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ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE & RELIABILITY OF MATERIALS TO BE USED IN CRICKET BAT HANDLE

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

ASHISH KUMAR KATIYAR

Under the Supervision of SYED TARIQ MURTAZA, Ph.D. ER. SHAMSHAD ALI

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA) 2018 ANNEXURE-I

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, Ashish Kumar Katiyar, Department of Physical Education, certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Syed Tariq Murtaza, Ph.D. and Er. Shamshad Ali at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their work has been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some others work, para, text, data, result etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.

Date:………………………. (Signature of the Candidate)

Ashish Kumar Katiyar (Name of the Candidate) …………………………………………………………………………………………

Certificate from the Supervisor/Co-supervisor

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of our knowledge.

Er. Shamshad Ali Syed Tariq Murtaza, Ph.D (Signature of the Co-Supervisor) (Signature of the Supervisor)

Associate Professor Associate Professor Mechanical Engg. Section, University Department of Physical Education Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 202002 Aligarh. 202002 (U.P.) India (U.P.) India

(Signature of the Chairman of the Department with seal)

ANNEXURE-II

COURSE/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE-SUBMISSION SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Ashish Kumar Katiyar, En. No. GG-9744 Department of Physical Education has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination/ pre-submission seminar requirement which are the part of his Ph.D. programme.

Date: ………………….. (Signature of Chairman of Department)

iii

ANNEXURE-III

Title of the Thesis: ‘Analysis of the Performance & Reliability of Materials to be used in Cricket Bat Handle’

Candidate’s Name: Ashish Kumar Katiyar

The undersigned hereby assign to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, copy right that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D. degree.

Signature of Candidate

Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provided that the source and the University’s copyright notice are indicated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisors, viz. Er. Shamshad Ali, from Mechanical Engineering Section, University Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh and Syed Tariq Murtaza, Ph.D., Associate Professor, from the Department of Physical Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for their guidance and tremendous support during my PhD work. As per the nature of my work, Er. Shamshad Ali (my Co-Supervisor) deserves special mentioning for his excellent technical advice, invaluable knowledge and great help. His generous help, substantial information and regular encouragement always kept me on track and were the key to my completion. I felt fortunate to have the opportunity to work under his supervision.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Prof. Brij Bhushan Singh, Chairperson, Department of Physical Education, alongwith all the teaching and non- teaching staff for providing me nice workplace and a pleasant atmosphere of research & development to carry out my research work in the Department.

In addition, I would like to thank Prof. S Iqbal Ali, Principal, University Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, to allow me to use the facilities of the Carpentry Shop, Fitting Shop, Turning & Machine Shop, CNC Machine Tool Shop and Common Facility Center (CFC) and he also deputed the workshop technicians for helping me out throughout my research work.

I would like to thanks Prof. Mohd. Muzzammil, Chairperson, Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing me necessary testing facilities and to make use of, at the Structure of Materials (SOM) Lab and also deputing Mr. Khadim Abbas, Technical Assistant, for testing of prototypes. I feel indebted to Mr. Abbas for his kind advice, support and expertise during the testing prototypes.

And I would like to thank to all the Technical Assistant and in particular Mr. Mohd. Mukeem, Carpenter and Mr. Rahim Khan, Mr. Mohd. Saud Hashmi, and Mr. Laxman for devoting their time and engineering abilities during the manufacturing of handle prototypes and testing fixtures.

Thanks are due to Mr. Gulsanover (AWS), Mr. Ghufran Ahmad Kidwai T.A. (Store Incharge), and Mr. Mohammad Akbar (TA), Mr. Jabaruddin (TA) for their generous and friendly help with my experiments and products prototyping, otherwise, I would have had a lot of troubles.

To all my friends who have undoubtedly helped, even if it was only to keep me laughing.

Finally, I would like to thank the University Grant Commission (UGC) for the funding Non-Net Scholarship for carrying this research work which supported my Ph.D. study.

Date: Ashish Kumar Katiyar

ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE & RELIABILITY OF MATERIALS TO BE USED IN CRICKET BAT HANDLE

ABSTRACT SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

ASHISH KUMAR KATIYAR

Under the Supervision of SYED TARIQ MURTAZA, Ph.D. ER. SHAMSHAD ALI

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA) 2018 ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

The cricket bat, a thing of beauty and power, has struggled to evolve from its 1860‟s incarnation. In shape and style, it changes continuously as bat makers look to differentiate themselves, driven by rapacious need to create new models for each seasons. In structure, the bat barley moved, despite regular attempts to add new materials, technologies and techniques. Law 6 (the bat) pretty much consigns the blade to being a lovely carved piece of solid willow for the rest of time. On paper and in practice the only place for experimentation and innovation is in the handle and the splice (Edward, 2013).

In cricket, the battle between bat and ball is key. If one comes to dominate the other, the game will become predictable and less enjoyable to play and watch. While cricket pitches, balls and boundaries have changed little in centuries, modern bats have developed to the extent that miss-hits are now sometimes clearing the boundary rope for six. By ensuring that bats are made in the traditional manner, MCC hopes to safeguard the traditional balance of the game. We have seen the impact of new technology and materials on other sport.

 Golfers drive the ball enormous distances,  Tennis players serve at greater speeds,  Footballers can dip and swerve the ball extravagantly.

If the development of cricket bats is left unchecked, the balance could be tipped too far towards batsmen. Modern training methods have allowed many batsmen to become stronger and fitter than their predecessors, thus hitting the ball harder and further. MCC is not trying to legislate against those players, but rather the new materials that could give them an unfair advantage.

Design and innovation are inseparable. This is particularly evident in the case of sport products. The sporting goods industry has diversified over the years to accommodate the different interests and needs of athletes and consumers in general. It has also promoted and helped to develop new sport that have in turn served as a catalyst for new types of products (Subic, 2007). Abstract

The advance in equipment design has not occurred within cricket bat manufacturing. In fact innovations as in other sport are comparatively rare (Grant & Thethi, 1994). The traditional design of the bat has changed very little as many manufacturers pride themselves on their traditional techniques. This apparent lack of development may be due to the restrictions of the rules.

However, the rules do not specify that modifications cannot be made. As we have seen over there the last 10 years that the cricket has been a mass of modernization in cricket bat and handles to improve bat performance by using different material. Variations in the design have been limited to the back of the bat such as scallops, extended ridges or alterations in the weight (Grant, 1996). This apparent lack of development may be due to the confinements of the rules (MCC, 2008) which limit manufacturers to using wood as the impacting surface.

Cricket as a sport with long history and rich tradition, has seen little development in regards to the performance of the cricket bat. The fact that no alteration to the material composition of the blade is permitted, that restricts cricket bat to embark to the latest sport enhancement technologies that have proven to benefit other games of sport such as baseball and tennis. (Bogue, Mulcahey, Spangler, 1998).

The examples are such as aluminium baseball bats (Russell, 2006) golf clubs (Bianchini, Spangler, & Pandell, 1999), tennis rackets (Head, 2006a), mountain bike Smart shock system (Perkins, 1997), skis (Head, 2006b), and Intelligence snowboards (Head, 2006c) which use advanced material technology with/without electronic technology to either enhance performance for the games and also reduce the risk of players being injured, bringing comfort to the players. These innovative designs have made the sport more attractive, enjoyable and entertaining (Cao, 2006).

As in many industries, the sporting goods industry faces fierce competition today. In order to win the competition and prevent being phased out, it is important for manufacturers to innovate products and give their goods added functionalities at an acceptable price. These are not only to meet some players‟ personal taste, but also to have benefits from a marketing point of view. In sport competition, unwanted vibrations affect the performance, and comfort of players, as well as shorten the life span of products (Cao, 2006).

Abstract

The increasing demand among consumers for the latest high-performance sport equipment is fuelling scientific and engineering research by sport equipment manufacturers. Such research, together with the use of stiff, light-weight composite materials has spawned many novel features and designs, particularly for golf clubs and baseball bats (Singh, 2008). There has been relatively little scientific investigation into current bat design and manufacturing, and today it is still remains a craftsman‟s art. The ability to generate a range of playing characteristics within the conflict of a conventional external & internal geometry may be significant for the future cricket bat design. The improvement in performance is such type of modern Modified Handle predominant since the game has evolved. It is also considered for many accounts for the fact that the game has not been subject to the same level of research and development observed in other sport such as baseball, golf and tennis and racquet design. Improvements in equipment by using engineering materials and sport technology have made a significant impact on sporting performance in recent years. Advanced materials and novel processing methods have enabled the development of new types of equipment with enhanced properties, as well as improving the overall design of sporting goods. The interdependence between material technology and design, and its impact on many of the most popular sport is reviewed.

One sport which has seen no such development is cricket, due to deep conservatism in the modern rules of the games, formulated in 1774 (Bailey, 1979), restrict the games equipment from using new sport enhancement technologies that have proven to benefit other games of sport. Only a little enhancement has been made to improve the performance of Cricket bat since its inception (Cao, 2006). As various games developed on this theme, each version demanded changes in the shape of the implements to suit its own requirements. The development of cricket from around 1620 necessitated advances to the design of bat and ball in keeping with changes made to the rules of the game. The handle will be the initial focus since it is least restricted by the rules of the game. (John & Li, 2002).In due course of that, regular attempts made by the material scientists and researchers, who are working in this rapidly developing field to include new materials and techniques for the advancement and modification of a new recent development in cricketing equipments.

Within the boundaries of the game rules, several improved bat designs have proceeded to commercial production. These include the introduction of cane and

Abstract rubber laminates (parallel with the bat length) as handle material aimed to ultimately reduce the transmission of vibration from the blade to the handle on impact (John & Li, 2002), and the introduction of improved perimeter weighting in 1960‟s on the blade. However, these changes were still far from optimum and, the improvements to the handle remain relatively unexplored (John & Li, 2002).

Various modifications and designs have been developed using wood, aluminium and composite materials to improve the performance of baseball and cricket bats (Eftaxiopoulou, Narayanan, Dear, & Bull, 2011; Pang, Subic, & Takla, 2011; Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell, 2001; Smith, Shenoy, Axtell, & Sem, 2000; Sridharan, Rao, & Omkar, 2015). An alternate approach had been carried out to modify the handle of the bat, and then to a prototype Modified Handle was developed (Ali, & Murtaza, 2014), in which a joint assembly was used for attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length, made up of brass materials mounted on to bottom portion of the handle.

Recent advances in technology and materials have motivated a number of changes in cricket bat design. While some studies also suggest these advances have not affected performance, more work is needed to quantify their contribution (Stretch, Brink, & Hugo, 2006). Grant (1998a) suggested that the handle offers the most scope for improvements in bat performance. The handle should be regarded as a primary target for design and innovation (Li, 2002). The rules do not strictly restrict the handle design but, have left open an opportunity to alter the handle design, where there is no limitation to the innovative possibilities either in the form of improved structure, material composition, or additional instrument incorporation in the handle (Cao, 2006). But the opportunity may be use for innovative design and manufacture using high stiffness to weight ratio advanced fibre composites and material composites, there may be the possibility of significantly altering the dynamic characteristics of the bat by tailoring the design of the handle. This has left a door open for the possibility to design innovative Cricket bats (Cao, 2006). However, the rules do not specify that modifications cannot be made but under the control of the MCC.

Abstract as a proportion of the total volume of the handle, and one-fifth for Type C and D. And also such type of materials must not project more than 3.25 in/8.26 cm into the lower portion of the handle and, should be as long as it is within the specified dimensions (MCC, 2017).The problem originally sourced and selected from previously published patent no. (993/DEL/2014 A, 2014) and with due permission of inventors, the researcher wants to conduct this particular type of study; experimentally on cricket bat handle as per technological advancement and its specification i.e. “the handle of a bat comprises two parts, i.e. Part 1 remains attached permanently with the blade & Part 2 either detached or attached with Part 1” (Ali, & Murtaza, 2014).

The invention itself a problem for which the researcher and the inventors want to provide working framework, and look for a solution to further improve upon and modify into the invention, which has may be guaranteed as some industrial application, and compilations of the same work with correct interpretation. If any innovative equipment which comes out, and permitted to used into the games fairly, is often available after or with a lab test that simulate game conditions and incorporate the use of two objects; the object being evaluated and the object that it impacts in the course of its use.

The sole intention of undertaking this study is to test the invention technically and experimentally to make this invention industrially applicable that is novel and to ensure that the design and implementation should be in line with the International manufacturing standards of cricket bats and it should conform to the rules of the sport (Oslear, 2000), and also want to get affiliation and to fix this invention into the frame of laws, which often must regulated by sport governing bodies after successful conformity of this work, as to make this invention widely in usage as per the Law 5 the bat (MCC, 2017).

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The proposed study is first of its kind at the global plane which is the outcome of one of the patents of the investigators developed by (Ali, & Murtaza, 2014), which ensures the execution of the proposed research work, which is undertaken, and entitled as the:

‘Analysis of the Performance & Reliability of Materials to be used in Cricket Bat Handle’.

Abstract

HYPOTHESES

Ho1: There will be no difference in the Mechanical and Physical Properties of Modified Handle in comparison to more Referenced/conventional Handle.

Ho2: There will be no difference in the Mechanical and Physical Properties of material that is used for making of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof.

Ho3: There will be no difference in the Modified Handles‟ Mechanical Properties by mounting the Joint Assembly and Parts thereof on three different locations of the handle i.e. top, middle and bottom.

DELIMITATIONS

A. Independent Variables

1. Handle Constraint: The experiment carried out on Grade „A‟ cricket bats handles that was short in size and round in shape and made up of finest quality of Singapore cane with 3 rubber insertions. The handle was constrained to its new measurement (values), in order to overcome the problem of using 10% non-wood material (i.e. Joint Assembly and their parts) within the limit of MCC‟s Law 5 (the bat) into the handle, for making the handle detachable with their distinct length (i.e. short to long) via joint assembly (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018b).

2. Joint Assembly Constraint: An improved design of Joint Assembly was designed and prepared by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018e).

3. Material Constraint: The advanced composite material (ACM) used for Joint Assembly i.e. a) Metal Alloys (MA) i. Brass ii. Aluminum Alloy b) Polymer Mix Composite (PMC) i. Teflon ii. Nylon c) Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) i. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) ii. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Abstract

4. Location of Joint Assembly Constraint: a) Top of the Handle b) Middle of the Handle c) Bottom of the Handle

B. Dependent Variables

1. Physical Properties a) Density b) Moisture Content 2. Mechanical Properties a) Equivalent Bending Stiffness(EI) b) Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) c) Modulus of Rigidity (MOR) d) Torsional Stiffness (k)

LIMITATIONS

1. Experimental conditions of the lab sessions. 2. Material properties may be differing at particular point of time. 3. All pieces of handle may not be made of same log of wood and may differ in their physical and mechanical properties. 4. Manufacturing process may differ. 5. Materials‟ compositions. 6. Weight distribution.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND PROPOSED APPROACHES OF THE STUDY

Although this study has been an investigation regarding the analysis of cricket bat handle only, the main purpose of this study is to experimentally investigate the performance of materials used and fully document the responses of mechanical properties of cricket bat handle. In order to achieve these, three main objectives which were outlined are given below:

Primary Objectives The aim of this research is to investigate the science behind the material used into cricket bat handle with their physical and mechanical characteristics and to

Abstract design, manufacture, and evaluate a novel cricket bat handle, having properties of attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length in order to get the mechanical advantage by shortening and lengthening of the handle and to reduce player‟s burden of being carrying extra weight in their kitbags.

