Synthesis and Characterisation of Delafossite Cufeo for Solar Energy

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Synthesis and Characterisation of Delafossite Cufeo for Solar Energy UPTEC Q 16006 Examensarbete 30 hp Juni 2016 Synthesis and characterisation of delafossite CuFeO2 for solar energy applications Axel Forslund Abstract Synthesis and characterisation of delafossite CuFeO2 for solar energy applications Axel Forslund Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet UTH-enheten Delafossite CuFeO2 is an intrinsic p-type semiconductor with a band gap around 1.5 eV. Further, it is composed of relatively abundant, nontoxic Besöksadress: elements, and therefor have potential to be an attractive material for solar Ångströmlaboratoriet Lägerhyddsvägen 1 energy harvesting.This Work examines three routes to synthesise this material. Hus 4, Plan 0 The first includes a sol-gel Deposition and then relies on solid state reaction above 650 Degrees Celsius in inert gas atmosphere. In this Work, no Delafossite Postadress: is obtained with this methoD.The second methoD is a hyDrothermal route to Box 536 751 21 Uppsala maKe particles under hyDrostatic pressure in an autoclave. Delafossite is obtained mixed with other phases.The thirD route includes aqueous Telefon: precipitation similar to the second route, but a temperature of 70 Degrees 018 – 471 30 03 Celsius and ambient pressure is sufficient to proDuce a pure Delafossite particle Telefax: phase. It provides a robust and simple way to maKe Delafossite CuFeO2 018 – 471 30 00 particles.The resulting particles are Deposited and compressed on glass into thin films.The films have a band gap slightly below 1.5 eV and show some Hemsida: photoactivity in electrochemical measurements. http://www.teknat.uu.se/student Handledare: Gerrit Boschloo Ämnesgranskare: Tomas Edvinsson Examinator: Åsa Kassman Rudolphi ISSN: 1401-5773, UPTEC Q 16006 Syntes och karakterisering av CuFeO2-delafossit för solenergitillämpningar Axel Forslund Som en del i att minska den mänskliga påverkan på klimatet måste användningen av fossila bränslen reduceras. Samtidigt som det globala energibehovet ökar, är också flera nya förnybara energislag på väg upp. Produktionen av solceller har de senaste åren ökat och priserna på moduler har fallit. Effektiv energiproduktion från solinstrålningen med tillgängliga och billiga material kan vara viktigt för att uppnå de klimatmål vi har satt upp. Kommersiella solceller domineras fortfarande av kiselsolceller. Tunnfilmsceller finns dock på marknaden och även färgämnessensiterade solceller, med den engelska förkortningen DSSC, används idag. Många alternativ använder dock ovanliga ämnen som inte alltid bryts för sitt eget värde och därmed blir dyra eller prisberoende av marknadsfluktuationer. Andra ämnen är mycket giftiga och medför risker vid utvinning och tillverkning av solceller. Nya solcellsmaterial finns på forskningsstadiet, så som CZTS-solceller (koppar- zink- tenn- sulfid/selenid) och hybridorganiska perovskitsolceller. En del av dessa använder vanliga och lättillgängliga ämnen och skulle möjligen kunna tillverkas med lösningsbaserade tekniker, vilket kan sänka tillverkningskostnader. Utöver att generera elektricitet direkt från solstrålningen kan man bland annat också tänka sig produktion av vätgas med hjälp av solens strålning. CuFeO2-delafossit är ett material av koppar- och järnoxid som kan absorbera solljus och skulle kunna användas i solenergitillämpningar. Det utgörs dessutom av relativt tillgängliga och ofarliga material. Potential finns för att tillverka filmer med enkla och energisnåla tekniker. I det här arbetet undersöks tre metoder för att tillverka CuFeO2-delafossit. 1. I den första metoden beläggs ett substrat med en gel av koppar- och järnsalter. Gelen bränns sedan bort tillsammans med saltresterna och kvar blir en amorf film, utan kristallstruktur. Tanken är sedan att anlöpning vid över 650 ˚C i ett argonflöde ska skapa en syrefattig atmosfär där den deponerade filmen av termodynamiska skäl omvandlas till delafossit. I det här arbetet erhålls dock ingen delafossit, utan enbart andra faser av koppar- och järnoxid bildas. Det är alltså en svår metod, som dessutom kräver ett mycket värmetåligt substrat av specialglas. Vidare medför den stor energiåtgång med flera anlöpningar vid höga temperaturer och ett högt flöde av inert gas. I de två andra metoderna tillverkas partiklar av CuFeO2-delafossit som sedan kan beläggas på att substrat. i 2. Med en “hydrotermisk” metod tillverkas partiklar vid förhöjt tryck och temperatur i vatten i en tryckkokare, eller autoklav. I det här arbetet används temperaturer mellan 100 ˚C till 200 ˚C. För att bilda delafossit krävs en basisk lösning och NaOH används för att höja pH- värdet innan reaktion i autoklaven sker. Så fort NaOH tillsätts fälls ett förstadium till partiklar ut, som sedan åldras i autoklaven. Som utgångsmaterial används en lösning av koppar- och järnsalter, i det här fallet Cu(NO3)2 och FeCl2. I det här arbetet erhålls CuFeO2-delafossit- partiklar tillsammans med en blandning av andra partiklar av koppar- och järnfaser. 