Hi-Tech Sports

Cover Story HI-TECH SPORTS TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION IN SPORTS In an age where fractions of seconds decide winners in sporting events, science and technology is truly working overtime to equip sportspersons with that winning edge that could fetch them glory. N.S. ARUN KUMAR

OLA Budd was born in South Today, however, a plethora of Africa. A quarter of a century running shoes are available to fit the ago, she was a teenage runner requirements of different sports. Lace- breaking the women’s 5000 m up croquet shoes with rubber soles and Zrecord by 10 seconds. But how does that canvas uppers went on sale in the 1860s, make her special? Well, she ran bare thanks to the discovery of foot! vulcanisation, the process of curing At the prime of her fame, she was rubber by the addition of sulphur. This brought to Britain and sent to compete made way for the performance in the 1986 Los Angeles Olympics enhancing studded football boots, through a hasty subjugation of spiked running shoes and heel-less citizenship. Her immediate rival was cycling shoes. the American blonde, Mary Decker, But modern sports has progressed Bare-footed Zola challenging her at the women’s 3000 much beyond sporting footwear. In Budd speeding away m. They came head-to-head and when fact, the modern sporting gear has there were three more laps to go, truly become varied and hi-tech. Decker staggered from her line and For instance, you have protective collided with Budd. She fell from the wear, principally applying to sports INSIDE THE BAT’S HANDLE track and was unable to continue but where there is a serious chance of the real damage was inflicted on Budd physical injury. Cricketers are who was wounded by a spike from pampered with leg-guards and Handle Decker’s shoe. donning gloves. Tears streamed from Budd’s face Technology works wonders for the modern cricket bat as she struggled to continue with the Electronic shunt circuit gripping pain in her tendons, Wiring harness fading badly at the end and finishing seventh. It was a Vibration reducing disappointing performance, and technology increases the size the boos and catcalls from the of the bat’s ‘sweet spot’ - the American crowd told as much. zone in which the batsman Perhaps the outcome would have experiences the least been different had Zola Budd Vibrations discomfort when been wearing running shoes. converted hitting the ball There is also the case of into heat the Kenyan athlete Tegla Loroupe who was unable to Damper afford her first pair of shoes until winning a cross-country race in 1986. 8 SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 Cover Story Scientists, engineers, technicians, trainers and coaches are striving to give their athletes a slight edge, that could make the difference between winning a medal and going back Performance-enhancing running shoes make today’s runners virtually fly on the track empty handed.

Technology has also improved and tennis players. Biomechanics has is often measured in hundredths of almost everything in sports, from turned out to be a specialist area with seconds or fractions of centimeters, training to recovery and diet to the advent of ‘motion analysis’ tools manufacturers of performance clothing. There can hardly be a muscle assisted by sophisticated computer equipment seek to confer every group that is not targeted by a sports programs. allowable advantage on athletes. They machine that is designed to enhance Science and technology have truly do so through design innovations and bone density and ligament tensions. revolutionized sports today. There is by using materials that provide just the There are even machines that can no game that is untouched by this right combination of properties. replicate human opposition— revolution. In competitions where the Some applications call for ”bowling apparatus” for cricketers and difference between winning Olympic lightweight materials that provide ball-launching assemblies for baseball medals and going home empty-handed structural support, vibration dampening, and stiffness. Other applications require materials that are flexible, breathable, and insulating, and that protect against impact, tearing, moisture, and wind.