Modification in the design of the joint‟s assembly includes new materials and techniques for the advancement and modification of a new recent development in cricketing equipments. This research would prove as development of an effective corroboration scheme to increase the performance of cricket bat handle and its durability too. Material costs, processing and weight of the equipment would be important considerations. An appropriate durability metric to quantify and compare the robustness of handle needed, that is to be found.

The primary objective of the study is to test and develop a predictive technique of accessing the performance of handle‟s materials properties and initiated to determine whether the traditional bat handles could be improved by the use of modern materials. And seeking answers of some basic questions i.e. why do similar cricket bat handles apparently differ widely in their performance, and how well might a properly designed cricket bat handle performs accordingly by the use of different type of materials as per the new Law 5–the bat (MCC, 2017).

Intermediate Objectives The performance of different materials and joint‟s assemblies would be analyzed in order to find out the most reliable material and joint design.

Overall Development Objectives: Designing of a new prototype model for Referenced Cricket bat handle and a new detachable handle was proposed at the end of this proposed study. And a detachable handle comprising of joint assembly of, with suitable material would be manufactured and tested in order to meet out the demand of general playing properties of handle, in comparison to a more conventional handle.

GOALS OF THE STUDY

Part One mainly focused on the designing of Referenced Handle and joint assembly and to opt the best method of planting the joint assembly on to the handle of the cricket bat.

Abstract

Part Two concentrated on the general use of materials in sport. Here, the researcher had given a broad insight into the overall influence of materials to be used in the cricket bat handle, and the significance of material processing and design and to select the best material from which assembly would be prepared finally.

Part Three focused on showing how cricket bat have benefited from recent improvements in material technology. It also analysed the aspect in which way the sport equipment made in/ or influenced material and design with the help of biomechanics and sport engineering. The overall focus was to check the interaction between the type of material, its selection, processing and testing, and to show how this process underpins the performance of the final sporting product.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 It has been generally observed that each batsman carries bats of varying sizes because in order to play long hits, the batsman needs long handle bat and to play defensive strokes one needs short handle bat. In this way, cricket bats with varying handle length are required.  To provide the mechanical advantages by lengthening and shortening of the handle and to lighten the kit-bags of the cricketers & reducing the cost of purchasing extra bats.  Lesser number of cricket blades would be required; hence the cutting trees would be decreased, thus promoting ecological balance.  To determine the reliable material which is best suited for joint assembly and their parts for the detachable handle.  To investigate and establish the effect of structural design and construction of the handle on performance.  To determine the effect of alterations to the dimensions and material properties of the cricket bat handle and to discuss how performance and player comfort would be improved.  To develop a predictive technique of accessing the performance of handle‟s materials properties.  Finally, this study would enrich the limited literature that has been published in the area of cricket bat analysis.

Abstract

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It can be observed that, much of the study was carried out only on the sweet spot, modal analysis of cricket bat and batted ball exist velocity, maximizing the speed of cricket ball after impact with the bat, flexural stiffness and vibration control, surface hardness of cricket bat and less in regards to the performance and reliability of materials to be used in cricket bat handle, hence in this study it is intended to carry out the analysis of the performance and reliability of material used in handles. So the literature concerning to the science of cricket is reviewed in this chapter together with the relevant studies from other sports. The review has focused upon human factors, bat and ball impact modelling and material properties.

In relation to other major sports, the volume of published information regarding the use of different kind of material in cricket bat is scarce. Research concerned with baseball bat has been more widely published and contain significant value. Although the different game, baseball and cricket share a number of similarities with respect to the nature of the bat used and its interaction with the ball.

In this thesis, an overview of the background of cricket bat, including the rules restricting the design of cricket bat and the possibilities of improving cricket bat performance by using advanced materials within the boundaries of cricket bat governing rules had been reported. The following review of related literature provides background information pertinent to the investigation was only given.

METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES

This study is first of its kind which was employed on to the ‘Analysis of the performance & reliability of non-wood material used into cricket bat handle’, mainly focused on the use of non-wood material from which the joint assembly was made. Hence, the study is intended to carry out the analysis of the performance and reliability of non-wood material used in handles.

The nature of the study is totally different from all other studies with regards to the performance and reliability of materials to be used in cricket bat handle; and also in relation to other major sports. So, none of the methodologies of previous studies matched or revealed the proper methodology and procedure intended to carry out this particular type of study. Hence, the researcher himself chalked out the

Abstract particular type of methodology to carry out this study. The methodology and procedures involved in the processing of materials used for the making of prototype handle, and testing their performance were followed sequentially.

During the course of this study, various types of materials and methods were employed to make the required specimen i.e. Referenced Handle and Joint Assembly and Parts thereof for Modified Handle. Various methods of specimen testing have either been designed and/or purchased to meet the requirements of this study. This chapter aims to describe each type of materials and their processing and methods to employ to fulfil the required specifications.

To deal with the preceding study the researcher adopted the following processes:

PART I: PREPARATION AND MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SPECIMENS

This part specifically deals with the production and manufacturing process used for preparation of specimens, which were already determined for this study in the delimitation section. In this part all the work had been carried out step by step thoroughly in the following manner:

Flow Chart of Work Plan for Part I

Step 1: Selection of Geometrical Parameters for a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle

Step 2: Constraining Geometrical Parameters of the Handle

Step 3: Selection of Materials for Joint Assembly and Handle

Step 4: Manufacturing Process of Laminated Cane Handle

Step 5: Determining the 10% Volume of a Referenced Handle

Step 6: Designing and Making of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof

Step 7: Defining the Different Location to Mount the Joint Assembly

Step 8: Designing and Making of Handle to Mount the Joint Assembly

Step 9: Mounting of Joint Assembly on the Handle

Abstract

PART II: TESTING PROCESS OF PREPARED SPECIMENS

In this part an approach was used to predict the performance of Modified Handles in respect to a Referenced Handle. In the following testing procedure, two major types of specimens were tested, first was a Referenced Handle and other was Modified Handle in which joint assembly was installed on three locations. The specimens used in this study were made up of laminated cane wood of constraint measurements on selected geometrical parameters, which were more similar to a traditional design.

The motion of the cricket bat is similar to that baseball or softball bat. Dynamic analysis of performance is unable to perform due to that motion of bat swing is complex, three dimensional, involves translation & rotation (Adair, 1995; and Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell, 2001), and is difficult to replicate experimentally. A simulation only requires replicating the bat motion during the instant of contact with the ball; however which primarily involves pure rotation.

The performance evaluation of cricket bat handle is very little in frequency and currently the performance of cricket bat is assessed through experimental testing. The tests are expensive, time consuming, and impede the design process. In the present study all the tests were developed through predictive technique of accessing the handle performance. The techniques were intended to be general and rigorous, allowing parameters controlling handle performance to be examined and manipulating in-house before fabricating and testing prototypes.

Material properties of the handle are based on the type of wood used. Wood is an orthotropic material, thus its properties in the longitudinal, radial, and transverse directions are different. But the transverse properties of handle are even less important. For this reason, and since the orthotropic properties of cane are not known, it was assumed to be isotropic. An isotropic material definition was considered sufficient in representing the bulk properties of the handle. Wood is a natural material and its density and moisture content varies from species to species. Elastic properties of the wood can vary within the same species (Singh, 2008).

As a consequence of material restrictions, most cricket bat developments are geometry related. An accurate model could aid developers in predicting the effect of changes to the design of a bat handle. The reliability of the performance of the

Abstract handle is dependent on the description of materials involved. The physical and mechanical properties of wood can also vary widely within and especially between species. This becomes especially difficult when the materials are non-homogeneous due to this, the assessment of bat performance is significantly depends upon many factors that are difficult to control or quantify. The elastic behaviour of a lumber member in bending is influenced by a number of factors including density, temperature, and moisture content of the wood, testing geometry, and rate of loading.

Therefore, all the parameter quantified and assumptions were made that, all the materials (same type of cane wood, rubber, twine, adhesive and joint assembly) and manufacturing process are equivalent, or at least do confer any performance benefited, if altered. Once they determined, all other relevant properties may be found easily, on which the performance of handle is determined i.e. Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rigidity (MOR), and Torsional Stiffness (k). These are the main key parameters, which are directly associated to the handle in relation to overall performance of cricket bat in terms of pick up weight, vibration imparted to the batsman & energy imparted to the ball.

For analysis of each of these factors, and in order to access the contribution of various design parameters on the overall performance of handle, physical properties have more influence over the mechanical properties and both properties of the material are needed to quantify. In order to establish the physical properties of materials i.e. Density, Moisture Content test are needed, and for mechanical properties of materials, it is often necessary to use a bend test, tensile test and torsion test. But only for the Referenced Handle, both the test (i.e. Physical and Mechanical Properties) were conducted; and for Modified Handle only Mechanical Properties were accessed due to the use of non-homogeneous material into the specimens.

So, in the preceding study the performance of handles is accessed by static test conducted by the means of dynamic machines, which are to be used for testing mechanical and physical properties of materials. All the tests were destructive in nature.

Abstract

Flow Chart of Work Plan for Part II Step 1: Determining Physical Properties of Referenced Handle

Step 2: Determining Mechanical Properties of Referenced and Modified Handle

Step 3: Procedure and Steps Involved for Bend Test

Step 4: Procedure and Steps Involved for Tensile Test:

Step 5: Procedure and Steps Involved for Torsion Test

Step 6: Analysis of Key Parameters Associated with the Performance of Cricket Bat Handle

Step 7: Statistical Analysis

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The study had been undertaken to develop experimental and predictive techniques for assessing the performances across different types of Modified Handles in comparison to a more conventional/traditional Referenced Handle, within the MCC‟s law (2017), which quantify the effects of rule changes covering for all the level of games.

The performance of cricket bat handle was measured with a similar geometrical structure with different material compositions, the Referenced Handle was particularly made of cane wood with 3 rubber springs, and for making Modified Handle, different types of materials were used to prepare joint assembly, which were mounted on three different locations of the handles as for it was claimed. The Referenced Handle was compared with Modified Handles. The handles were identified by a code, where the first character with an increasing subscript (H1, H2,

……... H7) indicated the sequential number of handles, the second character describes the type of handle (Ref= Referenced Handle, Mod= Modified Handle), followed by third character indicated the type of material used for joint assembly (B= Brass, A= Aluminium Alloy) with subscripts (T= Top Region, M= Middle Region, L= Lower Region) which indicate the location of placement of joint assembly on the handle. As there was only one Referenced Handle, the code for the cricket bat handle without joint assembly was H1 Ref.

Abstract

For example, H2 Mod BT means, this is the second (02) type of handle, which is Modified Handle, the material of joint assembly is Brass, and the location of joint assembly is placed on top region.

The results and findings were presented in the following manner:

SECTION 1: RESULTS FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

As per the defined methodology of the study, this section deals with the results and findings which were associated to the physical properties of the specimen.

So, for this reason two experiments were consecutively carried out to determine density and percent moisture content in the specimens which were taken for this study. In this chapter, the results and findings which are associated to the experiment were presented and the procedure was already briefly described in methodology section and the observation table for each experiment were given in the (Appendix 02, Table A & B).

Results for Density ( )

Table for Mean and Standard Deviations of Density in (gm/cm3) n ̅ SD

Mass (m) 10 170.80 3.74 Volume (v) 10 341.15 1.03 Density ( ) 10 0.50 0.01 Note: n= Number of specimen, ̅ = Mean value, SD= Standard Deviation

Results for Percent Moisture Content (%MC)

Another experiment was carried out to determine the percentage moisture content of the specimen for which (n=10) were tested against their physical properties i.e. green weight (Wg) and Oven Dried Weight (Wo) in gm and the final result was calculated for percent moisture content (% MC) by using the procedure which was already described in (Appendix 02, Table B)

Abstract

Table for Mean and Standard Deviations of % MC n ̅ SD

Green Weight (Wg) 10 170.80 3.74

Oven Dried Weight (Wo) 10 156.20 3.29 Moisture Content % (MC) 10 9.09 0.76 Note: n= Number of specimen, ̅ = Mean value, SD= Standard Deviation

Findings for Density ( ) and Percent Moisture Content (%MC)

The results which were accessed from the above Tables shows that the mean value and the standard deviation associated with the density ( ) was (0.50 ± 0.01) gm/cm3 and for the percent moisture content (%MC) was (9.09 ± 0.76) respectively.

At the time of testing mechanical properties of the specimens, the physical properties of the specimens were accessed and the results shows that the specimens contains the moisture content (% MC) and density ( ) approximately on an average 9.09% and 500 Kg/m3 respectively.

So, as per the results of physical properties of the specimens, it was assumed that all the specimens which were used/or tested against the mechanical properties in this study were representative and highly acceptable, according to (Loffer, n.d. and DeWitt, 2002) who suggested that the moisture content of wood varies between 8 to 12% by weight, depending on the relative humidity of the air and the mechanical properties may significantly differs as the moisture content and density of the wood varies.

SECTION 2: RESULTS FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

As per the defined methodology of the study, this section deals with the results and findings pertaining to the key parameters associated with the performance of Referenced and Modified Handle.

So, for this reason experiments were performed on to the prepared specimen to determine the key parameters (i.e. EI, G, E and k) which were associated to the performance of handle, and were reported in Table which is given below. Three different experiments were performed to study the mechanical properties of Referenced and Modified Handles, for Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) a bend test was performed by using simple supported beam, for Modulus of Elasticity (E) a

Abstract tensile test was performed, for Modulus of Rigidity (G) and Torsional Stiffness (k) torsion test were performed consecutively.

Here, in this chapter only those Modified Handles were taken for further testing process, in which Joint Assembly were made-up of Metal Alloys materials i.e. Brass and Aluminium Alloy and rest of them were failed during the manufacturing process i.e. Polymer Mix Composite (PMC) and Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP), therefore they were put away from testing procedure.

Finally there were only six (06) different types of Modified Handles were tested against a set of Referenced Handle. The Referenced Handle was coded as H1

Ref, and rest of Modified Handles were coded as H2 Mod BT, H3 Mod BM, H4 Mod BL and H5 Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL, Therefore, altogether in this study we measured and compared the performance of seven (07) different prototypes of cricket bat handles.

Results of Mechanical Testing

In this section the results and findings were presented only. The values which were recorded during testing specimens were transformed as per the need to compute final results.

The result of tested specimens on to their selected key parameters which were presented in the Table below was determined by using the experimental values, these had been calculated separately for all the specimens and by using simple conversation and following the procedures of elementary mechanics which were already described brief in methodology section.

The data collected from the experiments was written in their respective tables and provided at the last in (Appendix 02, Table C, D and E). And from the results which were presented in Table below, the bar plot were drawn against each key parameter associated with the performance of handle separately and, then the results were compared in between Referenced and Modified Handle; the Referenced

Handle‟s values (i.e. H1 Ref) were used as a referenced value to make the comparison against Modified Handle values (i.e. H2 Mod BT, H3 Mod BM, H4 Mod BL and H5

Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL), from which the final result, discussion and conclusion were drawn out.

