they still form the most durable elements of method for assessing these areas in terms of their urban/rural infrastructure, their evolution has be- quality, which enables their functionality, practical- come more and more noticeable. As a result, the ity, reliability, durability, safety, legibility, aesthetics following transformations have occurred: blurring and sensitivity to be determined. These determi- of boundaries, fragmentation of infrastructure, and nants of qualitative assessment can be used to ana- proliferation or replacement of development ele- lyse any social space, which reinforces the practical ments or land consolidation (Jastrząb, 2002). In nature of this paper. The qualitative assessment is many cases, traditional local values clash with val- presented through the case studies that show differ- ues brought from the outside by technological pro- ences in the development of urban and rural pub- gress, fashion or similar factors. Instead of being a lic spaces. The case studies analysed come from space for meetings, conversations and interactions the Wielkopolskie Province and represent the re- between various age groups, public spaces some- sults of implementation studies carried out in the times become centres of services, commerce or con- framework of social and economic cooperation be- tinuous traffic, or areas that have an adverse impact tween the Adam Mickiewicz University and both on local society. Obviously, although the infrastruc- the City Office in Poznań and the Commune Dis- ture and the use of the areas concerned vary, the trict in Krobia. spaces analysed perform defined social and technical functions. Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 77

The design (development) of public spaces counters outside the virtual world (Grunskis, Man- should be tailored to their users. A public space kus, 2013). should stimulate the strengthening of human in- The aforementioned characteristics of urban and teractions and the creation of social relations, and rural public spaces invite a reflection on issues relat- also provide people with a reason or incentive to ed to their development. The trends in development frequent it, and it should ensure the undisturbed of the spaces analysed are as follows: movement of people. Public spaces should also be • Owing to expansion and renovations, develop- the jewel of a city/village and should highlight its ment of public spaces is not continuous or fully values (both historical and cultural). A well-de- compact, and is subject to internal fragmenta- signed public space should attract people, stimulate tion (Sagan, 2002; Zathey, 2002); initiatives and trade, foster a sense of responsibility • New service-focused functions and new ar- for the area concerned and increase the safety of its chitectural and urban forms appear; wealthier users. The elements of which a public space consists groups of people coexist with poorer ones (Lis- and their distribution, as well as their number, scale owski & Grochowski, 2007; Hamilton, 1999; St- and location are of great importance. Public spac- anilov, 2007); es are functional when they can meet the needs for • Urbanisation intensifies construction projects relaxation, shelter, movement and on-site activity, as (Rydz, 2010); well as any necessary or optional action. • A public space is now an area characterised According to many authors, in 21st-century Cen- by various levels of evolution and by densi- tral Europe public spaces have been experiencing a ty of architectural forms, shapes and functions crisis (Madanipour, 2004; Sennett, 2003; Buivydas, (Czarnecki, 2009); Samalavičius, 2011; Kratochvíl, 2013; Kristiánová, • Public spaces are not directed towards the cul- 2016; Bitusikova, Luther, 2018), and the develop- tural landscape, but remain disorderly in their ment of cities has been made difficult by motor- development and have no landscape identity ways that break up the urbanised structure, by the (Grunskis & Mankus 2013; Kosiński, 2002); apparent democratisation of areas, which results in • Zoning plans are often developed under pres- their division but without boundaries, and by an sure from land owners or investors, one result economic system where market conditions frag- of which is the dispersed and multifunctional ment business activities. In addition, a public space development of land; is also not developed in relation to the environment, • New developments are not integrated with ex- but instead separately, in the form of a closed urban isting infrastructure (Ioan, 2007; Zimnicka & interior. Rural areas experience similar phenomena, Czernik, 2007); but on a slightly smaller scale. • Spontaneous development causes threats and The changes referred to by researchers started losses in zoning activities, and in particular happening no earlier than in the 1970s, when im- amplifies the functional and spatial chaos and provements in the conditions of life and an increase compositional disorder, as well as the irration- in contamination and noise levels triggered chang- ality of the development of land, also impeding es in the internal structure of cities and villages. It the capacity to modernise the development of became necessary to create places of activity and public space in the future, and obstructing the social contact, which brought about favourable con- effective protection of natural and landscape re- ditions for trade, relaxation and business. Cycling sources, in particular, in the immediate vicini- and pedestrian safety was taken into account. Pub- ty of areas protected by law (Kłodziński, 2007; lic spaces of European cities and villages became Kamiński, 2008; Kowicki, 2010); points of information exchange, venues for impor- • The shape and development of public spac- tant events (processions, celebrations and festivals) es currently fails to take account of the natural and markets on which goods and services were ex- environment and to be in line with the exist- changed. They have been continuously developing ing forms of investment projects. Furthermore, and have become places for socialising, spaces for there is no logic behind their creation and the art, culture and history, as well as places for real en- 78 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93