Science in the Game During the first test of the Australia and England Ashes series in 1979-1980, Australia’s fast bowler Dennis Lillee came to the wicket carrying a “brand- new” shining bat. When he drove the ball from England paceman Ian Botham, everybody heard an odd sound—a big clang! It was a blow sure enough to warrant a four but Lillee could run only three runs. Australia’s captain Greg Chappell, sitting in the pavilion blamed the bat for the shortfall, and sent a new bat to Lillee as replacement. England captain Mike Brearley complained to the umpires that Lillee’s pinging bat was damaging the ball. Lillee, however, refused to obey even his captain’s Cricket bowling machine—practicing without the bowler instructions and the game had to stop for a good 10 minutes. The bat was SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 9 Cover Story

While regular soccer balls are made with 32 hexagonal panels, the Teamgeist for World Cup in Germany 2006 had only 14 panels. The Jabulani ball (above) used in the 2010 South Africa World Cup had an amazing 8 panels. It had a ‘grip n groove’ texturing that aids smooth flight and bonded 3D panels moulded spherically to retain Top range tennis players shape and create a seamless sphere. favour a composite frame

There were not worldwide regulations governing the size and construction of tennis rackets up to 1979 and so many technological innovations were experimented with including different types of woods and other alternatives. Technology’s impact on the modern tennis game was mainly used to extend the power of shots. Metal rackets were in widespread use by the The featherie was the first golf ball used, it was tanned leather stuffed 1970s, which employed varieties of with goose feathers (extreme left); next came the guuta percha ball or aluminium and steel. However, top- the guttie ultimately followed by the modern dimpled golf ball range players favoured a composite frame in which graphite was combined examined and it turned out that it was the Australian aborigines had their with a number of materials including Lillee’s own invention, forged out of own version called dumbung. ceramics, boron and Kevlar. The real aluminium! Lillee was ordered to Until about thousand years ago, advantage of the modern graphite complete his innings with a the basic equipments for all the ball racket was its greater stiffness, rather conventional wooden bat. Shortly after games, the early precursors of golf, than lightness because it distorted little this, metal bats were outlawed through cricket, hockey and tennis, remained as it made contact with the ball. an amendment in the laws of cricket. the same. Strangely, the earliest The latest technology includes the This raised an interesting question: reference to a cricket bat is from 1624, incorporation of piezoelectric crystals should games be played as per when a fielder trying to catch the ball into racket frames, which produce conventional laws or could science be got hit with the bat and died because electricity under stress. The current allowed to step in? the bat was made of iron! generated by the ball hitting the If we look into the past history of Similarly, by the late 19th century, strings is sent to the handle, amplified the evolution of sports and sports-gear tennis rackets were made from Ash and returned to the ceramic composites we see that this question has baffled wood carefully steamed and bent into a in the frame. This causes the frame to many. From time immemorial, human round shape. The racket strings were stiffen and the result can be greater beings have been manipulating the fashioned from sheep’s gut, which was power and less vibration. But, there implements used in ball games. The replaced by cow’s gut after the Second are some first class players who still Aztecs invented the rubber ball while World War, as they were found cheaper. prefer traditional wooden rackets.

Cool sports wear made from Phase Today’s pole Change Materials vaulters use a highly flexible fiberglass pole

Spandex fibre combines the stretchability of rubber and toughness of polyurethane

10 SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 Cover Story

Modern synthetic surfaces resist heavy use and require no irrigation or trimming Today’s cricket batsman is armoured with several protective guards

Golf has had a long enduring like hockey sticks until the emerging Ball of the Rings alliance with technology. At first bowling techniques made it a parallel- In majority of the major games like there were handcrafted clubs carved sided willow bat. Fiercely opposing football, cricket, golf and tennis, the out of heavy hardwood heads of Holly any technological innovations, the physics of the ball plays a crucial part. or Apple trees. These leather-bound specifications of a cricket bat are now Among the most thoroughly shafts continued till the middle of clearly laid down (Law 6) which investigated, golf balls are most th the 18 century right when they were stipulates the wooden blade to be supreme and even the earliest balls replaced with metal heads. Though covered with a material no more than were masterpieces of the technology American Hickory had an intervening 1.56 mm thick. Fortunately, the ‘post- of their days. The ‘guttie’ balls were a presence during the early 19th century, Lillee’ laws leave two areas flexible: revolutionising attempt, which were metal heads remained more common. the handle of the bat and its weight. made from the sap of the Malaysian This fascination prevailed to the The cane and rubber handle of the Sapodilla tree. extent that steel shafts were legalised traditional bat was replaced by carbon Before this, there were the in 1920s. fibre with polymer insert. The material ‘Featheries’ made from three pieces of Unlike golf, however, the composition is made to give more tough hide sewn together and then authorities controlling cricket, weight lower down the blade making tightly stuffed with freshly boiled fowl baseball and tennis resisted the batsmen carry an increased weight feathers. After stitching up, the ball technological change resorting to hard- one third more than those used by was hammered into shape while still core conservatism in the case of table the greatest hitters like Donald wet, the expansion of the drying tennis. Cricket bats continued to look Bradman! feathers making it very hard, later on.