Abstract

Table for Results of Tested Specimens on Selected Key Parameter of Handles Type of E G EI K S.No. Code Handle (GPa) (GPa) (Nm2) (Nm/rad) Referenced 1 H Ref 4.58 1.42 14.34 32.00 Handle 1

2 H2 Mod BT 0.12 1.81 18.47 40.82 3 H3 Mod BM 0.14 3.39 31.32 76.12 4 Modified H4 Mod BL 0.14 2.59 22.13 58.20

5 Handle H5 Mod AT 1.52 2.84 16.80 63.76 6 H6 Mod AM 0.31 3.61 29.95 81.21 7 H7 Mod AL 0.85 2.91 20.94 65.32 Note: E=Young‟s Modulus, G= Shear Modulus, EI= Bending Stiffness, k= Torsional Stiffness

CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study had been undertaken to develop experimental and predictive techniques for assessing the performances across different type of Modified Handles in comparison to a more conventional/traditional Referenced Handle, within the MCC‟s law, which quantify the effects of rule changes covering for all the level of games.

The study had investigated the possible advantages & outcomes of a cricket bat handle with having detachable properties. This little development was implemented based on the modern technologies as unlike most major sport equipment are dominating in their field of expertise and would be fruitful to this era of modern cricket game. The review of related literature provided background information pertinent to the investigation. The literature concerning to the science of cricket is reviewed together with the relevant studies from other sports. In relation to other major sports, the volume of published information regarding the use of different kind of material in cricket bat is scarce.

It can be observed that, much of the study was carried out only on the sweet spot, modal analysis of cricket bat and batted ball exist velocity, maximizing the speed of cricket ball after impact with the bat, flexural stiffness and vibration control, surface hardness of cricket bat and less in regards to the performance and reliability of materials to be used in cricket bat handle, hence in this study, it is intended to carry out the analysis of the performance and reliability of material used in handles. The methodology was prepared in a manner to carry out this particular type of study, 18

Abstract which involved from the processing of raw materials up to the production and manufacturing of sample for making the prototype handle, and then after the performance evaluation had been done by testing the performance of prepared samples/specimens.

The reliability of the performance of the handle is dependent on the description of materials involved. The physical and mechanical properties of wood can also vary widely within and especially between species. Therefore, all the parameters were quantified and, the assumptions were made that, the manufacturing process are equivalent for all the specimens before the testing. In the following testing procedure two types of samples were prepared, first was the Referenced Handle with constraint measurements similar to conventional handle and the other was Modified Handle. The performance of Modified Handle had been predicted with a Referenced Handle. All the specimens used in this study were made up of laminated cane wood of constraint measurements on selected geometrical parameters, which were more similar to a traditional design.

The performance of cricket bat handle was measured with a similar geometrical structure, with different material compositions; the Referenced Handle was particularly made of cane wood with 3 rubber springs, and for Modified Handle different types of materials were selected from the advanced composite materials family (ACM) i.e. 1) Metal Alloys (MA) in which Brass and Aluminium Alloy 2) Polymer Mix Composite (PMC) in which Teflon and Nylon were taken 3) Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) in which Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), which were used for making of joint assembly and the joint assembly were mounted on three different locations on the handle as for it was claimed. Dynamic analysis of performance was unable to perform and it was assessed through experimental testing. The performance of handles was accessed by static test conducted by the means of dynamic machines, which were used for testing the mechanical and physical properties of the prepared specimens.

For the physical properties of materials i.e. Density, Moisture Content test were accessed, and for the mechanical properties a bend test, tensile test and torsion test were accessed to determine the performance of key parameters i.e. Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI), Modulus of Elasticity (MoE), Modulus of Rigidity (MoR),

Abstract and Torsional Stiffness (k) which were associated to the performance of the specimens. As per the defined methodology of the study, physical properties were accessed only for the Referenced Handle. For this reason, two experiments were consecutively carried out to determine density and percent moisture content of the specimens which were taken for this study.

And for mechanical properties Referenced and Modified Handles‟ mechanical properties were accessed only for those Modified Handles, in which joint assembly were made-up of Metal Mix Composite (MMC) materials i.e. Brass Alloy and Aluminium Alloy and rest of them were failed during the manufacturing process i.e. Polymer Mix Composite (PMC) and Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP), therefore they were put away from testing procedure due to manufacturing error in the specimens.

In last, there were only six (06) different Modified Handles were remains which were tested against the set of Referenced Handle. The Referenced Handle was coded as H1 Ref, and rest of Modified Handles were coded as H2 Mod BT, H3 Mod

BM, H4 Mod BL and H5 Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL, Therefore, altogether in this study, we measured and compared the performance of seven (07) different models of cricket bat handles. The results and findings pertaining to the key parameters associated with the performance of Referenced and Modified Handles‟ mechanical properties. And finally a comparison was made in between of Referenced and Modified Handles on the basis of that which final results, discussion and conclusion were drawn out. The conclusions from this study undertaken so far and suggestions for future work to improve the bat handle are described as below:

Conclusion

The aim of this research was to investigate the science behind the materials and their properties which were used into cricket bat handle, and to design, manufacture, and evaluate a novel cricket bat handle, having the properties of attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length in order to get the

Abstract mechanical advantage, but due to unfavorable and use of non-homogeneous material, the Modified Handle could not with-stand with the Referenced Handle‟s performance to provide the mechanical advantage in terms of to generate greater momentum, speed, time and to reduce player‟s burden of being carrying extra weight in their kitbags.

Modification was done to improve the design of the joint‟s assembly which includes better shape & size, use of new materials and modern manufacturing techniques for the advancement and modification into Modified Handle. As per the results and findings, this study was proved as non-developmental and less effective corroboration scheme to increase the performance of cricket bat handle and its durability. These modifications are likely to have a very less performance advantage without compromising batsmen‟s comfort and too much cost effective equipments.

The primary objectives of the study were to test and develop a predictive technique of accessing the performance of handle‟s materials properties. To accomplish the primary objectives, this study measured and compared the effect and use of joint assembly on to different places of handle in relation to a more traditional handle. For measuring the performance characteristic of cricket bat handle, mechanical properties were accessed by using bend, tensile and torsion test on to the prepared specimens. Experimental procedures had been carried out to develop a prototype detachable cricket bat handle in this research. And, an experimental setup was developed to measure the performance of different types of handles under static mechanical loading conditions representative of play.

By following the overall developmental objectives, which were intended to determine whether the traditional bat handles could be improved by the use of modern materials, and seeking answers of some basic questions i.e. why do similar cricket bat handles apparently differ widely in their performance, and how well might a properly designed cricket bat handle performs accordingly by the use of different type of materials as per the new Law 5–the bat (MCC, 2017).

For that purpose, prototype models of a Referenced Handle i.e. similar to conventional handle, and a Modified Handle with having detachable properties attach and detach the handle by using joint assembly which were made up of brass and aluminium alloy materials, were designed, evaluated and fabricated on to their

Abstract constraint measurements, and all the Modified Handles were tested in order to meet out the demands of general playing properties of handle, in comparison to a more conventional handle. The experimental data was used to describe the performance of Referenced and Modified Handles. All the handles were tested experimentally; the results show the significant difference between the performances of all types of tested specimens.

1. By using joint assembly of different types of materials having high mechanical properties than the cane wood, the Modified Handles get rigid in which joint assembly was mounted on the top, bottom & middle locations, the transverse load bearing capacity i.e. Bending Stiffness (flexibility), Axial Deformation and Torsional Stiffness get effected and lost, and when the impact of high speed ball with blade at that time the ball produces more vibrational sensation (sting) in batters hand, due to that less energy is transferred to the ball; that reduces the maximum batted ball speed. 2. By using the joint assembly made up of metallic materials, the weight of the handle get increased, that shifts the node of fundamental vibrational mode and Center of Mass (COM) of the bat, and due to that the balance of bat and Center of Percussion (COP) is disturbed. 3. There is a huge variability into the climatic condition which causes volumetric shrinkage and swelling in the natural material of the handle i.e. cane wood, and no change was observed in the material of the joint assembly. Due to the climatic changes, the joint loses its strength, from where the joint assembly was mounted and leads to the regular breakage due to shrinkage and swelling of the cane wood. 4. The process of manufacturing of Modified Handles was itself so tedious, in which the handle and joint assembly were separately design and manufactured, and then after they were assembled. 5. The process of assembling all the parts of the Modified Handles, in which gluing, locking and alignment of upper part to lower part with right positioning of locking screw comes and the whole process requires more time, care and manpower to align all parts with low production rate and on high cost.

Abstract

6. The Modified Handles were not proved so sustainable to provide economic feasibility and reliability than the Referenced Handle. 7. So, altogether the performance of Modified Handles was not so precise, feasible and fit for the purpose for that they were invented. 8. The Referenced Handle is the only the reliable and performance oriented material which showed good agreement between the key parameters, associated to the overall performance of the handle and bat.

Due to constraint time and limited resources, this study covered only one part of the cricket bat i.e. the handle, which was manufactured and tested as per the defined methodology and objectives of the study.

There were two major reasons which makes the task difficult, viz. first is that the governing rules of cricket game that prevent the radical modifications into cricket bat and second was the unavailability of alternative materials which suits/fit for the purpose or accordingly to the material properties of cane wood. The assumptions which were made in this study need to be reduced to improve the performance and durability of cricket bat handle in order to get mechanical advantage and accuracy. The handle of the bat need to be assigned a proper material, cane wood to be precise. Modern composite materials could be used to increase flexural stiffness without adding weigh, thus causing model frequencies to rise.

Finally it was concluded that the performance of Modified Handles‟ in which joint assemblies made up of different materials mounted on three different locations used for attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length were analyzed to find out the most reliable material of joint assembly but none of the selected materials withstood with the durability and performance of Referenced Handle‟s materials. The process of manufacturing itself so tedious that blocks the way for any future research work regarding this invention, and the Modified Handles violate all the overall performance characteristics‟ of cricket bat and, also reduces the player‟s comfort in terms of vibrational sensation.

Discussion on Hypotheses

The hypotheses which were proposed in this study are already mentioned in hypothesis section of this study, which are discussed here:

Abstract

Ho1: The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the Referenced and Modified Handles‟ mechanical and physical

properties. Hence the null hypothesis (Ho1) is not accepted.

Ho2: The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the materials properties of Referenced and

Modified Handles‟. Hence the null hypothesis (Ho2) is not accepted.

Ho3: The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the placement of joint assembly on to three different locations of the handle i.e. top, middle and bottom, mechanical properties of Modified

Handles‟. Hence the null hypothesis (Ho3) is not accepted.

Discussion on Results

It was emphasized that these results may be different for the same or different type of cane wood/or materials other than wood, justifying the use of this methodology in each research developed. The mechanical properties which were reported in the above mentioned table were significantly different and affected by the specimens‟ material composition, in which non homogeneous material was used. Because the properties of wood i.e. the Modulus of Elasticity and Rigidity can vary widely within and especially between same species, due to the percent moisture content and density of material.

For an instance it was noted that the Shear Modulus (G) decreased with increasing in the Modulus of Elasticity (E) for Referenced Handle. And for Modified Handle, the Shear Modulus increased with decreasing Modulus of Elasticity. The Referenced Handle exhibited lower Shear Modulus, than those of Modified Handles and in particularly markedly higher Shear Modulus at lower Modulus of Elasticity than to Referenced Handle.

The Elastic Modulus dependent to a large extent on to the orientation and structure of the handle‟s cross-sectional properties, but also depending upon the use of different types of materials having different materialistic properties linking in between neighbouring materials. The torsional strength of Modified Handles was increased with decreasing tensile strength and that of in Referenced Handle, the torsional strength were increased as the tensile strength increases. Torsional Stiffness (k) shows the maximum deformation with maximum stress in Referenced Handles during twist

Abstract load. That means the handle can hold only maximum twist load and still deformed elastically than to Modified Handles.

Well in the Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI), the deformation is quite found significant that shows the maximum deflection in the Referenced Handle within the elastic limits and is in with safe state, than the Modified Handle which had minimal deflection at the same point of load. Due to that maximum deformation was showed at the different part of handles where the joint assembly was mounted. The joint assembly provided more strength to the whole component of the handle, which makes the handles more rigid due to that they get deformed plastically that to Referenced Handle.

Moreover, the results of vertical bending strength test in Referenced Handle showed minimum deformation with maximum stress within the safety factor, than to Modified Handle. Therefore the Referenced Handle is strong enough to resist the maximum load and have good flexural stiffness that can transmit more force to the batted ball, and also protect the batsman from painful vibration caused by the impact of high speed upcoming ball. So, Referenced Handle fulfils all the qualities of being selected and worked as per the basic demands of play and also from mechanical perspective. So, Referenced Handle‟s material is most substantial to work with in playing condition than to Modified Handles.

Suggestions and Recommendations

The research work carried out in this study was the initial trial to further improve upon and to carry forward this process into industrial and practical applicability within the Laws of MCC (2017).

And, all the Modified Handles violates the overall performance characteristics of a cricket bat, and also reduces the player‟s comfort in terms of vibrational sensation. Moreover, the process of manufacturing itself so tedious that blocks the way for any future research work regarding this invention. Thus from this study, it can be deduced that the traditional cricket bat handle, which was termed as „Referenced Handle‟, is the only viable options for the cricketers, until and unless the rules regarding the cricket bat in general do not change.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTERS CONTENT PAGE NO. Dedication i Annexure I Candidate’s Declaration Certificate/ Certificate from the ii Supervisor/Co-supervisor Annexure II Course/Comprehensive Examination/Pre-Submission Seminar iii Completion Certificate Annexure III Copyright Transfer Certificate iv Acknowledgement v Table of Contents vi-ix List of Tables x List of Figures xi-xi List of Symbols xiii-xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1- 36 1.1 History of Cricket 04

1.2 History of Cricket Bat and their Development on the Design and 07 Use of Materials in Cricket Bat Handles 1.3 History of Law 5 (the bat): The Chronological Overview 17

1.4 Motivation of the Study 21

1.5 Statement of the Problem 26 1.6 Hypotheses 26 1.7 Delimitations 27 1.8 Limitations 28 1.9 Research Objectives and Proposed Approaches of the Study 28 1.10 Goals of the Study 29 1.11 Significance of the Study 30 1.12 Important Technical Terms/Operational Definitions 31 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 37-68 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES 69-123 PART I 3.1 Preparation and Manufacturing Process of Samples/ 71 Specimens 3.1.1 Selection of Geometrical Parameters for a Referenced Cricket 71

Bat Handle

3.1.2 Constraining Geometrical Parameters of the Handle 73 3.1.3 Selection of Materials for Joint Assembly and Handle 77 3.1.3.1 Material Constraint Used for Referenced Handle 77 3.1.3.2 Material Constraint Used for Joint Assembly & their parts 78 3.1.3.3 Methodology 78 3.1.4 Manufacturing Process of Laminated Cane Handle 82 3.1.4.1 Processing and Grading of Raw Rattan 82 3.1.4.2 Process of Making Laminated Handle from Raw 83 Materials 3.1.4.3 Process and Technique Involved for Finishing and 84 Shaping of the Handle 3.1.5 Determining the 10% Volume of a Referenced Handle 88 3.1.6 Designing and Making of Joint Assembly and their Parts 91 3.1.6.1 Design and Description of Joint Assembly and their parts 91 3.1.7 Defining the Different Location to Mount the Joint Assembly 93 3.1.8 Designing and Making of Handle to Mount the Joint Assembly 94 3.1.9 Mounting of Joint Assembly on the Handle 95 PART II 3.2 Testing Process of Prepared Samples 100 3.2.1 Determining of Physical Properties for Referenced Handle 102 3.2.1.1 Density 103 3.2.1.2 Moisture Content 104 3.2.2 Determining Mechanical Properties for Referenced & 105