principles of urban composition and architec- 3. Urban public spaces: meaning and de- tural unity are violated (Staszewska et al., 2004); velopment • Residential and service buildings in public spaces are modernised by enlarging windows and converting attics. The most popular reno- Urban public spaces are characterised by features vations include vertical and horizontal exten- that differ slightly from those typical of rural pub- sions and changes to facades, entrances and lic spaces. These features depend on the meaning windows, as a result of which the whole struc- that such spaces have to their users. For residents it ture of a building, its architectural details, dec- is essential that urban public spaces are usable, in- orative woodwork and ornaments are changed teractive, civic, political, axiological, symbolic and (Staszewska, 2005); identifiable. • The absence of green areas makes public spac- The first of the aforementioned features refers to es less attractive (Kristiánová, 2016; Staszews- the required and optional activities of both individ- ka, 2012); ual and social nature (Gehl, 2010, 2011). Expecta- • It is primarily traffic routes and the specific- lo tions in this respect are related, to the largest extent, cation of plots that crystallise and shape devel- to the use of the time that human beings have for opment. The location of properties depends on themselves, i.e. those “moments” that “human be- road capacity, road surfaces and the location of ings consider excluded from an impact of the major- public transport stops (Staszewska & Kacprzak, ity of life pressures and which are at their disposal” 2009), but not on the shape and role of pub- (Fatyga, 2014: 24). The time one has to oneself can lic spaces; be spent in a public space, and on satisfying needs • Solutions for the location of buildings, architec- that can be met by a given place. According to Ste- tural form, aesthetic and organic quality vary phen Carr, there are five such needs, i.e. the need inconsistently, former zoning plans become of comfort, the need of relaxation, the need of pas- more and more blurred, along with the tradi- sive engagement, the need of active engagement and tional features of regional architecture (Mada- the need of discovery (Carr et al., 2009). Research nipour, 2004; Mełges, 2007). reveals that urban public spaces enable people to Therefore, the intensity and use of urban and satisfy, to a large extent, their needs of relaxation, rural public spaces is affected by the number and comfort and passive engagement, and to a lesser de- distribution of development elements and the or- gree, those related to active engagement and discov- ganisation and functionality of the location, as well ery (Bierwiaczonek, 2016). The most important role as the characteristic features of the area concerned in meeting those needs is played by two types of ur- and the preferences of its users. The capacity of in- ban public spaces, namely parks and main squares dividual parts of urban/rural public spaces to adjust – in particular, marketplaces. to various forms of social activities is important. It In a city, usability is also related to direct and is common knowledge that the quantity and type of unlimited access to various functions. A public relationships, links or contacts, both internal (with- space is attractive only when it is largely surrounded in an urban/rural public space) and external (with by or filled with objects and entities of a commer- other spatially related communities), affects the at- cial nature such as cafeterias, restaurants, shops, en- tractiveness of these areas. Public spaces should tertainment venues and cultural institutions. Their function as areas that are hierarchically important presence on city squares and streets is obvious and and maintain their local identity. They should also undoubtedly expands the usable meaning of public be included in the projects of local authorities that spaces. However, it is necessary to strike a balance support the development process in organisational between commercial establishments and areas that and financial terms. It is necessary to preserve the are accessible for free. The easiest way to achieve aesthetics and the natural and cultural values of the this is to place a sufficient amount of urban furni- public space’s landscape, as well as the functionali- ture in a space, along with some small architectur- ty of development elements and the capacity to sat- al elements that provide shelter from the sun, wind isfy the needs of users of individual public spaces. and rain, ensure safety and provide scope for con- Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 79 versation, observation and visual contact with oth- importance in spatial, social and economic terms to er users. give a space a symbolic meaning and identity. The second key characteristic of urban public In a city, social participation is based on see- spaces for an urban community is their interactiv- ing, perceiving and understanding public spaces. ity. The development of public spaces does not of- This participation is obviously correlated with spa- ten encourage relations between people, as it does tial organisation and development of urban areas. It not allow for events to be experienced together. In is worth bearing in mind that urban public spaces addition, urban users of shared areas often use vir- are filled with people who are culturally diverse and tual space through their social profiles on telecom- have different and particular needs, and therefore munication devices (Bierwiaczonek, 2012). public spaces are often shaped (developed) without Urban public spaces also have civic and polit- a specific idea or functionally comprehensive pro- ical meanings. The fate of urban communities is ject (idea). determined by their ability to enhance civic roles, conduct dialogue and have public discussions. City squares often become an arena for political games 4. Rural public spaces: issues and good or demonstrations of one’s views (Harvey, 2012; practices in spatial planning Merrifield, 2014; Miciukiewicz, 2011). The next of the aforementioned meanings, i.e. the axiological one, refers directly to classical con- Public spaces are a common good and are of par- cepts of Florian Znaniecki and Aleksander Wallis. ticular importance for local communities, including Znaniecki formulates the concept of spatial value rural ones. Owing to their location, development to be understood as part of a physical or symbolic and other functional characteristics they are de- space to which an individual refers as a member of signed to satisfy various material and non-material a given community (Znaniecki, 1999). Public spac- needs of their users and also to facilitate interac- es also become such reference areas. On the other tions between individuals and groups. They are hand, Wallis points out the value of favourite plac- supposed to improve the quality of life and to be es. He refers to personal relations with space, thus a place fostering the identification