Hawk-Eye offers unique and exclusive graphics - from wagon wheels to pitch maps, beehives to The snickometer can catch the faintest snicking sound winner graphs, where is the batsman playing most of his shots, or the bowler pitching his balls

SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 11 Cover Story Super Racing Bicycles Futuristic Footwear A number of advances have contributed The resurgence in running brought about to the high efficiency of the modern-day by the English in the 18th century meant bicycle, including the development of the development of a lightweight shoe that spoked wheels, the chain concept, could grip the ground. The nineteenth pneumatic tires, and accessories (e.g., century saw the introduction of an all seats, brake levers, and pedals). leather spiked running shoe. The need for However, the two major advances are in greater speed in the modern games the frame and wheels. necessitated further refinement of The use of carbon-fiber-reinforced lightweight shoes with improved composite frames has made the bicycles traction. very light apart from keeping their frames Competition shoes stiff. Frames have recently been produced made from leather from magnesium, aluminium, titanium, fitted tightly to the and metal-matrix composites as well. In foot but because addition, hybrid frames such as carbon- they were not fiber-reinforced composites combined waterproofed the with titanium have been produced. leather stretched Wheels with increased stability and making them useless rigidity for off-road bikes constructed for running. from glass-fiber-reinforced nylon and In 1832 Wait disc wheels have been constructed. In Webster patented a disc wheels, discs made of aluminium process whereby rubber soles could be alloys or carbon-fiber-reinforced attracted to the shoes and boots. By the composites replace the spokes in conventional wheels. Developments also The modern ‘Hasket’ ball came include three- or five-spoked wheels for over only hundred years ago, where rigidity and crosswind aerodynamics. there was a rubber-core, a solid one, Cycle spokes add to the drag because bound with rubber thread. This was they whiz at twice your speed when at enclosed in a dimpled case of ‘balata’— the top of the wheel. This is why racing a type of non-elastic latex. The Hasket bicycles often cover the spokes with a balls had an advantage over the disk cover — but only on the rear wheel experimentally introduced pneumatic usually because crosswinds at the front balls, as they never exploded on hot days! can destabilize steering. From about 1700, cricket balls also followed the same technology with leather sewn around a rounded hard Camera in the sky keeps an core made out of cork, remaining a eye on the proceedings standard, unchanged through the 19th century. Historians believe that the game of football is as old as human civilization. Chinese and South Americans kicked around something similar to a sphere, but it was not until the first rubber bladder appeared in 1862 that the game of soccer became a serious sport. Before that ‘football’ was largely an inflated animal bladder, often protected by an outer skin of leather. The first “balls” were not During the 1996 World Cup round, as bladders were not so, that cricket matches, millions of which is still used in American Football and Rugby. However there viewers watched as field were no regulations concerning the ball umpires took the aid of the until 1872, being formulated by FA (Football Association) in England third umpire before taking a which was founded in 1863. Strangely through the many years decision on close run-outs it passed the soccer ball changed little. and stumpings. 12 SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 Cover Story