Modified Handle 3.2.2.1 Handle Models and Materials 105 3.2.2.2 Selection of Sample Size for each type of Handles 106 3.2.2.3 Preparation of Samples 106 3.2.2.4 Preparing Fixture and Sample holding devices 108 3.2.2.5 Machine Used for Testing 109 3.2.3 Procedure and Steps Involved for Bend Test 110 3.2.3.1 Bend Test 110 3.2.3.2 Experimental set up for Bend Test 111 3.2.3.3 Testing Procedure for Bend Test 112 3.2.3.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be Tested 113 3.2.4 Procedure and Steps Involved for Tensile Test 113

vii

3.2.4.1 Tensile Test 113 3.2.4.2 Experimental Set up for Tensile Test 114 3.2.4.3 Testing Procedure for Tensile Test 115 3.2.4.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be Tested 116 3.2.5 Procedure and Steps Involved for Torsion Test 117 3.2.5.1 Torsion Test 117 3.2.5.2 Experimental set up for Torsion Test 117 3.2.5.3 Testing Procedure of Torsion Test 118 3.2.5.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be Tested 119 3.2.6 Analysis of Key Parameters Associated with the Performance 120

of Cricket Bat Handle 3.2.6.1 Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) 120 3.2.6.2 Modulus of Elasticity (MoE) 121 3.2.6.3 Modulus of Rigidity (MoR) 122 3.2.6.4 Torsional Stiffness (k) 123 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS 124-141 SECTION 1 4.1 Physical Properties 125 4.1.1 Results for Density ( ) 125 4.1.2 Results for Percent Moisture Content (%MC) 125 4.1.3 Findings for Density ( ) and Percent Moisture Content (%MC) 126 SECTION 2 4.2 Mechanical Properties 127 4.2.1 Results of Mechanical Testing 127 4.2.2 Findings and Interpretation of Results 128 4.2.2.1 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Bend Test 128 4.2.2.2 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Tensile Test 130 4.2.2.3 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Torsion Test 132 4.2.2.4 Interpretation of Results for Modulus of Elasticity in 134 Referenced and Modified Handles 4.2.2.5 Interpretation of Results for Modulus of Rigidity in 136 Referenced and Modified Handles 4.2.2.6 Interpretation of Results for Equivalent Bending Stiffness 138 in Referenced and Modified Handles 4.2.2.7 Interpretation of Results for Torsional Stiffness in 140 Referenced and Modified Handles

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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 142-152 5.1 Conclusions 144 5.2 Discussion on Hypotheses 148 5.3 Discussion on Results 148 5.4 Suggestions and Recommendations 150 REFERENCES 153-168 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Preliminary Data Collection Sheet for Bend, Tensile & Torsion Test xvi Appendix 2: Raw Data for Physical & Mechanical Properties xvii Appendix 3: Raw Data for Determining the Volume of the Referenced Handle xxiii Appendix 4: Law 5 (the Bat) with Appendix B (MCC, 2017) xxiv Appendix 5: Published Research Articles related to the Study xxx

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Content Page No. Table I Nomenclature xiii Table II Acronyms and Abbreviations xiv Table 2.1 Mechanical Properties of Previously Established Values for Cane 67 Wood Table 3.1 Flow Chart of Work Plan 71 Table 3.2 Geometrical Parameters of a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle 72 Table 3.3 Constraint Measurement of Cricket Bat Handles ranging from 74 Minimum to Maximum size, alongwith the Standard Values. Table 3.4 Constraint Measurements of Geometrical Parameters for a 76 Referenced Cricket Bat Handle Table 3.5 Mechanical Properties of Previously Established Values on Cane 79 Wood Table 3.6 Mechanical Properties for Selected Cane Wood for Referenced 79 Handle Table 3.7 Constraint Measurement for Referenced Cricket Bat Handle of 88 Short Length Table 3.8 Results of the Experiment 89 Table 3.9 Flow Chart of Work Plan for Part II: Testing Process of Prepared 102 Samples Table 4.1 Mean and Standard Deviations of Density in (gm/cm3) 125 Table 4.2 Mean and Standard Deviations of % MC 126 Table 4.3 Results of Tested Specimens on Selected Key Parameter of 128 Handles

Table 5.1 Design Characteristics of Cricket Bats and Definitions 151 Table A Observation Table for Density ( ) of the Selected Specimen xvii Table B Observation table for Moisture Content (%) of the Selected xvii Specimen Table C Observation Table for the Bend of the Selected Specimen xviii Table D Observation Table for the Tensile Test of the Selected Specimen xix Table E Observation Table for the Torsion Test of the Selected Specimen xxi Table F Observation Table for Determining the Volume of the Handles xxiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Content Page No. Figure 3.1 Geometric Parameters of a Referenced Handle 73 Figure 3.2 Constraint Measurements of Handle for a Referenced 76 Handle Figure 3.3 (a to c) Selected Material for Referenced Handle (Cane Wood) 78 Figure 3.4 Ashby Diagram with Young’s Modulus and Density 80 Figure 3.5 (a to d) Alternative Materials Selected for Joint Assembly and their 82 parts Figure 3.6 (a to z) Manufacturing Process of Laminated Cane Handle 87 Figure 3.7 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all 90 Measurement Figure 3.8 Detailed Drawing of Improved Design of Joint Assembly 91 and Parts along with their Measurements in (mm) Figure 3.9 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all 93 Measurement Figure 3.10 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all 94 Measurement Figure 3.11 Handle of Cricket Bat 95 Figure 3.11(a) Lower Part of Handle 95 Figure 3.11(b) Upper Part of Handle 95 Figure 3.12 Lower Part of Handle with Sleeve and Locking Pin 96 Figure 3.13 Upper Part of Handle with Adapter and Locking Pin 96 Figure 3.14 Assembled Full Section of the Handle’s Lower & Upper 96 Part by using Joint Assembly Figure 3.15 Assembled Handle With of Lower & Upper Part of Handle 97 Using Joint Assembly Figure 3.16 Process of Mounting the Joint Assembly on to the 98 (a to n) Referenced Handle Figure 3.17 Prepared Specimens of Referenced Handle, Selected for 103 (a & b) Physical Tests Figure 3.18 Experiment Conducted to Determine Mass and Volume of 104 (a to d) the Referenced Handle Figure 3.19 Experiment Conducted to Determine Percent Moisture 105 (a to d) Content (%MC) of the Referenced Handle Figure 3.20 (a) Referenced Handle 107

Figure 3.21 (b to d) Modified Handle 107 Figure 3.22 (a & b) Prepared Specimens for Bend Test 107 Figure 3.23 Effective Size of Prepared Specimen for Testing 107 Figure 3.24 (a & b) Prepared Specimens for Tensile & Torsion Test 108 Figure 3.25 (a & b) Prepared Fixture to hold the Specimens during Tensile & 108 Torsion Test Figure 3.26 (a to c) Universal Testing Machine(UTM) Used for Testing 109 Specimens Figure 3.27 Schematic of the Three Point Bend Test (top), with Graphs 110 of Bending Moment M, shear Q and Deflection w Figure 3.28 (a to f) Experimental Setup of Bend Test 111 Figure 3.29 (a to h) Testing Procedure of Bend Test 113 Figure 3.30 Diagram of Axial Loading 114 Figure 3.31 (a to d) Experimental Setup of Tensile Test 114 Figure 3.32 (a to f) Testing Procedure of Tensile Test 116 Figure 3.33 Schematic Diagram of Torsional Loading 117 Figure 3.34 (a to e) Experimental Setup of Torsion Test 118 Figure 3.35 (a to f) Testing Procedure of Torsion Test 119 Figure 4.1 Graph Plot of Load Vs. Deflection for Referenced and 129 Modified Handles Figure 4.2 Graph Plot of Load vs. Elongation for Referenced and 131 Modified Handles Figure 4.3 Graph Plot of Torque vs. Angle of twist for Referenced and 133 Modified Handles Figure 4.4 Bar Plot of Modulus of Elasticity in Referenced and 134 Modified Handles Figure 4.5 Bar Plot of Modulus of Rigidity in Referenced and 136 Modified Handles Figure 4.6 Bar Plot of Equivalent Bending Stiffness in Referenced and 138 Modified Handles Figure 4.7 Bar Plot of Torsional Stiffness in Referenced and Modified 140 Handles

xii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Table I Nomenclature Symbol Quantity SI unit Force N L Length mm Deflection mm Change in Length mm Torque Nm Angle of Twist Deg Tensile Stress N/m2 Tensile Strain - Cross-sectional Area m2

Elongation Nm Original Length mm Polar Moment of Inertia m4 Torsional Stiffness (k) Nm/rad Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) / Young’s Modulus GPa Modulus of Rigidity (MOR) GPa Bending Stiffness (EI) Nm2 Diameter mm Radius mm Pie - Theta - Radian rad/sec Volume cm3 Density kg/m3 Mass kg Moisture Content % Shear Stress N/m2 Shear Strain -

Green Weight gm

Oven Dry Weight gm Second Moment of Inertia mm4

Where, cm= Centimetre, Deg= Degree, g= Gram, GPa= Gigapascal, kg= Kilogram, m= Meter, mm= Millimetre, N= Newton, Nm= Newton-meter, rad= Radian, sec= Second

xiii

Table II Acronyms and Abbreviations

Acronyms Abbreviations ACM Advanced Composite Materials

ANSYS Analysis System BDM B.D. Mahajan BHBP Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHNP Breadth of Handle at Neck Point CAD Computer Aided Design CES Cambridge Engineering Selector CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic COP Center of Percussion COR Coefficient of Restitution DHMP Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHTP Diameter of Handle’s Top Part E Elastic Modulus EI Equivalent Bending Stiffness FE Finite Element FEA Finite Element Analysis FEM Finite Element Modelling FRP Fiber Reinforced Plastic G Shear Modulus GFRP Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic GM Gunn & Moore GPa Giga Pascal I Moment of Inertia ICC International Cricket Council ISO International Organization for Standardization k Torsional Stiffness LED Light Emitting Diode LHIBNP Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck Point

xiv

LMP Length of Middle Part LTP Length of Top Part MA Metal Alloys MC Metal Composites MCC Marylebone Cricket Club MMC Metal Matrix Composite MOE Modulus of Elasticity MOI Moment of Inertia MOR Modulus of Rigidity MRI Middle Rubber Insertion MTS MTS Systems Corporation PMC Polymer Matrix Composite PVA Poly Vinyl Acetate PZT Lead Zirconate Titanate SF STANFORD SG Sanspareils Greenlands SOM Structure of Materials SRI Side Rubber Insertions SS Sareen Sports

TAHS Tapered Angle of Handle in spine THBP Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THNP Thickness of Handle at Neck Point TLHIB Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHN Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLOB Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOH Total Length of Handle TV Television UTM Universal Testing Machine

Introduction

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

Sprinters are running faster than ever before, but why are javelin throwers not throwing further and swimmers not swimming faster? Haake (2009) explains the effects of technology and rule change on sporting performance.

We can be seduced into thinking that the only requirement for a good sporting performance is sleek bikes, golden running shoes and hydrophobic swimsuits. I have often heard people say “It‟s all about the equipment these days.” But how much does technology actually affect sport? We can test the latest equipment in the lab, on a running track or in a wind tunnel to prove that one design is better than another. But to understand its effect on real performances, the proof is in the outcome – the results we see at tournaments throughout the years. If a sporting technology really does make a difference, then surely it will be visible in the results. One way of finding out how exactly technology affects sporting performance is to examine the physics involved. We can then try to quantify the effect of technology on sporting events – and find out whether it really is all about the equipment.

It is difficult to fairly compare performances across different sport, or quantify the effects of rule changes. The design of sport equipment is an interesting task and has been evolving since decades. One such sport is cricket, a very popular game in many countries. The design of cricket bat has been evolving fascinatingly.

Modern day cricket has been almost consumed by technology, field umpire to TV umpire from Hawk-Eye to Hot Spot to Snicko, LED stumps and bails to mongoose bat but from the improvisation of sport technology and improvement in sport represent those domains that nearly everyone has an opportunities to engage with at some level, whether as a participants, an observer, or in one of the many related industries from the original equipment manufacturers to clubs and media (Southgate, Childs, & Bull, 2016). With so many stakeholders, in combination with advance in technology, knowledge, and understanding, as well as new ideas, the scope for innovation is substantial that‟s comes to a highly pertinent example of the traditional and very human touch that remains integral to the game‟s strength and application (MCC, 2013).

Chapter 1 Introduction

Today, the world is convinced sport is not only fun but economically a sector, a multi sector, which is not only growing if you only take into account the total turnover but is becoming one of the fast growing business, and more people than ever before are participating in sport. With increased interest and participation in sport, and the extensive media coverage of sporting events worldwide, sport has evolved into a global business. The sporting goods industry has diversified over the years to accommodate the different interests and needs of the athletes and also of consumers in general. The industry has also promoted and helped to develop new sport that have in turn served as catalysts for new types of products.

The quest for new markets, records and sport supremacy has led to millions of dollars being spent on research in and development of sport techniques and equipment. Athletes are now involved in increasingly complex systems that rely heavily on advanced technologies. New technologies and materials readily adopted from other industries have made sport faster, more powerful and enjoyable. For example, materials such as carbon fibre reinforced polymers, new elastomers, new sandwich and foam structures and high-strength steel, titanium and aluminium alloys developed and, have improved sport products dramatically.

Recently, however, some trends have emerged that drive the innovation process among coaches and players. Due to the burgeoning competitions at local & international level, all players are exposed repeatedly in front of their opponents; hence there is an increased push to improve efficiency and effectiveness of the skills. Teams need more than good practice to survive; they require innovative processes and management that can drive down injuries and improve their skill level unknown to others.

Sport and its technology represent, domains that nearly everyone has an opportunity to engage with some level, whether as a participation, as observer, or in one of the many related industries from original equipment manufacturers to clubs and media. With so many stakeholders, in combination with advance in technology, knowledge, and understanding, as well as new ideas, the scope for innovation is substantial (Southgate, Childs, & Bull, 2016).

Cricket bat is a wood product (a natural resource); hence one must use wood products in efficient way. This motivated us to determine the performance of the

Chapter 1 Introduction handle in terms of the performance evaluation of detachable handle due to uses of different types of material used, for giving mechanical advantages by shortening and lengthening of lever (Murtaza, Ali, & Katiyar, 2015b).

Cricket is one of the most major & popular games in which a striking implement is used as like in other striking implements used in most of the racket sport (i.e. badminton, tennis, table tennis), hockey, baseball, golf and polo, all these games have benefited from extensive research in sporting equipment excluding cricket. If we talk about baseball their only hitting i.e. attacking is major part no such defence work is carried out and in other implement based sporting events attacking as well as defence plays a major role for the better performance or to be in the game.

Here we are considering only and only about cricket. All we know that while playing cricket, all the focus is on towards the batsman and for a batsman hitting/defence against a pitched ball is the single most difficult act to perform in all of other implement based sport. Being a batsman, batting is an individual sport skill encompasses the variety of challenging variables that a batsman has to put in order to be a proficient batsman along with; sport performance is determined by a number of factors. Some originate from the human element of the sport, such as the physiological and psychological state of the competitor, while other originates from the equipment used by the athletes, which include design and materials used in the production of the item (Jenkins, 2003a).

1) Physical attributes of strength, flexibility, quickness balance and coordination, as well as mental accoutrement of courage, confidence, determination and fortitude. 2) Scientific application of body mechanics to produce motion (i.e. hitting/ attacking the ball with high impact or stopping/defense the ball) that is in safe way, energy consuming and in an efficient way, all of which allows the person to maintain his balance and control. 3) Individualistic skills of batting with using proper techniques. 4) Having a good equipment as desired by the batsmen‟s need and situation or the format of the game.