of a human be- to the sphere of identification and identity. The fact ing with their place of residence. Traditional rural remains that they also constitute functional values public spaces differ significantly from urban spaces. and may also constitute situational values (Wallis, They are characterised, in particular, by the open- 1990). ness of landscape and the absence of clear bound- The symbolic meaning, which is also important aries between public and private zones (resulting and closely related to the two meanings already primarily from the nature of their development and mentioned, is given by people and is based on the from the lifestyle and leisure activities of residents). experiences of users of given spaces and on their Rural areas often lack social facilities designed history. It also results from the awareness of inhab- for leisure, recreational and sporting purposes. itants, the level of cultural capital and their ability They are also deprived of representative areas with to “read” the city. Symbolic references often trans- which local people could identify and where they form themselves into identity values (Lenartow- could meet, organise events, etc. A significant issue, icz, 2010). Symbolism and identity have an impact apart from the shortage of places that integrate lo- on the value of space and give it a configuration of cal communities, is their unfavourable location, e.g. features that distinguish the way people experience the peripheral location of recreational and sport- and transform it. When a space is valued highly, ing facilities or the dispersion of daily activity plac- people identify themselves with it, and they become es. Many public spaces are also located in isolation more socially and spatially active and start shaping, from the condition of the surrounding area, which organising and using it. When the space is poorly creates sheer enclaves in rural areas. Some of them valued, it loses its sociable, definable and develop- are located, e.g. at the rear of buildings, out of sight mental potential. It may therefore be of significant of people. Furthermore, spaces such as playgrounds 80 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 and care centres tend to be exceedingly isolated, equipment (e.g. large-scale advertisements, concrete and, as a result, instead of attracting and integrat- fences, buildings with aggressive colour schemes, ing, they divide and deter (their physical and psy- temporary objects, etc.) that are unattractive and chological accessibility is severely restricted). Their unsuited (in terms of colours, dimensions, build- hosts assume that high and solid fences, and dense ing materials and location) for the environment and plantings, will increase safety and public order. local tradition. There are instances where old and However, better effects can be achieved by creating valuable trees in public spaces are cut down and a space that gives all its users a sense of responsi- replaced by row plantings of alien species. Such ig- bility for it, and in return results undoubtedly in norant actions cause the rural landscape to become the feeling of safety being increased. It is also worth incoherent and lose its value. making sure that each area has a sufficient number Therefore, with a view to finding the best solu- of attractive and inviting entrances, which will con- tion for rural public spaces, efforts should be made tribute to increasing the space’s openness and acces- to increase awareness of the role of the aforemen- sibility (Bietkowski, 1999; Czarnecki, 2006; Kowicki, tioned issues among decision-makers responsible 2010; Szuba, 2005). for spatial development in communes (residents, The issue that is inseparably related to the loca- local authorities, officials, etc.). Once this goal is tion and neighbourhood of public spaces is their achieved, it will certainly be easier to implement transport connections. In many villages, the system measures aimed at improving the quality of the of local roads and paths for pedestrians and cyclists landscape of rural public areas, which may include, is underdeveloped. As a consequence, there are no in particular, the following: elimination or mask- convenient connections between areas that are of ing of elements that distort the environment, prop- importance for local communities. Furthermore, er location and display of features that identify the rural streets, which used to play an important social space, consistent adoption of rules for using adver- role as meeting points for neighbours and as an op- tisements, small architecture and fences in keep- portunity to stop and have a chat, are increasingly ing with the specific nature of rural areas, and also losing their significance. Nowadays, roads in rural boosting the visibility of attractive and extensive areas, in particular in suburban areas, are dominat- views. The list of desirable measures also includes ed by vehicle transport, which, as in large cities, be- the following (Chilik, 2008; Górka, 2012; Soszyński gins to determine spatial development. et al., 2012): The usually more-or-less clearly outlined archi- • The use of local traditions and values in spatial tectural and landscape areas – whose composition planning (using materials, forms and propor- and aesthetic values have an impact on the perceptions that are in line with the local landscape); tion of individual parts of landscape – include rural • The proper use and display of monuments in roads, playgrounds, recreational rooms at care cen- rural areas (through revalorisation, adaptation tres, clearings in historic parks, etc. It is important to social purposes, etc.); to note that harmonious development of rural land- • The avoidance of imitation (thoughtless imita- scape areas is largely based on the creation of local tion) of historical forms in favour of creative cultural identity reflected in the emotional relation- continuation of rural traditions and customs. ship (attachment) of residents to the surrounding area and the tendency of the entire community to All these measures intended to increase and cooperate in matters related to this area. Unfortu- maintain the values of rural landscape may contrib- nately, nowadays rural areas are becoming more ute to improving the quality of spatial development and more affected by adverse phenomena which of rural areas and to strengthening the sense of local cause the degradation in composition and aesthet- identity and responsibility among residents. This, in ics of local landscape and the disappearance of ru- turn, may stimulate the rural community to act for ral cultural identity (Antrop, 2005; Arriaza et al., the benefit of their environment, and thus lead to 2004; Bogdanowski, 1994; Böhm, 2004; Claval, the development of functional, familiar, active and 2005). This pertains mostly to spatial chaos, which aesthetic spaces (Chmielewski, 2013; Niedźwiedz- is caused, in particular, by introducing elements of ka-Filipiak & Kuriata, 2010). Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 81