1860s a croquet shoe was marketed which popularity of tennis in the 1920s meant experts) in their product development. had a rubber sole with a canvas upper many adults wore canvas-topped shoes for Nowadays modern synthetic shoes are fastened with laces. Movement in the shoes recreation. made of lightweight mesh fabric uppers was noiseless and quickly worn by sneak The father of the modern running shoe and lightweight synthetic soles chosen for thieves hence the name sneakers. was Adolf Dassler who began making maximum flexibility and comfort. Running Specialty shoes for the bicycle boom shoes in 1920. By 1936 his shoes were shoes have no heel and this provides the of the 1860s and 70s meant the internationally acknowledged as the best necessary leverage for toe spring, which introduction of heel less shoes for cyclists. and were worn by athletes of the calibre propels the runner’s legs forward. These were lightweight and had eight or of Jesse Owens. Dassler’s running shoes Whether it’s foam, silicon, air or gel, ten eyelets. were worn at the Berlin Olympics. Dassler cushioning systems have become one of Spiked shoes for running were specialised in shoes designed for sport. the most important aspects of the modern developed in 1852. Joseph William Foster After the lean war years he continued to running shoe. The 70s saw the founded the first sports shoe company in progress and developed the training shoe development of ethylene vinyl acetate Boulton (United Kingdom) in the 1890’s. made from surplus tent canvas and rubber (EVA) - a substance made up of millions of His grandson later took over in 1958 and from fuel tanks. In 1948 he founded Adidas tiny air bubbles that provides cushioning renamed the firm, Reebok. In the 1924 but the company was soon to split into and absorbs shock. It was considered to Olympics, the company made thin shoes Adidas and Puma. To give support to the be a major advance in footwear technology made from rigid leather. In 1907 one running shoe Dassler added three side and is still widely used today. company began stitching a leather strip strips to the shoe, which first appeared in And now space age shoes are also round the top of the shoe to form a collar, 1949. here. The smart shoes have a liquid crystal and this helped to reduce stretching. The It wasn’t until the 1960s and 70s that display system. When plugged into a first popular sneaker was introduced in the technology really took off. In the 70s science personal computer they can tell the United States in 1917 under the name of began to take a much bigger role, as distance covered, time taken and the Keds. These were tennis shoes. The manufacturers involved podiatrists (foot calories burned after each run!