Innovation among cricketers is important as it is one of the primary ways to differentiate their performance from their arch-rivals in competitions. Financial

Chapter 1 Introduction obligations on players are too much on stake. If you can't compete and/or perform on price, players obviously need innovative practice methods and ideas to make their performance stand out from the rest of the players.

Sport is not any more reserved for top sporters who want to maintain a certain level in some disciplines; it became a new philosophy of life, a new trend, away to cope with aging population, with the reality of the society today. Our everyday life is concerned with sport or sport derived products or services in many of ways. The sport engineering community as it was noted in many years ago and now keeps growing. Therefore, in recent years the use of advanced materials in sport has increased and there has also been a corresponding increase in athletic performances (Jenkins, 2003b).

The sport equipment industry is constantly driven by innovation. Much of this innovation is attributed to the ongoing intense competition for new markets, records and sport supremacy. Because of this the sport equipment industry has been one of the most receptive to new materials and processes, and to the rapid diffusion of advanced technologies developed by other industry sectors (Subic, 2007).

Sport technology is a kind interrelationship between the governing design intents and selection of materials used for tailoring new kind of equipment in context the broader considerations such as human factors, life cycle design and sustainability issues in general (Subic, 2007).

That‟s why spectators‟ expectations also drive the amount of innovation in cricket. Spectators always want enormous entertainment continuously. Essentially, spectators won't accept mediocrity from the players because they know they can always go somewhere else for their entertainment.

1.1 HISTORY OF CRICKET

Bob Woolmer in his tactfully written cricket coaching bible „The Art & Science of Cricket‟ opined that the game of cricket has a magnificent time of yore and a multifaceted history (Woolmer, 2008). It relishes 400-Odd years of annals (Murtaza, Imran, Sharique, Ahmad, Jabin, Ahmad, et al., 2014) speculate that cricket being played over 500 years (Bowen, 1970) has rooted & developed firmly in 106 countries as these countries have been the registered members of the International Cricket

Chapter 1 Introduction

Council (Wikipedia-2014). Murtaza et al., (2015) also believe that it has been originated from the ancient sport of India i.e. Gilli Danda (Tipcat in English) which has possibly the origin over 2500 years ago (Craig, 2002 and Arlott, 1975). Cricket was taken by the British to their Colonies & started playing & expanding into every continent on the globe (Murtaza et al., 2015).

Modern day‟s cricket has been transformed into more competitive & become more aggressive where every player has to put extra efforts in order to perform at the optimum level (Murtaza, Imran, Sharique, Ahmad, Jabin, Katiyar, et al., 2014). Innovation in cricket is very rare. In the past, many cricket teams have been able to survive even with very limited amounts of innovation in their arsenal. They focused on providing the basic skills and simply update them to a level that maintains their competitiveness at the global plane. This method still applies but with few opportunities & chance for innovation.

Indeed, much of history of cricket development has been lost or never recorded. It was popular there by the end of 17th century. However, it is known that by the second half of 18th century that the aristocracy had been adopted the game and crowds up to 20,000 were watching the game of cricket and high stack gambling was involved (Green 1988; Subic & Cooke, 2003). Gambling over matches helped the sport gain popularity throughout the British colonies to the other part of the globe (Bowen, 1970).

The evident popularity of the game necessitated some consistent rules and a code of Laws laid down by the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1788 and adopted throughout the game (Subic & Cooke, 2003). Prior to this code, the rules varied depending upon in which part of British Isles the game was being played in 1744 the London Cricket Club produced that are recognizably the rules of modern cricket. The MCC, one of the oldest (1788) cricket organizations and it is still the custodian of laws relating to cricket around the world international governing body.

The international cricket game is run by the International Council of Cricket (ICC) and each country has its own cricket board or governing body. The ICC facilitates test cricket from 1909 to till date and in 1971 one day cricket had been evolved in the history to till date and from 2003 the other format of cricket introduced i.e. T-20. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by

Chapter 1 Introduction representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.

The ICC has 105 members: 10 Full Members that play Test matches, 39 Associate Members, and 56 Affiliate Members. It has three Membership categories which are as follows:

i) Full Members are the governing bodies for cricket of a country recognised by the ICC, or nations associated for cricket purposes, or a geographical area, from which representative teams are qualified to play official Test matches (10 Members).

ii) Associate Members are the governing bodies for cricket of a country recognised by the ICC, or countries associated for cricket purposes, or a geographical area, which does not qualify as a Full Member, but where cricket is firmly established and organised (39 Members).

iii) Affiliate Members are the governing bodies for cricket of a country recognised by ICC, or countries associated for cricket purposes, or a geographical area (which is not part of one of those already constituted as a Full Member or Associate Member) where the ICC recognises that cricket is played in accordance with the Laws of Cricket (56 Members).

Now ICC facilitates three types of international cricket i.e. Test cricket (5 days), One Day and T-20. So, today‟s cricket has transformed from 5-days test matches to One Days to T-20s, that is much faster and more exciting version of cricket is seen now-a-days and shall be faster. And now a day‟s cricket is extremely prevalent in Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, West Indies, Zimbabwe.

The cricket board for each country cannot impose rules that contravene the official MCC Laws of cricket. However, they do define the structure of domestic competition as well as regulating aspect of the equipment used except the rules of the game and their correlation with the design of cricket equipment in particular, the use materials in the construction of equipment (Subic & Cooke, 2003).

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1.2 HISTORY OF CRICKET BAT AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT ON THE DESIGN AND USE OF MATERIALS IN CRICKET BAT HANDLES

Cricket has been around more than centuries but until now, improvement in the performance of the cricket bat have been somewhat limited (Bailey, 1997 & Pratomo, 2001). It‟s partly due to game regulation restriction and partly because the application of appropriate high technology to the bat has been virtually non-existence. The high technology has played a significant role in sport competition today. The high technology equipment can give players a more competitive edge as well as greater comfort. As for cricket, the high technology could potentially result in a simple yet better design of a cricket bat handle leading to a marginal advantage over other design (Cao, 2006).

Many inventions have been done by inventors from different parts of the globe to improve the performance of the cricket bat. At present there are a number of commercially available cricket bats with different types of handle designs. The rules of cricket up to 1980 had no restriction on materials for blade or handle, and this led to many variations on the composite and lamination theme, recent advances in technology and use of materials have motivated a number of changes in design of cricket bat handle.

With the passage of time, the game of cricket like anything and everything in this world is bound to change. So also the laws of the game and of course the size and shape of the cricket bat. Unlike most major sport, the game cricket has seen little development in its implement based on modern technologies. The design of the bat (blade & handle) has also changed over the years. Since this time, the design of the bat has been an intrinsic part of the games development (Subic & Cooke, 2003).

Despite the common perception of that, the development on the use of materials in manufacturing cricket bat and handle, design had play many significant changes much over the years, it is very important here to note down all those changes that had occurred and has a prolonged effect on the game of cricket (Subic & Cooke, 2003).

The design of handle and blade has also changed much time over the years. Uptil the mid-nineteenth century, the early cricket bats were made all of one single piece of material i.e. wood but this often led to bats shattering and breaking when

Chapter 1 Introduction hitting by balls at extreme pace and a shock transferred to the hand. A development that made this much less likely was the addition of a separate handle (Darling, 2009) which led down to a tapered splice, which fitted into the blade of the bat. This made bats much stronger than earlier and thereafter the modern cricket bats have been made of two parts i.e. the blade and the handle.

Even though in-spite of the fact that the sport of cricket is 500 year old (Bowen, 1970), there have been little scientific researches done to study the bat. While earliest cricket bats from the 17th century were made out of a single piece of wood up-to 18th century and played with sticks‟ (MCC, 2013). When cricket laid down its first set of laws in 1744 (Bailey, 1979), the bat was not a priority. In 1820‟s world of English cricket, the introduction of faster „round arm‟ bowling had led to the ball bouncing higher, and the design of the bat was altered to accommodate the variability in the bounce of the ball, so the bat becoming lighter with a higher „swell‟ (Grant, 1998a).

Before 1830, the bats were straightened and constructed of all one single piece of wood also including the handle (Gunn & Moore, 2001). Faster bowling against lighter bats was very easily shattered in to two causing regular handle breakages. Basic carpentry skills were brought to bear and a splice was introduced; and a separate handle was added to the bat in 1830 (Darling, 2009). It‟s sole purpose being to make bat repair simple by moving the broken handle and adding a new one. This cut down on the bats being broken all the time. The early handles used either willow or wooden ash (Curtis, 2012).

Batsman would have been still unhappy with the level of shock transferred to the hand when hitting at faster balls. So a bright spark in 1840 through of adding a slim piece of whale bone into the handle (Curtis, 2012), which would have made that handle a little more flexible and complaint. This had the desired effect of reducing the induced shock and prolonging the life of a handle and some few year later instead of that whalebones gave way to India rubber, that was best suitable material found for damping vibration.

The bat began with a curve in the blade, but is now predominantly a straight piece of wood including the handle (Gunn & Moore, 2001). A splice handle made

Chapter 1 Introduction from cane was added around 1850 to lessen the „sting‟ of impact and provide flexibility (Barty-King, 1979).

Thomas Nixon, a Notts cricketer, took another inventive step and replaced the willow and ash handle with the cane handle (Curtis, 2012). The first use of solid Manau cane for the handle being introduced in 1853 (Colleyer, 1993), and the method of manufacture from multiple pieces in 1853 have remained largely unchanged (Edlin, 1973). This subsequently improved the balance of the bat, but still did not adequately attenuate the shock. In 1956, canes were split and laminated back together with rubber between the canes (Edlin, 1973). This technique dealt with the jarring, and the 1850‟s technology has stood the test of time.

After that, over arm bowling was permitted in 1864 (Williamson, 2006). With due effect of that law, the bats became lighter again and developed a more refined shaping of the blade. Handles became intricate construction and were nearly all made of cane with Indian rubber grip for damping and resilience to breaking in 1870. These transient vibrations have uptil now, been passively and mechanically damped by the inherent damping properties of wood and flat rubber panels in the handle (Penrose & Hose, 1998; Knowles, Mather & Brooks, 1996b).

A development that made this much less likely was the addition of a separate handle (Darling, 2009), which led down to a tapered splice, which fitted into the blade of the bat. This made bats much stronger and this is still essentially how bats are made today. The cricket bat consists of basic structures of blade and handle. The former is traditionally made of willow and the latter is made of cane wood.

There was a lot of examples concerns to the old design and use of material into the handle of cricket bat, recent research has recommended that other more advanced materials such as composite be explored in the future (Subic & Cooke, 2003) e.g., In 1880‟s of Charles Richardson used a cane handle spliced into a willow blade (Severn Tunnel, 1971). It appears that bat maker of this era were experimenting with improvements on the early laminated cane handles of the 1860‟s. In the late 1880‟s „The Automatic Bat Handle‟ patented by LJ Nicolls created a novel method of making a bat handle by using a curve profile to join two halves of the handles (Curtis, 2009a).

Chapter 1 Introduction

The handle was a two‐piece unit that fitted together with opposing curved (sinusoidal) faces. The idea was to interlock the two sides of the cane handle with curves instead of the traditional flat surfaces. The two curved faces were interposed by a strip of gutta percha (that's a type of rubber in modern language). The claimed benefit was improved vibration damping, although Nicolls used the more prosaic words "automatic non‐concussive handle".

English manufacturer C.C. Bussey found that the heartwood of The English Willow Tree was too heavy, so he decided to use the sapwood of the tree, instead, in 1890. By using this part of the tree, it made the cricket bat lighter. This style of bat began to catch on and many cricket players began using the bat made of "White Willow." The use of this style of bat was referred to as "The Golden Age of Batting." The bats of this era were very slim, straight in profile, and had very thin edges.

Necessity is the mother of invention. Hence the search was to find better options. English bat manufacture M/s C.C Bussey started using sapwood which happened to be lighter and attractive. Subsequently, the bat manufacture started using white willows which proved to be much lighter. These bats were much thinner and of straight the blades used to carry more weight. The handle and the length were smaller. The weights of the bats were between 2 pound to 2 pound 4 ounces.

With such changes in shape of bats, the technique of batting underwent changing. Improvisation like cuts, late cut, leg glance, gliding were visible. In other words, timing of the ball became more evident than the power hitting. The shape of cricket bats remained almost similar from 1890.

In total, there has been (at least) 107 cricket bat related patents published since 1884. On‑line records show 100 patents going back as far as 1894. An additional 7 patents have been found through research that date from 1884 to 1891. There may be a few more published patents hidden in the archives, although this is unlikely to be more than a handful (Curtis, 2010).

In the good old days of cricket at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century there wasn't the need to control bat power in the same way. The high-tech material of 100+ years ago was India rubber, and used only for damping in the handle. In 1908 Summers Brown filed a patent to improve the cricket bat handle (Curtis,

Chapter 1 Introduction

2009b). Summers Brown Ltd manufactured bats in Finchley, and these were used by the legendary Jack Hobbs. In this interesting and slightly bizarre idea, Brown takes a solid cane handle and makes deep saw cuts along its length, then interweaving a rubber band to create the damping element. The end result created what was in effect three longitudinal rubber springs, but appeared to use an awful lot more rubber than was necessary. It probably made the handle too flexible and was likely to have a short life.

There were 15 handle patents in the 20 years spanning of 1890 to 1910, compared to 5 blade patents. Ultimately most of the handle ideas proved unsustainable, being either ineffective or uneconomic to make compared to the flat slip laminated cane handle with flat sheets of cork or rubber springs of the model that was finally patented by Henry Gradidge in 1910. This concept appears to be an optimal design, and due to the constraints of Law 6, it remains so.

With the changed shape of a bat, experimentation went on to choose the right quality of material for blade and handle, which can withstand the stroke of the hard cricket ball having desired resilience.

By 1920, the pendulum swung back in favour of using the heavier bats. The weight of the bats ranged from 2.2 lbs. to 2.9 lbs. The most famous of the big bats was Bill Ponsford's "Big Bertha." This bat weighed 2.9 pounds. Players found by using the heavier bat, the bat lasted longer.

In 1954 John Lewis of the Rubber Improvement Company patented the first idea for a plastic bat to be made in a mould factory (Curtis, 2010). He referred to using hard‑setting resins that could be reinforced with glass, nylon or cotton, and the cavity filled with cork, wood, sponge or „likefilling‟ substance (Curtis, 2010).

From 1960 the cricket bat has thus changed with the changing needs of the game. Every bat manufacturer innovated newer methods by careful design of scoops, hollow, plugs etc.

Various companies have over the years tried new shapes that come within the laws of the game to make a name for them and to improve sales. In the 1960s the first shoulder less bats appeared from Slazenger. This allowed more of the weight to be

Chapter 1 Introduction redistributed to the "sweet spot" of the blade providing more power to each stroke, whilst still having good balance and light "pick up.

Modern handles are now a combination of cane, cork and rubber, to increase flexibility still further, and used rubber covers to improve a batsman‟s grip. The blades have become larger and the back face more sculpted. The Gray-Nicolls Scoop first released in 1974. This was the first bat to turn shaping on its head by removing the wood from the centre of the rear of the bat. By removing this wood, the bat became lighter, its sweet spot grew and its pick up improved (Gray-Nicolls, 1975).