5. Qualitative assessment of public There is no doubt that the results of qualitative spaces with respect to their social and assessment of a selected area largely depend on the spatial nature assessment criteria selected. For the main functions and characteristics of public spaces, a set of eight assessment criteria can be adopted, the scope According to the definition provided in the ency- of which corresponds to the complexity of issues clopaedia issued by PWN, assessment is an evalu- that make up the concept of urban and rural public ative judgement, i.e. a statement that expresses the spaces. They are the following: 1) Functionality (the positive or negative attitude of an assessor towards degree and scope of performance of the functions the assessed object. In relation to the perception of expected in the space); 2) Practicality (comfort of space, assessment is understood as a subjective re- use, ease of operation and maintenance, ergonomic lation between an observer or user of a space and objects and equipment in the space); 3) Reliability their environment. It consists in the assignment of (usability); 4) Durability (the period for which usa- a certain value to the assessed object, based on the bility is maintained); 5) Safety of use (in particular, a individual perceptions of the assessor. According to sense of safety and belonging to the space); 6) Legi- Bajerowski et al. (2007), the following assessment bility (understanding, ease of orientation and organ- alternatives can be identified: 1) absolute – quan- isation of the space); 7) Aesthetics (coherence, form, titative (e.g. much–little); 2) absolute – qualitative layout and spatial order); 8) Sensitivity (the effect (e.g. good–bad); 3) comparative – quantitative (e.g. exerted on the senses by the space). less–more); 4) comparative – qualitative (e.g. bet- It is assumed that the quality of public spaces is a ter–worse). All the alternatives are based on rela- result of the aforementioned criteria, which may be tive scales that are typical of qualitative assessment, widely used in spatial research (Micek, 2017). Each which is the opposite of quantitative assessment and of the aforementioned criteria has its own determi- consists in the estimation of properties of objects, nants of qualitative assessment (Staszewska, 2013), events or areas against relative scales (Staszewska, which are presented in Table 1. The key criteria ap- 2013). pear not to require any particular comment, as the It may be assumed that the process of profes- determinants assigned to them are specific enough sional qualitative assessment of a specific area (e.g. to determine their meaning. It is important to note for revitalisation purposes) consists of three main that they are so diverse and universal that they can stages. The first is the selection of assessment cri- be applied to the assessment of any public space, ei- teria for the analysed area (e.g. from among func- ther urban or rural. tional, social, cultural and aesthetic values). The One of the methods that can be used for the next step is the operationalisation of key criteria, qualitative assessment of public spaces on the basis i.e. the identification of their individual properties of the criteria and determinants provided (Table 1) or, in other words, the development of key indica- is the semantic differential method. This combines tors. For the criterion of aesthetic values, indicators the advantages of both qualitative and quantitative would include, for example, such features as sub- methods. It is a specific technique of the quanti- limity, beauty, harmony, diversity, etc. The details tative assessment of an image (images) of an ob- and number of assessment criteria and indicators ject as perceived by the person surveyed (Osgood depend on the objective of the assessment to be car- et al., 1957). In other words, the semantic differen- ried out. The third and last stage is the formulation tial method is a quantitative method for assessing a of the final assessment based on the adopted crite- surveyed person’s impressions of a phenomenon or ria. An obvious action that precedes the whole pro- object, or for assessing the attitude towards the as- cess is the familiarisation with the infrastructure of sessed object (Mayntz et al., 1985). the assessed space, which can be achieved through In practice, the semantic differential method its psychological (resulting from perception) and takes the form of a question within which assess- physical (resulting from use) recognition (Kupidu- ment is carried out on a so-called “semantic scale” ra et al., 2011; Myga-Piątek, 2007). that ends with two opposite adjectives. For spatial development, the scale may end, for example, 82 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93