characteristics for it. Coloured balls the England batsman Derek Randal The dramatic effect of were permitted for the benefit of TV ironically put it, when hit by a ball on but it regulated the materials from his head, “No good hitting me there technology is more which it could be made. mate, Nothing to damage!” evident in pole-vault when The first synthetic (Polyurethane) The majority of man-made sports- ball was used in World Cup 1986. The wear appeared for the first time after bending bamboos were maximum permitted weight gain World War II. Rayon and Nylon paved replaced by Aluminium in through moisture absorption was fixed the way for acrylic (1950), Polyester as 10% but the 2006 World Cup ball (1953), Spandex (1959) and more 1957. never gained more than 0.1% of its recently Lyocell in 1992, which is weight. The improved water resistance claimed to be environment friendly. Apart from adding a layer of cloth was achieved by replacing the The first advantage of technologically between the bladder and leather casing traditional stitching of the panels with produced fabrics is weight, especially everything remained the same. The thermal bonding. The much-evolved when wet. Traditional natural fabrics modern alteration was the interlocking modern first-class football also has like wool, cotton and even Nylon are panels replacing the traditional 18- surface interruptions to maximise the hydrophilic in nature. section exterior of stitched and tanned friction between itself and the boot. On the other hand, Polyester, cowhide. The main problem was the The number of panels also has been which is the main ingredient of most leather balls absorbing water in damp reduced, from 32 to 14. of modern sports garments, is very conditions, becoming heavy and much hydrophobic, that is, it does not making “heading” a dangerous The Winner’s Fabric absorb water. According to sports exercise. Sporting apparel first came to the field physicians, wet fabrics could have In modern balls, movement in in the form of protective wear. In serious implications such as straight line is preferred to added cricket, the batsman was wearing ‘leg- hypothermia when the body is unable distance. The number, size and guards’ even from the days of the 19th to generate sufficient warmth or can optimum spacing of dimples along century. But, the technology was basic induce wasting of energy. Even with the weight of the hardcore was involving canvas, leather, horsehair, Polyester has a clear disadvantage of found to affect distance travelled, and wood enforced cotton paddy. building-up body temperature in hot whereas a three-layer ball with a Wicket keepers often laced the inside conditions. polyurethane exterior created a low of their gloves with meat to protect Technology had several answers for flying and slow spinning ball. When their hands. Footballers took to this, the most popular being “breathing the physicists went on to work on the wearing shin-pads, especially players fabrics” sold under the name “Gore- football, FIFA – the international body of American football. Helmets were Tex” and “PB2”. Simply speaking, they controlling the game – eagerly worn by some since the 1890s and it are impervious to rain but allow established a standard size, pressure, became compulsory by 1930s, but moisture (sweat) to pass through. Their shape retention and bounce and weight nothing for the head of cricketers, as effectiveness in shifting moisture from SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 13 Cover Story During the first test of the Australia and England Ashes The latest technology includes the incorporation of series in 1979-1980, Australia’s fast bowler Dennis Lillee piezoelectric crystals into came to the wicket carrying a “brand-new” shining bat. racket frames, which produce When he drove the ball from England paceman Ian electricity under stress. The Botham, everybody heard an odd sound—a big clang! It current generated by the ball was a blow sure enough to warrant a four but Lillee hitting the strings is sent to could run only three runs. the handle, amplified and inside to out is measured as MVT dampen muscle vibration and facilitate returned to the ceramic (Moisture Vapour Transfer). blood flow. Recently spandex has been composites in the frame. This The latest technology in sports- added to football jerseys. fabric is however PCM-fabric made causes the frame to stiffen from “Phase Change Materials.” They Spears and Poles and the result can be greater usually incorporate highly The athletic activity that clearly power and less vibration. hydrophobic fibres like ‘Ingeo’ or displays the complex relationship ‘Olefin’. Worn next to the skin as between sports and technology is on pole specifications. Physicists have “under armour”, they help keep the Javelin throw. Originally it was a shaft realised that hollow poles are better body at constant temperature, cool in of Olive wood, being replaced by the than solid ones and tapering poles are hot conditions and warm in cold Hickory or Scandinavian Birch, but better than parallel ones. As the vault climate. The material remains in the metal tipped spear or the ‘real’ Javelin is achieved by releasing the stored gel-state and when they attain a high came only in the 1896 Olympics. strain energy in the bent pole, there temperature, they change the ‘phase’ Though the weight was standardised was enough scope for basic sports by absorbing the heat. When the as 800 g and length 2.6 m, a major research as pioneered by University of temperature around them falls, they revolution swept through when Cambridge. Researchers say that in release their stored heat and return to Richard Held introduced the hollow pole-vaulting it is impossible to the gel state. Javelin of Steel and Aluminium. Held separate technique from apparatus. Another virtue of modern man- was able to increase the surface area made fabrics is that they can be quick by 27% while keeping the weight same, Technology at Play wicking, that