3. Med en betydligt enklare metod tillverkas liknande CuFeO2-delafossitpartiklar vid enbart 70 ˚C i vatten i en laboratorieglasflaska i en ugn. NaOH används även här för att fälla ut ett förstadium till partiklar, men dessa behöver inte lika hög temperatur för att bilda enbart delafossit. En del av orsaken till den lägre temperaturen är att sulfater, Cu(SO4) och Fe(SO4), används här – istället för Cu(NO3)2 och FeCl2. Dessa partiklar blir flakformade och ca 200 nm breda, men betydligt tunnare. I det här arbetet har förhållandet i det initiala skedet av reaktionen, vid tillsättanden av NaOH och utfällningen, visat sig vara mycket viktigt i styrandet av bildade faser. Det är kon- centrationen av NaOH, snarare än mängden NaOH under åldringen, som påverkar vilka faser som bildas. I det här arbetet har pellets av ren NaOH tillsatts, vilket gett en mycket robust syntes av delafossit. Delafossit har bildats som enda kristallina fas synlig i röntgen- kristallografi, även då den tillsatta mängden NaOH varit för liten för att alla koppar- och järnjoner ska kunna reagera. Det är viktigt att ha en tillräckligt basisk miljö för att kunna reducera Cu2+ till Cu1+. Vid tillräckligt basiska förhållanden kan då delafossit bildas, med oxidationstillstånden 1+ 3+ Cu Fe O2. Men när inte enbart delafossit bildas på grund av ändrade initiala förhållanden, 1+ 1+ bildas ofta Cu 2O som bifas. Även där är oxidationstalet Cu och kopparjonen är reducerad från Cu2+. För att utreda detta vidare krävs analys av de initialt bildade faserna vid olika förhållanden. Det pulver som tillverkats har deponerats på glas med en ledande beläggning på, flourdopad tennoxid – även kallat FTO-glas. ”Spin coating” och ”doctor blading” har använts som deponeringsmetoder. De deponerade filmerna har mycket dåliga mekaniska egenskaper, och pulvret lossnar lätt. För att förbättra filmerna har de tillverkade proverna pressats under 15 kN/cm2 till 20 kN/cm2. De pressade filmerna har bättre mekanisk stabilitet och stannar på substratet även vid nedsänkning i vatten. De visar även fotoaktivitet i elektrokemiska mätningar. Vidare förbättring av filmerna behövs dock innan en fungerande fotovoltaisk eller fotoelektrokemisk anordning är aktuell. Metod 1 kan jämföras med metod 3 utan hänsyn till om filmer erhållits eller ej, och utan att se till eventuella filmers prestanda. Metod 1 kräver mer energi och arbete med att belägga utgångsmaterial, men ger en film direkt på ett substrat. Metod 3 utgör en enkel och robust metod att tillverka delafossit, men kräver efterarbete för att tillverka en tunnfilm. Å andra sidan kan partiklarna beläggas på en mängd olika substrat, vilker ger större flexibilitet och kanske även en prismässig fördel. Examensarbete 30 hp på civilingenjörsprogrammet Teknisk fysik med materialvetenskap Uppsala universitet, juni 2016 ii Acknowledgements This work have been conducted with professor Gerrit Boschloo as supervisor and I wish to thank him for this opportunity to investigate an interesting material. As co-supervisors, Malin Johansson and Xiaoliang Zhang have also provided valuable input and helped me with mea- surements and synthesis. Thank you, Malin for all the constructive suggestions and comments. During this work, I have also had help from many people in the group at Physical Chemistry, which I am very thankful for. Leif Häggman helped me in the lab, Wenxing helped me with electrochemical measurements and you all helped explaining areas which were new to me. I have also had a great time with you in the group. I will address a special thank to Pedro Berastegui at Inorganic Chemistry, who helped me with the tube furnaces. I also wish to thank Tomas Edvinsson for his useful comments and valuable input. iii Acronyms CIGS copper indium gallium selenide CZTS copper zinc tin sulfide/selenide DSSC dye sensitised solar cell FTO fluorine doped tin oxide GIXRD gracing incidence X-ray diffraction LSV linear sweep voltammerty PV photovoltaic RHE reversible hydrogen electrode SE secondary electron SEM scanning electron microscopy SHE standard hydrogen electrode UV-Vis ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy XRD X-ray diffraction iv Contents Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning i Acknowledgements iii Acronyms iv List of Figures vii List of Tables viii 1Introduction 1 2Background 3 2.1 Semiconductors .................................... 3 2.1.1 Direct and indirect band gap ......................... 3 2.1.2 Doping ..................................... 4 2.1.3 The pn-junction ................................ 4 2.1.4 Photovoltaic effect .............................. 4 2.2 Solar energy ...................................... 5 2.2.1 Solar water-splitting
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