Table 1. Public space qualitative assessment determinants Assessment criteria Qualitative assessment determinants Relaxation Shelter Movement and communication Functionality On-site activities Fulfilment of conditions for required and optional activities Fulfilment of conditions for social activities Good living conditions Good technical infrastructure network Easy vertical and horizontal communication Quick access to greeneries and to recreation and leisure areas Quick access to services Proper distribution of roads and paths Practicality Good access to small architecture elements Physical spatial arrangement of elements facilitating social contact Ergonomics of development elements Adequate properties of the residential environment Existence of places to walk, stand and sit Unhindered movement of older people, handicapped people and children Reliability Technical condition of equipment, facilities, elements of development Durability Period for which spatial development elements maintain their properties Sense of belonging to society and space Sense of public safety Safety Existence of places that gather, integrate and invite – or dissipate, segregate and deter – people Easy orientation Legibility Unity of spatial composition and its internal conformity Systems of symbols and legible information signs Appropriate architectural scale (human) Moderate and mild colours Aesthetics Cleanliness Adequate proportions Rhythm Positive feelings and emotions related to the space concerned Sensitivity Positive impressions evoked by the use of goods located in the space concerned Source: Staszewska (2013) with such adjectives as “beautiful” and “ugly”. Its “-2” to “+2”). The values “-2” and “-1” indicate intermediate degrees cover the range between the weaknesses and the values “+1” and “+2” indicate two opposite terms and reflect the degree of inten- strengths. The value of “0” is neutral and can be sity of a given feature of the assessed object. The described as “difficult to say” (Babbie, 2016; Błusz- adoption of the semantic differential method to kowski, 2003; Mayntz et al., 1985; Micek, 2017; Os- assess selected spaces against the criteria and de- good et al., 1957; Staszewska, 2013). terminants provided (Table 1) requires their op- The simplest way to analyse the results of the as- erationalisation. For determinants to be assessed, sessment of a public space under the semantic dif- they need to be translated into bipolar character- ferential method is to draw a graphic profile of the istics (pairs of features). The analyses carried out, assessed space. This is created by linking together the results of which are presented below, were all the numerical values that have been assigned to based on 40 pairs of opposite characteristics, as the considered aspects of the examined area. The listed in Table 2, which constitute a questionnaire profile is a graphical illustration of the assessment for assessment of spaces. Each of the 40 pairs is results and it allows for the nature of the analysed a continuum that consists of five values (from area to be easily determined (as negative or posi- Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 83 tive). Such charts are easy to interpret and analyse 2017, public spaces located within the boundaries of and they can be compared and presented in various the revitalisation area in Poznań were assessed. This forms. They provide information on how individu- area is characterised by a specific concentration of al characteristics of the analysed space are assessed. negative phenomena, but due to its important sig- In addition, the semantic differential method allows nificance for local development, the city decided for statistical calculations to be performed, which to revitalise it. It constitutes 9.4% of the city’s area are particularly useful in surveys and which help and includes mainly city-centre areas. Within its to indicate which of the characteristics assessed are boundaries, of the 63 public spaces identified (Fig. important in the opinion of respondents. The anal- 2.) that are relevant for particular districts or for the yses in the case studies presented below were con- whole city and that are characterised by conditions ducted by experts (authors and researchers). Thus, favourable to social contacts or with potential in statistical calculations were not performed. Howev- that respect, the largest part is occupied by gener- er, for each space the quality indicator was calcu- ally accessible green areas (parks, squares, riverside lated, which is a result of the assessment of a given areas, etc.). The areas assessed also include central space against the adopted criteria and determines marketplaces (e.g. the Old Square), other squares the share of characteristics evaluated negatively or (e.g. Wolności Square), bazaars (e.g. Bernardyński indifferently, which under the semantic differen- Square) and some major streets along cultural and tial method are assigned values equal to or lower commercial routes (e.g. Półwiejska Street). The larg- than “0” (on a scale from “-2” to “+2”). The highest concentration of socially active public spaces is er the indicator, the poorer the quality of the ana- the area of the Old Town (the historical centre) and lysed space. along the Warta River. Each of the spaces analysed in Poznań was also assessed during a field inspection. In keeping with 6. Analysis and assessment of urban and the assumptions under the semantic differential rural public spaces: examples method, the values assigned to the areas analysed were plotted on the graphical profiles created on the basis of the values assigned to individual proper- The case studies presented below demonstrate the ties of the assessed areas. Due to the limited frame- results of the qualitative assessments of urban and work of this publication, only an exemplary graph rural public spaces in accordance with the method- has been provided below, which refers to the area ological assumptions adopted (against the criteria, concerned (Fig. 1). The analysis of the profiles has determinants and qualitative characteristics speci- revealed which of the adopted criteria characterise fied in the assessment questionnaire presented in the analysed area. It also made it possible to calcu- Table 2). The first case concerns urban areas (locat- late the value of the quality indicator for each space ed in Poznań) and the second case concerns rural (Fig. 2). areas (located in the Krobia Commune). The jux- The best rated public spaces in the area analysed taposition of the two types of areas is intended to (with a share of negative and neutral characteris- demonstrate differences in the public spaces con- tics lower than 20%) are green areas located main- cerned. They were not selected randomly. The loca- ly in the Old Town area (e.g. Mickiewicz Park – Fig. tion of the analysed areas, their functions and their 1). At the same time, this area has spaces that are potential to meet various needs show the specific assessed as most negative (over 80% negative and nature of public spaces and their perception by us- neutral characteristics). Therefore, it can be con- ers. cluded that the quality of public spaces in the cen- The urban areas assessed are located in Poznań tre of Poznań varies greatly. Some spaces located in (1). In the framework of the research project en- the districts of Wilda (e.g. Wildecki Market), Łazarz titled “Conditions and Directions of Revitalisation (e.g. Łazarski Market) and Jeżyce (e.g. near Kościel- in Poznań” carried out by IGSEiGP UAM on be- na Street) were also assessed to be negative (over half of the City Office in Poznań in the years 2016– 60% negative or neutral characteristics). It is important to note that the average values of the qual- 84 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93