is, capable of soaking in enabling the Javelin to literally “fly” During the 1996 World Cup cricket sweat and removing it from the body. to record making distances. matches, millions of viewers watched An athlete can feel more comfortable But when East Germany’s Uwe as field umpires took the aid of the with a wicking garment and moreover Hohn made a truly extraordinary third umpire before taking a decision with some anti-microbial element it performance of 104.80 m, beating the on close run-outs and stumpings. can combat fungal infections too. previous record by an astounding 5 m, What’s more, they did not need to rush It would not be an exaggeration to IAAF (International Association of over to the pavilion at all. They stayed say that technology of sports clothing Athletics Federations) moved the in contact thanks to small portable could even enhance fair play. A shirt ‘centre of gravity’ of competing walkie-talkies they carried. However, made up of Spandex material can stretch Javelins forward by 4 cm. It proved to the third umpire is only one of the up to 600% and when the defender is have a double effect—shorter distances several technological inputs that have blocked by grabbing his shirt, there is and nose hitting, making distance become indispensable in today’s sports greater chance of the referee seeing it, measurement easier. world. Technological gadgetry has as the stretched shirt will be a sure The dramatic effect of technology intruded into almost every aspect of evidence of the offence! is more evident in pole-vault when game play today. Spandex is a form of polymer, bending bamboos were replaced by For instance, Steven’s Machine, invented by the DuPont chemist Joseph Aluminium in 1957. The 1896 named after its inventor, is a simple Shivers in 1959. It was initially known Olympics saw a height of ten feet, six mechanical device that is used to by the name “Elastane.” Today, it is inches achieved with a bamboo pole. measure the amount of deformation popular as “Lycra”. The specialty of In the 1960s, after the pole-vault record attained by a tennis ball under a Spandex is that it combines the had inched upwards for 60 years, previously known amount of force. stretchability of rubber and toughness records began to fall as aluminum Here, the ball is pressed between two of Polyurethane. It is one of the poles were introduced. Today, world- plates and the readings are recorded wonders of modern sportswear that class pole-vaulters are using highly automatically. Today, there are four Polyurethane and Spandex combine in sophisticated composite pole, types of tournament balls each the manufacture of high-grade resulting in the 1996 record of 19 feet, differing in size and rebounding garments that have to endure constant five inches. capacity. According to the nature of stress and strains. Spandex Now pole-vaulters use a highly the court surface and attitude, ball type undergarments are supposed to flexible fibreglass pole, thanks to the is selected, where testing by Steven’s remove lactic acid from muscles, minimal regulations imposed by IAAF machine plays a major role. 14 SCIENCE REPORTER, October 2010 Cover Story Then there is the Snickometer, a during the match is 8,426 m’. Such computer scoring to encourage technological assistance provided to wonders have been made possible accuracy and safety in boxing. umpires and commentators that makes through sports-tracking systems like The system allows monitoring of judgment easier. It was invented by the well known ‘Pro-Zone’. Here, an performance in real-time and is able the computer expert Allan Plaskett. array of digital cameras tracks to indicate the location of hits, The working is based on sounds picked the movement of the ball and each display basic statistics on hit locations, up by microphones located in the player behind it. The impulses are then and show the current score of each stumps or pitch, which is reproduced fed to a computer system that gives boxer. as an oscillation chart, depicting the ball positional breakdown every 0.01- There is no doubt that technology passing the bats. Useful in LBW related second. This means that coaches, has been changing sports, from the disputes. experts and players can recall moment toe-hold groves were inserted Hawkeye is a British invention almost everything of the overall in ancient Olympics to the potentially derived from missile-tracking performance. This type of video revolutionary “dee-three-oh” technology that is used to recreate playback is now widely used for skill protective ski clothing. But more than the trajectory of a moving ball with improvement also. Top performers that the nature of sports itself is 99.99% accuracy. It works on a set of are filmed demonstrating a skill, changing. Over the last 20 years, sports six wirelessly linked cameras, set in which is broken down to analyse has evolved into an industry. different positions in the playing area. its style and tactics. An example is Scientists, engineers, technicians, With the help of a computer program, “Sports Wizard” developed by trainers and coaches are striving to it can also predict the path of the Dartfish. give their athletes a slight edge, that ball, if it goes uninterrupted. The automated boxing scoring could make the difference between ‘Skyscope’ also functions similar to system (ABSS) is a research and winning a medal and going back empty Hawkeye. development project being developed handed. Many of us have wondered over by a group of Australian institutions Mr N.S. Arun Kumar is Editorial Assistant, Kerala the amazingly detailed statistics and private companies. The system State Institute for Children’s Literature, Sanskrit flashed upon our TV Screens, for uses wireless communication, micro College Campus, Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram, example – ‘Distance covered by ‘X’ sensors, smart integration, and Kerala-695 034; Blog: aknscience.blogspot.com

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