More recently, Hunts-County machined a cavity into the blade of the bat which was then filled with a composite material with „honeycomb‟ geometry-claimed by the manufacturer to reduce weight and enhance performance. Unfortunately, no quantifiable evidence was provided to substantial improvements in either of these bats. Production has become more automated with labour intensive, craft based jobs supplanted by hand operated machinery (Barty-King, 1979).

But at the last of December 1979 a new type of bat called „The Combat‟ was aluminum Cricket Bat used by Dennis Lillee during the 2nd day of the play in Perth. Thereafter the rules for Cricket Bat were shortly amended, stating that the blade of a bat must be made entirely of wood (Sengupta, 2012).

Fast forward to 1980‟s because nothing much happened with bat innovation after 1864, not least where the splice was concerned a few ideas came along in peoples mind that are first up in 1979 Reginald Simpson of Gun & Moore was named as the inventor on patent no. GB 2059269. This describes a handle that was an alloy tube filled with sawdust or foam (Curtis, 2012).

The GM patent idea of 1979 (with an alloy handle) never found its way into production, but the GM boys took the idea a step further and spawned the GM Galaxy. According to the catalogue of the time, this bat had a „glass‐fibre rod surrounded by a shock‐absorbent matrix‟, which was then encapsulated with a „hyper‐sprung extruded polyastra‟. Apparently the bat sounded awful so the handle was filled with sawdust to improve it. However, the handles regularly broke, and they also leaked sawdust (Curtis, 2012).

Chapter 1 Introduction

In 1982 and 1983, John Newbery was behind two patents (GB2103096 and GB2116435) of a similar nature to GMs, which had the same idea of a central rod surrounded by a compressible plastic or foam to create the handle. With these ideas the splice as we had known it since 1864 could be removed, and a novel construction method introduced (Curtis, 2012).

In time to the 1990‟s and the creation of a concept by a Taiwanese Dr. Suk‐Ho Ryu, and commercialised by Canadian company Wavex. The idea was initially proposed as a solution to reducing tennis elbow in tennis players, but was then put forward as a shock absorbing feature for many applications that involved humans and repetitive impacts, such as hammers and power tools. Unfortunately it doesn't seem to have survived as a viable commercial product, which calls into question its benefits over more conventional and standard methods of vibration damping.

A modern example of striving to use new materials is a patent by Michael Curtis (no relation) of Dunlop‟s in 1993, who were then the owners of Slazenger and producer of Slazenger cricket bats (Curtis, 2010). He proposed a predominantly plastic bat that had a willow insert for the striking surface. The interesting thing here is that a previous law change in 1980 banned any non‑wood materials in the blade.

In December 2002 the Wavex Company claimed their idea would offer benefit to cricket bats, and this was covered by a patent application (No. 2,396,563). It was later licensed for cricket bats to Kippax in the UK. It uses a curved surface pattern on the handle, but this time on the outside of the handle, and with a shallow curvature. Alongside the claimed benefit of reducing vibration, there is also a claim of increasing bat power. The veracity of the Wavex claims for increasing power in cricket bats is debatable, as is the vibration damping properties of a shallow curved surface in a continuous solid.

No doubt the advancement of polymers, plastics, glass fibre, and composites in general had prompted Simpson at GM and Newbery at GN to try something different. Both ideas looked afresh at the handle, and saw potential for change. The GM Galaxy never worked well enough for them and was binned. However, in deepest Sussex, the Newbery idea was taken further by Tim Keeley in 2002, then making Newbery bats. Tim Keeley spawned a third generation splice, and this one worked. Newbery created the C6 handle, Puma licenced Keeley‟s idea and put it in their 6000

Chapter 1 Introduction series bats, and Gray Nicolls dusted off their own patents and cultivated the Fusion bat. All these were sadly scuppered by the MCC in 2008 who took a rather luddite‐like view of technology, and changed Law 6 to ban them.

In 2003 Thomas G. Larsen came out with a patent with the Publication No. USD475425 S1 that is related with the ornamental designs for a cricket bat handle. In 2005 Newbery also created a carbon fibre handle, the C6 and C6+, which weighed 3 ounces /85 grams less than a standard laminated cane and rubber handle. It was used by Newbery and Puma for 3 years before the concept was copied by Gray Nicolls with a hollow plastic tube (Wikipedia, 2016).

In 2005 Kookaburra released a new type of bat that had a carbon fiber reinforced polymer support down the spine of the bat. It was put on the bat to provide more support to the spine and blade of the bat, thus prolonging the life of the bat. The first player to use this new bat in international cricket was Australian Ricky Ponting. However this innovation in cricketing technology was controversially banned by the ICC as they were advised by the MCC that it unfairly gave more power in the shot and was unfair in competition, as not all players had access to this new technology. But this was not taken lightly by Australian media as Ponting had scored plenty of runs since he started to use his new bat and English reporters had blamed this success on the new, 'unfair' piece of technology in his bat.

Then, in 2006, along came the carbon‐fibre composite handle, with Newbery (the original patent holder), and Puma offering up a product. Gray Nicolls follow in 2007 with the Fusion (Curtis, 2010). However, this provoked the MCC to change the law on materials in handles amid fears that the new technology would lead to an increase in the distance the ball was hit (Curtis, 2009b). Now only 10% of the volume of the handle can be other than cane (MCC, 2008).

In 2008 Gray Nicolls launched a bat with a second face on the base of the back of the bat. It was purely a marketing move as no paid players used the bat in competition. And then along came the Mongoose cricket bat in 2008. It is unconventional, inspired by Twenty 20, innovative, and approved by the MCC (Curtis, 2010).

Also in late 2008, SAF bats created a cricket bat with an offset edge, the edge offsetting allowed for an extended middle, better swing weight and increased

Chapter 1 Introduction performance without compromising the cricket bat's balance. The production models were available in 2009, and the bat won awards in 2010 and 2012.These bat quickly became a big seller and various scooped bats such as the GN500, Dynadrive and Viper have been released by Gray Nicolls ever since, including a re-release of the Scoop itself for the 2012 English season. The removal of wood from the rear has been copied by many other companies without much critical acclaim.

Finally, in 2009 came the Mongoose. They claimed to be the best innovation for 200 years. They claimed to have „unique splice technology‟. But to be fair, all they did, in their own words, was “drop the shoulders down by 9 inches”, or looking at it the other way, move the splice into the handle.

Following on from the Dual T20 (double sided bat), GN have produced another novelty bat called The Edge for 2011. Is this another case of letting the marketing department sniff glue once again produced a bat with an offset handle position known as The Edge in what was also purely a marketing move.

In 2011, Weir Ross, Hodgkins Philip, with patent application number GB2479570 (A) -A bat with three striking faces each with different characteristics disclosed wherein the handle is rotated to utilize the different faces when striking a ball or object. Another patent filed by Lakhotia Vivek in 2011 with patent number WO2011092714 (A1), in this invention the bat has been designed as a monolithic mass in which the blade and handle is a one piece construction wherein the strength to withstand forces is greatly increased. The inner tube/pipe or the handle of the bat runs from the top to the bottom of the bat thereby giving more strength to the bat.

Mirik Gogri, Ayush Jain and Kshitij Thavare take the initiative of making a bat by the poor performance of Indian cricket team in the 2011 test series vs England and Australia, and 2012 to 2014 they worked on it after completing it in March 2014, and named as 'Gladius Blade Bat' taking motivation from Gladius, the latin word for sword. They send the design to the MCC for its approval making it legal, and the MCC Sub Law Board of trustees affirmed the bat inside of the current laws at all levels of Cricket. (Monga, 2015).

In 2012 Fox Nick, Andrews Richard, Fletcher Henry, invented a cricket bat handle with Patent number GB2488311 (A) comprising a plurality of circumferentially arranged segments of cricket bat handle. In the same year Richard

Chapter 1 Introduction

Blackledge had developed a cricket bat analysis and design process on the handles of other sport bats/sticks/rackets that had been using the octagon shape for a long time. So, to a round or oval handle, CricTech came again leading to the way in innovation with a new handle concept of an Octagonal shaped cricket bat handle (Blackledge, 2012).

And in 2013, US Patent number US 20130316860 discloses that David John Richardson, & David Michael Richardson invented a grip for a cricket bat handle (Richardson, & Richardson, 2012). With the same nature of invention in a patent GB 2202153 Curtis describes a cricket bat handle which has indentations to accommodate the fingers of the batter. However, the indentations appear to encourage a batter to grip the cricket bat like a baseball bat, which is not the correct way for either the top hand or the bottom hand to grip a cricket bat (Andrew, & Bernard, 1998).

In 2013, Patent application number 20130337947 discloses that Mark Khan (Little Falls, NJ, US) got patented a cricket bat in which the striking surface of the bat was off-set a distance of 1-2 cm from the front-line of the handle. Where-in handle is detachable & 52% or less of the bat's total length. The blade and the handle may be joined by screw-attached brackets making the components interchangeable, allowing for customization of bat size, weight, length, colour and decoration (Khan, 2013).

And in 2014 a cricket bat invented with detachable handle of changing length contains two sections of the handle. Section 1 remains fixed with the blade of the cricket bat. Section 2 may be more than one having distinctive lengths and can either be detached or attached with Section 1, as per the requirement of the batsman (Ali & Murtaza, 2014).

In 2016 Austin Robert Morey, Peter John Kermond, Mark Dorian O‟Neill with patent number NZ631735 (A) invented a grip for cricket bat and cricket bat handle. A handle of a cricket bat including a grip is disclosed. At least one guide extends along the grip generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the handle. The guide is arranged to assist in the positioning of a batsman‟s hands during play. The guide is offset from the plane by a distance of 1 to 5mm bisecting the bat lengthways and passing through the spine of the bat (Morey, Kermond, & O‟Neill, 2016).

All these approaches were made by the bat inventers & manufacturers to utilise new materials and manufacturing techniques to increase the performance in

Chapter 1 Introduction terms of the feel to the batsman, which will result in less energy absorption by the bat and the batsman and thus a greater proportion of the energy will be imparted to the ball. But by seeing all this entire thing happening MCC constraint to those cricket bat handle inventions which were developed beyond the current Laws and would allows to bat manufacturers for utilising new materials and manufacturing techniques is one in which the traditional balance between bat and ball would be balanced, by limiting the parameters of bat (size, shape, and materials) are used according to new Law 6 Appendix E (MCC, 2008).

Although several other woods have been used, Salix alba „Caerulea‟ is currently the preferred material for the bat blade. Since the MCC rules of the game currently disallow the use of any material other than wood, it is important to investigate the mechanical properties of wood to fully understand bat performance. The design and manufacture of new bats in this study should also adhere to the MCC rules. However, as the current bat rule is ill-defined, an investigation into wood composites may lead to further possibilities in material selection (Elliott & Ackland, 1982).

1.3 HISTORY OF LAW 5 (THE BAT): THE CHRONOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

As the cricket had become very popular throughout England, especially within the English gentry, although, it was not until 1744 that the first standardised rules of cricket were published (Grant, 1998 b).When cricket laid down its first set of laws in 1744 the bat was not a priority. The built-up of cricket bat may be of any shape, size, style and use of material was permitted up until 18th century. At this time there were no rules governing the width of a cricket bat. On 23 September, 1741, Shock White of Ryegate used a bat fully as wide as a wicket against the Hambledon Club. (Evolution of Cricket Bat, 2015), on the purview of that incident happened that a cricketer walks on pitch with a bat wider than a wicket that insisted to the Hambledon Club committee stipulate in the minutes of meeting in 1771 that “four and quarter inches (4.25 inches) shall be the breadth of a bat forthwith” (MCC, 2013), which is universally accepted and this restriction made the 1st Law of cricket bat known as the Law 6 of the Laws of Cricket (Morgan, 2002).

Other clubs quickly adopted this standard, using metal gauges to check the size of bats before allowing their use (Morgan, 2002). The first recorded codification of the rules of cricket is the "Code of 1744". The evident popularity of the game

Chapter 1 Introduction necessitated some consistent rules and a Code of Laws laid down by the MCC in 1788 and adopted throughout the game. Prior to this code, the rules varied depending upon in which part of British Isles the game was being played (Subic & Cooke, 2003). In 1744 the London Cricket Club produced that are recognizably the rules of modern cricket. The MCC, one of the oldest (1788) cricket organization and is still the custodian of the laws relating to cricket at the global plane.

This edition of the Laws was agreed by the MCC sometime after 1803. This particular version was published on May 25 1809 by John Wallis, Warwick Squ. Newgate Street (Cricinfo 2009).

In the last of December 1979 a new type of bat called „The Combat‟ was used by Dennis Lillee, made of aluminium during the 2nd day of the test match in Perth. Australia‟s most memorable and infamous patent is the one taken out by Graham Monaghan and Dennis Lillee for an aluminium bat in 1979 (Curtis, 2010 and Sengupta, 2012) which forced a rule change by the MCC. It was only meant as a low cost bat to make cricket accessible in poorer countries but Lillee couldn‟t resist the publicity stunt of using it in an Ashes test match.

Dennis Lillee could never have predicted the impact of his action on the subsequent constraints placed on cricket bat design. In fact, there have been two major amendments to Law 6 (The Bat) in the last 30 years – one in 1980 and another in 2008 – where previously there had been no change since 1809. Both changes were related to bat advancements that were patented, and that have coincided with the rapid advancement in material technologies over this period. If technological advancement continues unabated then, despite the restrictions of the current laws, it is inevitable that another invention in the next 20 years will cause a further rule change (Curtis, 2010).

Cricket is often called as a game dominated by batsmen. The advent of formats like ODI and Twenty-20 has further added to the woes of bowlers. The field restrictions, the free hit goes all against the bowlers. The justifications point to the only idea to make the game more entertaining. It‟s true that the crowd cheers more when a batsman hit the ball for a boundary or a six than when a bowler takes a wicket. Because there were many innovations based on technology were appeared. The MCC clearly nervous of the direction some of the manufacturers were taking. The principle

Chapter 1 Introduction concern was that new materials were increasing bat performance and giving the batsmen too much advantage (Curtis, 2010).

An action was required to maintain the traditions and spirit of the game. Taking advice from engineering researchers at Imperial College, the MCC offered two options. The first was to impose a bat performance measure, and a test that all bats must undertake, which would be similar to that used for baseball bats in the USA (Curtis, 2009b). The second was to limit performance through material constraints. The former would initially be onerous and complex to govern, the latter very simple to initiate and govern. So, simpler one won the day and Law 6 was changed and a 3rd Edition of the 2000 Code was published in 2008. The changes might have made some sense to protect the spirit and balance of the game.

Then in 2008 the Mongoose bat propped up, specifically designed for T-20 Cricket, having the blade 33% shorter than a conventional bat and the handle is 43% longer than the blade. That Mongoose bat was declared legal by the MCC, though the rule of MCC says consequently that; the handle, measured from top of the handle to the bottom of the splice, must not exceed 52% of the overall length of the bat.

The MCC, as Guardian of the Laws of Cricket, has a duty to maintain the traditional balance between the bat and the ball. In recent years, it has been evident that the bat is starting to dominate. Furthermore, with the developments in technology and materials, a few cricket bats have appeared on the market with potential performance enhancing properties. MCC believes that, if the cricket bat becomes too powerful, it will be detrimental to the sport.

Consequently, in May 2008, the MCC membership approved the introduction of a new version of Law 6, together with a newly created Appendix E. The Law, which lays down details about the bat, was written following extended discussions with many bat manufacturers, willow growers and the ICC. This was far more prescriptive than the previous versions but almost all bats which were legal under the previous Law 6 will remain so. Its purpose is to maintain the traditional construction and performance of cricket bats and to restrict the introduction of potentially performance enhancing materials. For the first time in Law, the handle is defined, the volume of the handle‟s constituent parts has been controlled and the thickness of

Chapter 1 Introduction protective coverings has been limited, the important new aspect that bats have to be graded as either A, B or C (MCC, 2008).