Table 2. Public space qualitative assessment questionnaire Item WEAKNESSES -2 -1 0 +1 +2 STRENGTHS 1 Not relaxing □ □ □ □ □ Relaxing 2 Providing no shelter □ □ □ □ □ Providing shelter 3 Failing to encourage on-site activities □ □ □ □ □ Enabling on-site activities Functionality Failing to meet conditions for required Meeting conditions for required 4 □ □ □ □ □ activities activities Failing to meet conditions for optional Meeting conditions for optional 5 □ □ □ □ □ activities activities Engaging, encouraging and 6 Discouraging □ □ □ □ □ stimulating Uncomfortable Comfortable (many places to 7 □ □ □ □ □ stand, sit or walk) (absence of places to stand, sit or walk) Practicality 8 Not available to anybody □ □ □ □ □ Available to everybody 9 Obstructive □ □ □ □ □ Supportive 10 Impeding social contacts □ □ □ □ □ Facilitating social contacts 11 Useless (unnecessary) □ □ □ □ □ Useful (necessary) 12 Inconvenient □ □ □ □ □ Convenient 13 Dark, dirty and noisy □ □ □ □ □ Sunny, clean and quiet

14 Antisocial □ □ □ □ □ Social Reliability 15 Unusable □ □ □ □ □ Usable

16 In poor technical condition □ □ □ □ □ In good technical condition

Undamaged, renovated, Durability 17 Damaged, broken □ □ □ □ □ repainted Not requiring any renovation, Requiring renovation, modernisation, 18 □ □ □ □ □ modernisation, maintenance or maintenance or replacement replacement 19 Insecure, dangerous □ □ □ □ □ Secure, without danger 20 Turbulent □ □ □ □ □ Quiet Safety 21 Unfriendly, sinister □ □ □ □ □ Friendly 22 Distracting □ □ □ □ □ Accommodating, eye-catching 23 Isolating □ □ □ □ □ Integrating 24 Deterrent □ □ □ □ □ Inviting

25 Inconsistently composed □ □ □ □ □ Consistently composed Legibility 26 Obstructing orientation □ □ □ □ □ Facilitating orientation

27 Illegible □ □ □ □ □ Legible

28 Simple □ □ □ □ □ Sophisticated Aesthetics 29 Ugly □ □ □ □ □ Beautiful, pretty 30 Austere □ □ □ □ □ Idyllic 31 Dirty □ □ □ □ □ Clean 32 Unpleasant □ □ □ □ □ Pleasant 33 Depressing □ □ □ □ □ Uplifting, elevating □ □ □ □ □ 34 Annoying, irritating, disturbing Calming, relaxing Sensitivity 35 Negative □ □ □ □ □ Positive 36 Odorous □ □ □ □ □ Fragrant 37 Noisy □ □ □ □ □ Quiet 38 Anxious, moving, stressful □ □ □ □ □ Calm, soothing 39 Conservative □ □ □ □ □ Liberal 40 Boring, dull □ □ □ □ □ Interesting, fascinating Source: Staszewska (2013) Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 85

Fig. 1. Semantic differential – the Mickiewicz Park. Source: Own study

Fig. 2. Quality of public spaces in the analysed area of the city of Poznań expressed by the qualitative assessment indicator, which is the share (%) of characteristics of a given space assessed to be negative or neutral and assigned values lower than or equal to “0” under the semantic differential method. Source: Own study ity indicator (between 20% and 60% negative and distributed across various parts of the analysed area. neutral characteristics) are typical of the majority They include, in particular, the green areas along of the public spaces analysed. These mainly include the Warta River. Despite serious problems such as city-centre marketplaces (including, in particular, the absence of equipment and disorder, the riverside the Old Square), some parks (e.g. Maciejewski Park) public areas were not rated the worst. Their numer- and squares (e.g. Kazimierz Nowakowski Square or ous issues are compensated for by a huge recrea- Wolności Square). Spaces with average scores are tional and social potential and by their natural and 86 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 landscape values. It is advisable to create pedestri- they were assigned negative or zero values). The two an and cycle paths in these areas and to implement simple recreational and sporting spaces, including some recreational, waterside and accompanying in- the playground and the football pitch in Żychlewo frastructure, and also to organise and develop the were also poorly rated (a share of 61–80%). For the neglected areas and furthermore to adopt all types remaining 16 areas, which form the largest group, of measures aimed at developing their recreational the quality indicator was average (between 21% and function and strengthening the potential of these 60% negative and neutral characteristics). These ar- areas as public spaces. eas vary in terms of their location and function, but The qualitative assessment of rural public spaces it can be noted that they are dominated by recre- has been presented using the example of the Kro- ational and leisure areas located next to care cen- bia Commune (2). The analysis was carried out un- tres: in Potarzyca (Fig. 3), Pijanowice, Stara Krobia, der the revitalisation project entitled “Diagnosis of Domachowo, Sułkowice, Posadowo and Gogolewo. State and Directions of Development of the Kro- These include, in particular, paved squares, clear- bia Commune”, on which the Local Revitalisation ings, outdoor spaces, playgrounds, etc. In addition, Programme for the Krobia Commune in the years places that scored average include: the village square 2015–2022 was based. The analysis covered 22 ru- in Pijanowice, the greeneries in Stara Krobia and ral public spaces (3) characterised by social, recre- Domachowo, the avenue in Posadowo, the church ational and cultural potential. They were assessed parking lot in Domachowo and several independ- by experts during field inspections. As in the case ent playgrounds in other villages. of Poznań, the assessments were plotted on graph- The relatively low assessment of rural public ical profiles, an example of which is presented be- spaces in relation to the social and cultural potential low (Fig. 3). Quality indicators were calculated for of the Krobia Commune is triggered by numerous all the rural public spaces analysed. The multi-func- issues that affect the spaces concerned. These issues tional recreational areas that received the highest are confirmed by general observations outlined in scores were in Domachowo, Włostowo and Pudlisz- the theoretical part of this paper concerning ru- ki, which include playgrounds, sport fields or sta- ral areas in Poland. The areas assessed are general- diums, and in Włostowo – including a rural care ly underdeveloped and inadequately equipped with centre. For the aforementioned areas, the share of infrastructure. As a rule, they are not adapted to negative and neutral characteristics was less than the diverse needs of their inhabitants and they al- 20% of all the analysed characteristics. In turn, the low only for occasional activities. They are often in spaces that received the lowest scores were those poor technical and visual condition. They also lack that were not intentionally developed, but which social places. Access to some of them is restricted were located next to facilities that generate high (e.g. fenced playgrounds). It seems, however, that activity among inhabitants (the space around the the most serious problem is a clearly noticeable bus stop in Bukownica and the square in front of shortage of public spaces in rural areas of the com- the shop in Karc). Over 81% of their character- mune. It should be pointed out that the few public istics were assessed to be negative or neutral (i.e. spaces that are generally accessible are assessed to