The last time that a new Code of Laws was written was in 2000. With the way the game has evolved since then, there have been 6 Editions of that Code, with changes made in 2003, 2008, 2010, 2013 and 2015 respectively. It was felt that the time was right for a new Code of Laws, providing a chance to review all the Laws, to make some significant alterations and to tidy up many of the piecemeal changes made since 2000. The redrafting process has taken nearly three years and has been driven by MCC‟s Laws sub-committee; all 42 Laws have been scrutinized. The following processes have been carried out; and once again MCC‟s research into the balance gave the new Laws of Cricket, 2017 Code.

A new Code of the Laws of Cricket has been drafted after thorough review and approved by the MCC Committee. The Code, to be titled Laws of Cricket 2017 Code will come into force on 1st October 2017. There are still 42 Laws, although two previous Laws have been deleted, with two additions. The significant or the key changes includes to the pitches, the Laws & playing conditions, the balls and the bats and the re-ordering of the Laws, the Laws have been re-ordered into a more logical sequence, so most of the Laws have a new number, furthermore, the formatting of the numbering of the sub-sections has changed, so that, the previous Law 6- (The bat & Appendix E) now reordered and becomes Law 5- the bat with Appendix B (MCC, 2107).

The guiding objectives behind all the changes have been to make the Laws work in a way that makes sense to players, umpires and spectators; to make the Laws as easy as possible to understand and interpret for new umpires, particularly those for whom English is not their first language; to minimise the likelihood of types of misconduct that have been causing players, and particularly umpires, to leave the game; to make the Laws as inclusive as possible to all who might play, umpire or watch cricket.

In previous version of Law 6 (the bat) there was no set limit on the weight, maximum depth from the face to the back of the blade and the width of the side edges. But now the Law 5- the bat (MCC, 2107) places limits on the thickness of the edges and the overall depth of the bat. The maximum dimensions will be 108 mm in width

Chapter 1 Introduction

(unchanged), 67 mm in depth with 40 mm edges. A full report may be accessed by going online through the MCC into the balance of the game, which led to these changes, can be read on the Club‟s website, because here we are only dealing with the bats, so only that has been taken into consideration.

The detail of the new Law can be obtained from the Lord‟s website i.e. (https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/new-code-of-laws-october-2017/) or from Laws department at MCC along with guide for players, manufacturers, retailers & retailers- memorandum and guide for umpires too.

Policy governing implement technology in cricket is the prime responsibility of the MCC. The MCC is recognised as the sole authority for drawing up the rules for the games and for all subsequent amendments. The latest revision of the new laws of cricket 2017 code (Law 5-the bat), include design constraint upon the implement of the game. The rules concerning bat design are shown in Appendix B. The policy adopted by the MCC towards the arrival of new technology has resulted in a more limited scope for product innovation and resulted in less published research on cricket bat design and development in comparison to other major sport such as tennis, golf, hockey, and baseball.

1.4 MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY

Chapter 1 Introduction safeguard the traditional balance of the game. We have seen the impact of new technology and materials on other sport.

 Golfers drive the ball enormous distances,  Tennis players serve at greater speeds,  Footballers can dip and swerve the ball extravagantly.

However, the rules do not specify that modifications cannot be made. As we have seen over there the last 10 years that the cricket has been a mass of modernization in cricket bat and handles to improve bat performance by using different material. Variations in the design have been limited to the back of the bat such as scallops, extended ridges or alterations in the weight (Grant, 1996). This apparent lack of development may be due to the confinements of the rules (MCC, 2008), which limit manufacturers to using wood as the impacting surface.

Chapter 1 Introduction bat to embark to the latest sport enhancement technologies that have proven to benefit other games of sport such as baseball and tennis (Bogue, Mulcahey, Spangler, 1998).

There has been relatively little scientific investigation into current bat design and manufacturing, and today it is still remains a craftsman‟s art. The ability to generate a range of playing characteristics within the conflict of a conventional external & internal geometry may be significant for the future cricket bat design. The improvement in performance is such type of modern Modified Handle predominant since the game has evolved. It is also considered for many accounts for the fact that the game has not been subject to the same level of research and development observed in other sport such as baseball, golf and tennis and racquet design. Improvements in equipment by using engineering materials and sport technology have made a significant impact on sporting performance in recent years. Advanced materials and novel processing methods have enabled the development of new types of equipment

Chapter 1 Introduction with enhanced properties, as well as improving the overall design of sporting goods. The interdependence between material technology and design, and its impact on many of the most popular sport is reviewed.

The handle will be the initial focus since it is least restricted by the rules of the game. (John & Li, 2002).In due course of that, regular attempts made by the material scientists and researchers, who are working in this rapidly developing field to include new materials and techniques for the advancement and modification of a new recent development in cricketing equipment.

Within the boundaries of the game rules, several improved bat designs have proceeded to commercial production. These include the introduction of cane and rubber laminates (parallel with the bat length) as handle material aimed to ultimately reduce the transmission of vibration from the blade to the handle on impact (John & Li, 2002), and the introduction of improved perimeter weighting in 1960‟s on the blade. However, these changes were still far from optimum and, the improvements to the handle remain relatively unexplored (John & Li, 2002).

Chapter 1 Introduction detaching the handle from its distinct length, made up of brass materials mounted on to bottom portion of the handle.

The rules do not strictly restrict the handle design but, have left open an opportunity to alter the handle design, where there is no limitation to the innovative possibilities either in the form of improved structure, material composition, or additional instrument incorporation in the handle (Cao, 2006). But the opportunity may be used for innovative design and manufacture using high stiffness to weight ratio advanced fibre composites and material composites, there may be the possibility of significantly altering the dynamic characteristics of the bat by tailoring the design of the handle. This has left a door open for the possibility to design innovative Cricket bats (Cao, 2006). However, the rules do not specify that modifications cannot be made but under the control of the MCC.

So, by keeping in mind, the rules of cricket bat characteristics according to the new Law 5 the bat (MCC, 2017), as given in the Appendix B: B.2.3 restricted the use of Materials in handle other than cane, wood or twine to one-tenth for Type A and B as a proportion of the total volume of the handle, and one-fifth for Type C and D. And also such type of materials must not project more than 3.25 in/8.26 cm into the lower portion of the handle and, should be as long as it is within the specified dimensions (MCC, 2017).

The problem originally sourced and selected from previously published patent no. (993/DEL/2014 A, 2014) and with due permission of inventors, the researcher wants to conduct this particular type of study; experimentally on cricket bat handle as per technological advancement and its specification i.e. “the handle of a bat comprises two parts, i.e. Part 1 remains attached permanently with the blade & Part 2 either detached or attached with Part 1” (Ali & Murtaza, 2014).

Chapter 1 Introduction

The invention itself a problem for which the researcher and the inventors want to provide working framework, and look for a solution to further improve upon and modify into the invention, which has may be guaranteed as some industrial application, and compilations of the same work with correct interpretation. If any innovative equipment which comes out, and permitted to use into the games fairly, is often available after or with a lab test that simulate game conditions and incorporate the use of two objects; the object being evaluated and the object that it impacts in the course of its use.

1.5 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1.6 HYPOTHESES

Ho1: There will be no difference in the Mechanical and Physical Properties of Modified Handle in comparison to more Referenced/conventional Handle.

Ho2: There will be no difference in the Mechanical and Physical Properties of material that is used for making of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.7 DELIMITATIONS

A. Independent Variables 1. Handle Constraint: The experiment carried out on Grade „A‟ cricket bats handles that was short in size and round in shape and made up of finest quality of Singapore cane with 3 rubber insertions. The handle was constrained to its new measurement (values), in order to overcome the problem of using 10% non-wood material (i.e. Joint Assembly and their parts) within the limit of MCC‟s Law 5 (the bat) into the handle, for making the handle detachable with their distinct length (i.e. short to long) via joint assembly (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018b).

2. Joint Assembly Constraint: An improved design of Joint Assembly was designed and prepared by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018e).

3. Material Constraint: The advanced composite material (ACM) used for Joint Assembly i.e. a) Metal Alloys (MA): i. Brass ii. Aluminum Alloy b) Polymer Mix Composite (PMC): i. Teflon ii. Nylon c) Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP): i. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) ii. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

4. Location of Joint Assembly Constraint: a) Top of the Handle b) Middle of the Handle c) Bottom of the Handle

B. Dependent Variables 1. Physical Properties: a) Density b) Moisture Content

Chapter 1 Introduction

2. Mechanical Properties: a) Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) b) Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) c) Modulus of Rigidity (MOR) d) Torsional Stiffness (k)

1.8 LIMITATIONS

1.9 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND PROPOSED APPROACHES OF THE STUDY

1.9.1 Primary Objectives

The aim of this research is to investigate the science behind the material used into cricket bat handle with their physical and mechanical characteristics and to design, manufacture, and evaluate a novel cricket bat handle, having properties of attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length in order to get the mechanical advantage by shortening and lengthening of the handle and to reduce player‟s burden of being carrying extra weight in their kitbags.

Chapter 1 Introduction durability too. Material costs, processing and weight of the equipment would be important considerations. An appropriate durability metric to quantify and compare the robustness of handle needed, that is to be found.

1.9.2 Intermediate Objectives

The performance of different materials and joint‟s assemblies would be analyzed in order to find out the most reliable material and joint design.

1.9.3 Overall Development Objectives:

Designing of a new prototype model for Referenced Cricket bat handle and a new detachable handle was proposed at the end of this proposed study. And a detachable handle comprising of joint assembly of, with suitable material would be manufactured and tested in order to meet out the demand of general playing properties of handle, in comparison to a more conventional handle.

1.10 GOALS OF THE STUDY

The goals of the study were divided into three parts:

1.10.1 Part One mainly focused on the designing of Referenced Handle and joint assembly and to opt the best method of planting the joint assembly on to the handle of the cricket bat.

1.10.2 Part Two concentrated on the general use of materials in sport. Here, the researcher had given a broad insight into the overall influence of materials to be used in the cricket bat handle, and the significance of material processing and design and to select the best material from which assembly would be prepared finally.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.10.3 Part Three focused on showing how cricket bat have benefited from recent improvements in material technology. It also analysed the aspect in which way the sport equipment made in/ or influenced material and design with the help of biomechanics and sport engineering. The overall focus was to check the interaction between the type of material, its selection, processing and testing, and to show how this process underpins the performance of the final sporting product.

1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.11.1 It has been generally observed that each batsman carries bats of varying sizes because in order to play long hits, the batsman needs long handle bat and to play defensive strokes one needs short handle bat. In this way, cricket bats with varying handle length are required.

1.11.2 To provide the mechanical advantages by lengthening and shortening of the handle and to lighten the kit-bags of the cricketers & reducing the cost of purchasing extra bats.

1.11.3 Lesser number of cricket blades would be required; hence the cutting trees would be decreased, thus promoting ecological balance.

1.11.4 To determine the reliable material which is best suited for joint assembly and their parts for the detachable handle.

1.11.5 To investigate and establish the effect of structural design and construction of the handle on performance.

1.11.6 To determine the effect of alterations to the dimensions and material properties of the cricket bat handle and to discuss how performance and player comfort would be improved.

1.11.7 To develop a predictive technique of accessing the performance of handle‟s materials properties.

1.11.8 Finally, this study would enrich the limited literature that has been published in the area of cricket bat analysis.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.12 IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS/OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Adapter: The male part attached to the upper part of the handle.

Angle of Twist: If a shaft of length L is subjected to a constant twisting moment T along its length, than the angle q through which one end of the bar will twist relative to the other is known is the angle of twist.

Bat Substitution: Comparing materials, from a mechanical perspective and from the structural perspective.

Bat Vibration: A special spot on a bat where the shot feels best-the fundamental vibration node and the center of percussion.

Bend Test (Transverse loading): Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member. Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of the member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.

Bending Stiffness: The resistance of a member against bending deformation.

Center of Percussion (COP): If however the ball is struck at „the middle of the bat‟ which is scientifically known as the centre of percussion, a vibration occurs at the fundamental node of the bat, both forces mentioned before cancel out and there is no force felt in the batsman‟s hands.

Calamus Mannan: The largest rattan genus (Calamus), exported from Southeast Asia, mainly used by cricket bat manufacturers in India for making cricket bat handles and also known as Cane Wood, Singapore Cane, Manau Cane.

Collision Replication: What happens to a ball when it hits a bat.

Coefficient of Restitution (COR): The ratio of relative speed of the objects after and before the collision.

Composite Material: Strong lightweight material developed in the laboratory; fibers of more than one kind are bonded together chemically.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Cross sectional Area: A section formed by a plane cutting through an object, usually at right angles to an axis.

Deflection: The action or process of deflecting or being deflected.

Density: Density is one of the most fundamental physical properties of any material. It is defined as the ratio of an object mass to its volume. Because most designs are limited by either size and or weight, density is an important consideration in many calculations.

Elasticity: The tendency of a material to return to its original shape after it has been stretched, compressed or twisted.

Elongation: The action or process of lengthening something.

Equivalent Bending Stiffness: The product of the Elastic Modulus E, of the beam material and the second moment of area, I, of the beam cross-section.

Fibre-reinforced Plastic (FRP): Also called fibre-reinforced polymer, or fiber- reinforced plastic, and is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass (in fibreglass), carbon (in carbon-fiber- reinforced polymer).

Flexibility: The quality or state of being flexible, easily bent or shaped.

Flexural Rigidity: The force couple required to bend a non-rigid structure in one unit of curvature or it can be defined as the resistance offered by a structure while undergoing bending.

Force: The influence that produces a change in a physical quantity.

Gauge Length: The distance along the specimen upon which extension calculations are made. The gauge length is sometimes taken as the distance between the grips.

International Cricket Council (ICC): The international governing body of cricket.

Isotropic: Having a physical property which has the same value when measured in different directions.

Joint Assembly: Part of Modified Handle made up of non-wood materials, especially used for attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Law 5 (the bat): The concerned law regarding cricket bat with Appendix B.

Load (Mechanical Load): The external mechanical resistance against which a machine, such as a motor or engine, acts. The load can often be expressed as a curve of force versus speed.

Locking Pin: Used to tighten and lock the sleeve and adapter to the handle permanently.

Locking Screw: Used to attach and detach the upper part of the handle from the lower part.

Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC): Marylebone Cricket Club is the world‟s most active cricket club, the owner of Lord‟s Ground and the guardian of the Laws of the game.

Mass: The property of a body that causes it to have weight in a gravitational field.

Material: A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications.

Materials Science: Materials Science involves the study of the relationships between the synthesis, processing, structure, properties, and performance of materials that enable an engineering function.

Mechanical Properties: are physical properties that a material exhibits upon the application of forces. Examples of mechanical properties are the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, hardness and fatigue limit.

Mechanical Testing: reveals the elastic and inelastic behavior of a material when force is applied. A mechanical test shows whether a material or part is suitable for its intended mechanical applications by measuring elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, hardness, fracture toughness, impact resistance, stress rupture, wear, shear and fatigue limit.

Metal Alloys: Metal alloys are those materials which made up with the combination of two or more metals, especially to provide greater strength or resistance to corrosion.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC): Composite material with at least two constituent parts, one being a metal necessarily, the other material may be a different metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound.