Fig. 3. Semantic differential: the square and care centre in Potarzyca. Source: Own study Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 87 be positive mainly in terms of such features as at- 7. Evaluation of the applied method and tractive location, activity of residents and large so- the specific nature of urban and rural cial potential. public spaces: conclusions The qualitative assessment of urban and rural public spaces, including the examples provided, is undoubtedly affected by their sports facilities, The aim of this paper is not only to assess the qual- small architecture objects, pavements and other el- ity of the selected public spaces, but also to deter- ements of spatial development that satisfy the needs mine whether the semantic differential method is of residents with regard to their daily activity. The useful for such assessment. It can be stated that the condition of the aforementioned elements is un- method applied has been verified positively. Its suit- satisfactory both in urban and rural areas. Many ability to the defined purpose is considered high. places lack benches, paths, rubbish bins, properly The semantic differential method is a method that equipped playgrounds, etc., which results in the ab- is relatively simple and easy to use and can be easily sence of places to walk, sit or stand. This forces in- modified and adapted to research needs. Important- habitants to spend their free time in places that are ly, it allows for graphic profiles to be determined, unsuitable for this purpose, or at home. Another and these provide an easily comprehensible illustra- issue is the mismatch between the development el- tion of the results of assessment of the space con- ements of common spaces and the needs of their cerned against the adopted criteria. Such charts are users. Large paved areas, excessive formalisation easy to interpret and analyse and can be compared and geometrisation of the area, the insistent intro- and presented in various forms. They provide infor- duction of a modern form of development, the con- mation on how the individual characteristics of the struction of facilities just because “we have money examined space are assessed. Furthermore, the se- and lots of space” – these are just some of the bad mantic differential method can be used to make sta- practices in this respect. The poor condition of ur- tistical calculations that are useful for surveys. One ban and rural spaces is often caused by the absence of the most important advantages of the semantic of consistency between individual elements of spa- differential method in the context of the assessment tial development, their poor aesthetics, unsatisfac- of public spaces is undoubtedly an easy-to-use and tory technical condition, and careless and hectic intuitive semantic scale whose scope enables pos- location. Spaces that are affected by similar prob- itive (“+”), negative (“-”) and neutral (“0”) scores lems usually become illegible and uncomfortable, to be assigned. Another important advantage is the and therefore amorphous and antisocial. To avoid use of a large number of criteria that are easy to or- this, it is recommendable, among other things, to ganise and analyse. Unfortunately, the semantic dif- equip the shared areas with the necessary infra- ferential method, like other methods of qualitative structure (lamp posts, rubbish bins, benches, etc.) assessment, is burdened with subjectivism, which is and to maintain them and their equipment in good practically impossible to eliminate from research on technical and visual conditions, as well as placing the quality of spaces. In addition, it requires a num- elements emphasising the areas and making them ber of actions to be taken: the selection of appro- easier to orientate in (e.g. sculptures), and to in- priate criteria, the preparation of a questionnaire, troduce elements enriching the offer of the areas the carrying out of field inspections, the drawing of and responding to the needs of local communities. charts and the analysis of the results. All these ac- At the same time, the scale and nature of the solutions can be time consuming. tions implemented should be adjusted to the specif- The qualitative assessment of public spaces, ex- ic nature of a given place in such a way as to make amples of which have been presented herein, should the space intimate and to encourage people to stay be an integral stage in the development process of in it. In addition, care should be taken to ensure any urban or rural area. It is an important tool in that social spaces are properly arranged, in particu- the process of reasonable spatial development, as it lar, with a view to harmonious and coherent spatial provides bases for defining the issues and potentials planning, including the proper layout of their ele- of the examined area. It is worth pointing to the ments, thus facilitating social contacts. 88 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 key correlation that forms the basis for the practi- their development elements, and also in their aes- cal application of the qualitative assessment results thetics. Urban public spaces fail to meet many con- in the semantic differential method. If a given pub- ditions (they do not encourage activity, they are lic space ranks highly and therefore has great po- polluted, often dirty and noisy, and require reno- tential, it can be considered worthy of intensified vation, modernisation, maintenance or replacement development in the future. Otherwise, if a public of equipment). Although the way in which public space ranks low and has many issues, it should be spaces are arranged allows their users to relax and analysed in detail so that the reasons for its poor their equipment is generally available, urban us- state can be determined and solutions found for the ers do not identify with urban public spaces. They problems identified. do not pay attention to whether a given space dis- In keeping with the assumptions made, the qual- tracts, deters, irritates or maybe calms and relaxes ity of a given public space is a combination of the them. Urban inhabitants have no time to make ob- criteria presented (i.e. functionality, practicality, re- servations on the surroundings, they are busy with liability, durability, safety, legibility, aesthetics and their own issues and they treat squares, streets and sensitivity). The suitability of the qualitative assess- parks as transitive areas where they do not need ment in the form presented manifests itself not only to stop. Obviously, these are averaged findings and in complex research (intended to compare the sum- one knows that an individual approach to respond- marised assessments and indicate those of the pub- ents could reveal their attitude towards the envi- lic spaces analysed that require intervention), but ronment. However, this does not alter the general also in individual research (based on analyses of as- conclusion that while city dwellers treat public spac- sessments of individual criteria and on the scope es as a whole and without a context (which results for potential intervention in the public space con- from the energetic way they live and work), rural cerned, which is determined in detail on the basis residents are more likely to pay attention to the de- thereof). This paper, due to its limited framework, tails of the spatial development of the area in which presents only the results of the comparative research they live and to the atmosphere of places and their and general conclusions in the empirical part there- familiarity. Rural residents become more frequent- of, which relate primarily to the key issues identified ly involved in social activities aimed at improving in the public spaces in Poznań and Krobia. On the the quality of life. basis of those issues, it can be assumed that the key Therefore, development of urban and rural pub- corrective actions recommended both for Poznań (a lic areas requires an individual approach and the large city of over 500,000 inhabitants) and Krobia (a engagement of communities in the planning pro- rural municipality with approximately 13,000 resi- cesses. It also requires discussions, consultations, dents) should focus on improving the quality of de- interviews and meetings. It is worth noting that ru- velopment and on strengthening the social function ral residents are potentially more likely to express of public spaces (e.g. by equipping them with recre- a positive opinion on the area in which they live, ational infrastructure or pro-social areas). and urban residents are more sceptical about the The semantic differential method made it pos- surrounding area, express more negative opinions sible to subjectively analyse the main public spac- and have higher demands. es in the city of Poznań and in the villages located in the Krobia Commune. Although the paper con- tains only individual examples of the analysis car- Notes ried out with regard to the areas researched, this section further includes the averaged nature of all the assessed areas, drawing a distinction between 1. Poznań is a county city in the Wielkopolska urban (Poznań) and rural (Krobia) public spaces. Lake District, on the Warta River, at the mouth The analysis included 63 urban public spaces and of the Cybina River; the seat of the authorities 22 rural public spaces. The charts presented in Fig. of the Wielkopolskie Province. Poznań is the 4 clearly demonstrate the differences in the func- fifth largest city in Poland in terms of popula- tionality of these spaces and in the reliability of tion (over 537,000 people) and eighth in terms Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93 89

Fig. 4. The averaged quality assessment of urban (blue line) and rural (red line) public spaces Source: Own study based on the analysis of 63 urban spaces and 22 rural ones. All spaces were assessed using the space qualitative analysis questionnaire (for details see above). 90 Michał Micek, Sylwia Staszewska / Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series / 45 (2019): 75–93

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The proofreading of articles, positively reviewed and approved for publishing in the ‘Bulletin of Geography. Socio-economic Series’, was financed from the funds of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education earmarked for activities popularizing science, in line with Agreement No 695/P-DUN/2018.