Modified Handle: A handle in which a joint assembly was mounted on to three different location of the middle part of the handle.

Modulus of Elasticity (MOE): The ratio of the applied stress to the change in shape of an elastic body, and it is also denoted by (E).

Modulus of Rigidity (MOR): The coefficient of elasticity for a shearing force, and it is also denoted by (G).

Moisture Content: The quantity of water contained in a material.

Moment of Inertia: The tendency of a body to resist angular acceleration.

Orthotropic: Having three mutually perpendicular planes of elastic symmetry at each point.

Physical Property: Any property of a material that is measurable; whose value describes a state of a physical system. Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter

Physical Testing: Physical test is a qualitative or quantitative procedure that consists of determination of one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service according to a specified procedure.

Referenced Handle: Conventional/traditional handle made up of laminated 4 strip of cane wood with 3 rubber springs.

Rigid Body Approximation: How physical properties such as mass, moment of inertia and balance point can affect ball rebound speed.

Rigidity: The physical property of being stiff and resisting bending.

Shear Strain: Strain resulting from the application of opposing forces in a direction parallel to a surface or to a planar cross section of a body.

Shear Stress: Stress resulting from the application of opposing forces parallel to a cross-sectional area of a body. 34

Chapter 1 Introduction

Sleeve: The female part attached to the lower part of the handle.

Span Length: The distance between two intermediate supports for a structure.

Sport Engineering: is the design and production of sport equipment and facilities using advanced material and technology. Sport engineering can be thought of as the technical application of maths and physics to solve sporting problems. These might include: designing equipment, building facilities, analysing athlete performance, regulating standards, ensuring safety requirements are met, developing coaching tools, etc.

Sport Technology: Sporting technologies are man-made means (methods), developed to reach human interests or goals in or relating to a particular sport. Technology in sport is a technical means by which athletes attempt to improve their training and competitive surroundings in order to enhance their overall athletic performance.

Stiffness: The rigidity of an object the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an applied force. The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is the less stiff it is.

Strain: The deformation of a physical body under the action of applied forces.

Stress: The force that produces strain on a physical body.

Sweet Spot: The point or area which is situated near the end of the bat where the largest thickness is provided on the bat which makes most effective contact with the ball.

Tensile Test (Axial loading): The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten.

The Bat: Consists of two parts, a handle and a blade. The basic requirements and measurements of the bat are set out in this Law with detailed specifications in Appendix B.

The Blade: Comprises the whole of the bat apart from the handle as defined 5.2 and in Appendix B.3. The blade shall consist solely of wood. All bats may have commercial identifications on the blade, the size of which must comply with the relevant specification in Appendix B.6.

Review of Related Literature

Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

So the literature concerning to the science of cricket is reviewed in this chapter together with the relevant studies from other sports. The review has focused upon human factors, bat and ball impact modelling and material properties.

In this chapter, an overview of the background of cricket bat, including the rules restricting the design of cricket bat and the possibilities of improving cricket bat performance by using advanced materials within the boundaries of cricket bat governing rules had been reported. The following review of related literature provides background information pertinent to the investigation.

A Great Britain patent with the number WO2012081996A1 discloses that David John Richardson & David Michael Richardson invented a cricket bat handle which has indentations to accommodate the fingers of the batter (Richardson & Richardson, 2012).

Another patent application AU 2009252935 A1 in the year 2009 was filed by the inventor Fernandez Marcus Codrincjton who invented ‗A cricket sports bat‘. The invention has been assigned to ―Mongoose Cricket Limited‖ which was known as a mongoose bat, having an elongated handle and truncated or shortened blade. The Mongoose bat has the ratio of the length of the blade to the width of the blade in the range of 4:1 -3.25:1 and also made the blade 33% shorter than a conventional bat and 37

Chapter II Review of Related Literature the handle is 43% longer. The Mongoose bat has an advantage with a lighter bat with an extended sweet spot that has good hitting qualities over the heavier traditional bat (Marcus Codrington, 2009).

Adair (1995) discusses the collision between a bat and ball in baseball. Of particular importance in this work, Adair writes about the time scale of a collision between a bat and ball as well as the flexibility of the bat during the collision. Essentially, Adair argues that the time that the ball spends in contact with the bat is significantly shorter than the time taken for waves generated in the bat as a result of the collision to propagate back to the point of the collision. Further, and in contrast to (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990), Adair notes that the bat is indeed flexible over the time scale of the collision.

Ali, & Murtaza (2014) the authors filed a patent (993/DEL/2014 A, 2014) that discloses a cricket bat with detachable handle of varying length comprises of two parts of the handle. Part 1 remains permanently fixed with the blade of the cricket bat. Part 2 may be more than one having different lengths and can either be detached or attached with Part 1 as per the requirement of the batsman. In this way, this invention facilitates the batsman globally to lighten their kit bag in terms of weight and finance.

Allen, Fauteux-Brault, James, & Curtis (2014) conducted a research work based on Finite element analysis is often applied to further our understanding of the mechanics of sports equipment. The aim of that research was to develop and validate a finite element model of a cricket ball/bat impact. The ball model was independently validated against experimental data for normal impacts on a fixed rigid surface, at speeds up to 35 ms-1. Finite element models were produced for two bat geometries, with ball/bat impact simulations compared to experimental data.

A rigid body model was also applied to each bat. The validation experiment involved projecting a ball at 30 ms-1 normal to a freely suspended bat, at a range of locations on the long axis. The finite element models were in good agreement with the experimental data in terms of apparent coefficient of restitution. The rigid body model failed to accurately predict apparent coefficient of restitution for all impact locations along the length of the blade. The finite element modelling techniques presented here could be applied to aid the design and development of cricket bats.

Chapter II Review of Related Literature

An interesting case in such analyses is that of the Mongoose bat, which (Bull, 2008) describes as a bat with a ‗short blade and a blade/handle join that does not protrude beyond the neck of the blade‘. The Mongoose bat was designed to supposedly give batsmen an extra advantage in order to hit the ball further and harder. Bull also likens a cricket bat to a uniform beam and uses a vibrational analysis on traditional and Mongoose cricket bats. He attempts to calculate the moment of inertia of the cricket bats by considering them to be a simple pendulum when moving to hit a ball.

Bull (2008) concludes that the Mongoose bats have a stiffer blade than traditional bats. Further, the vibrational properties in both types of bats are similar, resulting in a likely advantage in performance for the Mongoose bat, without added discomfort to the batsman in terms of shock to the hands during impact. Bull states that the biggest difference between the Mongoose and traditional bats is the fact that the Mongoose has a greater moment of inertia, which will allow the bat to swing faster and impart a greater velocity on the ball after the impact.

Bower (2012) builds on the idea of a sweet-zone, saying that an impact at the sweet-zone will provide minimum shock to the hands. In agreement with both (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990) and (Brody, 1985) above, Bower claims that the sweet spot is dependent on the shot being played and the speed of the ball just before impact. Bower (2012) like (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990) and (Brody, 1985) claims that for balls travelling faster before impact the sweet-spot is located about 15-20cm away from the base of the bat. For slower deliveries, the sweet-spot moves towards the toe end of the bat. Bower measures the rebound speeds of balls of a swinging pendulum bat and hence calculated the Apparent Coefficients of Restitution in order to arrive at his results.

Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre (1990) make the assumption that the bat is a rigid object, and this object remains rigid when the bat hits the ball. After constructing a series of experiments using a traditional cricket bat and they find that there appears to be a point near the Centre of Percussion where the ball rebounds at maximum speed. They consider the Centre of Percussion to be a crucial factor in the determining the location of the sweet-spot, but not going as far to say that the Centre of Percussion is the sweet-spot. However, there is a distinct difference in their experimental results

Chapter II Review of Related Literature and the results that their mathematical model predicts with the rigid bat assumption. And, concluded that although the rigid bat assumption would help in determining the location of the sweet-spot with help from the Centre of Percussion, the maximum ball speed cannot be accurately predicted because the assumption of a rigid bat takes away the ‗spring‘ effect of the bat; that is, the vibrations and flex of the bat during and after impact.

Brody (1985) continues the idea of considering a rigid bat, this time by analyzing the dynamics of a baseball bat after collision with a baseball. Brody argues that the point to achieve maximum ball speed of the bat (―maximum power point‖) is not the Centre of Percussion but another point that is dependent on each individual pitch. This ―maximum power point‖ is dependent on the factors such as the speed of the pitch, the mass of the ball, etc. Brody also mentions a concept that is discussed by (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990) too: for balls that approach the bat with higher speed, the ―maximum power point‖ appears to be located closer to the batter‘s/ batsman‘s hands and further towards the toe-end (free-end) of the bat for slower pitches. In short, both (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990) and (Brody, 1985) both of whom made the assumption that the bat was rigid, appear to agree that the sweet- spot, as they define it, is the maximum power point that is dependent on the characteristics of each individual delivery/pitch and the location appears to be in the area of, but is not necessarily, the Centre of Percussion.

Brooks, Mather, & Knowles (2006) accessed the performance or hitting power of a number of cricket bats has been compared by measuring the absorption of impact vibration energy along the length of their blades. The measurements lead to the characterization of the position and size of the nodal sweet spot, i.e. impact area giving high performance, in addition to the identification of areas of poor performance on the blade. For the range of bats tested, the sweet spot position varies from 140 to 170 mm from the blade tip and its length varies from 130 to 160 mm. The results show that the blade profile, i.e. mass distribution, has an influence on the sweet spot characteristics, although small notches or cutouts have limited effect. Heavier bats are also shown to absorb less energy, and hence perform better, than lightweight bats. The development of a simplified discontinuous beam model has shown that the frequencies of vibration of a bat can be controlled by altering the stiffness and/or mass of the blade or handle. In particular, it has been shown that the use of a lightweight,

Chapter II Review of Related Literature high stiffness handle, possibly manufactured from advanced composites, could raise the third bending mode natural frequency out of the excitation range of a cricket ball- bat impact. Such a bat would show a significant performance improvement over current designs. The energy absorption procedure described in this paper offers designers a quantitative approach for optimizing the design of cricket bats and other sports equipment.

Bryant, Burkett, Chen, Krahenbuhl, & Lu (1979) showed that the performance of wooden bat is lower than aluminium bats. A similar study was done by (Greenwald, Penna, & Crisco, 2001) on two aluminium bats and wooden bats. The hit-ball speed of the wood bats exceeded 101 mph whereas the aluminium bat exceeded 106 mph, similar results were also found by (Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell, 2001).

Cao (2006) also studied and carried out work on Vibration shunt control for the Cricket bat carried out for the bat with the carbon-fibre tube handle but the vibration reduction is very little. It also is a problem to attach the PZT patch on the tube handle. So the carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handle bat was designed and tested. The PZT patches are attached to both sides of the handle. The pair at the shoulder area aims to reduce the vibration of the 1st and 3rd modes and the other pair aims to reduce the vibration of the 2nd and 4th modes based on the mode distribution. The PZT patches in each pair are connected in parallel then connected to a shunt circuit. There are two parallel R-L shunt circuits for the bat. The vibration signals and spectra of the 1st to 4th modes of the carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handle bat #1 with and without vibration shunt control respectively. The bat was excited by single frequency sinusoid signal individually. The vibration reductions are 20 % for the 1st mode, 43 % for the 2nd mode, 30 % for the 3rd mode, and 25 % for the 4th mode respectively.

The results of the 1st and 2nd modes when the sandwiched handle bat was driven by white noise. The figures show a similar amount of vibration amplitude reduction for the bat driven by sinusoidal forcing function and white noise. The results had shown a large improvement on the carbon-fibre tube bat. According to the relationship between amplitude and energy (by square law), 20 % reduction in vibration amplitude means 36 % reduction in vibration energy.

Chapter II Review of Related Literature

Cao (2006) carried out the modal testing of cricket bats by using Polytec Laser Vibrometer. The testing was done by scanning the whole bat excited with periodic chirp signal. After scanning, the modal shapes, mode frequencies can be obtained, in which several Cricket bats were tested, one of them is the normal wooden handle bat, two are the carbon-fibre composite tube handle bats, and two are the carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handle bats. The wooden handle, cricket bat is the traditional bat commonly used in the Cricket game is to be tested and it shows the first three bending modes (from top to bottom) of the bats obtained by the laser vibrometer. Their frequencies are: 125, 395, and 654 Hz respectively. One can notice that the maximum strain of the 1st mode is almost concentrated at the shoulder area.

Carbon-fibre composite tube handle, two cricket bats have been tested. The handle material of the bat #1 (less stiff handle) than that of the bat #2 (stiffer handle), the first three bending modes frequencies of the bat #1 are 237, 678, and 1237 Hz respectively. And the first three bending modes frequencies of the bat #2 are 319, 763, and 1431 Hz respectively. The mode frequencies of bat #2 are higher than those of bat #1 since the handle of bat #2 is stiffer than that of bat #1.

One can notice that the strain distributions of the carbon-fibre composite tube handle cricket bats #1 and #2 are different from that of the wooden handle bat. The maximum strains of the 2nd and 3rd modes are almost concentrated at the shoulder area rather than the 1st mode. This is because the carbon-fibre composite tube handle is too stiff for the 1st mode to be bent at the shoulder area. Also the stiffer handle bat bends less than the less stiff handle bat does. Since the amplitude of the 1st bending mode is the mode with the largest vibration amplitude and is felt worst by batsmen physically, it is the major mode to be controlled (Penrose, & Hose, 1998). Vibration shunt control for the less stiff handle bat was conducted. However, less than 2 % vibration amplitude reduction for the 1st mode was achieved. In order to reduce the stiffness at the shoulder area, the carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handles were made.

Carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handle, the handle is sandwiched by two pieces of carbon-fibre composite beams. The carbon-fibre composite beam is the variable stiffness polymeric composite strip. The carbon-fibre material at the shoulder area where the PZT patch will be attached is less stiff although theoretically it should

Chapter II Review of Related Literature be made stiffer in this area to transfer more strain into the PZT patch. This is actually a compromise in order to shift the 1st bending mode to the shoulder area. The first three bending modes of the sandwiched handle bat #1. The mode frequencies are: 203, 503, and 784 Hz. They are lower than the carbon-fibre tube handle bats but higher than the wooden handle bat. The location of the 1st bending mode is closer to the shoulder area of the bat. In the second carbon-fibre composite sandwiched handle Cricket bat. The difference from the first handle is that the wooden material sandwiched between the carbon-fibre composite strips has uniform thickness as shows in the bottom. The 1st bending mode shows it even closer to the shoulder area of the bat. The first four bending modes of the sandwiched handle bat #2. It gives clearer picture of where the anti-node locations of the bat are. The mode frequencies are: 156, 438, 655, and 1009 Hz respectively. The frequencies are further dropped and are closer to the frequencies of the wooden handle bat. The frequency drop is partly due to the gap between composite strips of bat #2 handle is narrower (hence lower flexural rigidity) than that of bat #1 handle. However, the frequency drop is not what was desired. It is certainly something that needs to be improved. The constraint here is that due to the laws of the game (MCC), attachments are not allowed anywhere except the handle of the bat. We need to find a break (soft) point along the handle to maximize the bending of the 1st mode. The only likely position is at the shoulder area.

It is possible to increase the frequencies as well as have the anti-node of the 1st bending mode close to the shoulder area by optimising the geometry size, Young‘s modulus of the carbon-fibre strips and the thickness of the wood material sandwiched between the two strips. It requires more simulations and experiments. The sandwiched handle bat #3 was tested after assembly. The mode frequencies, especially the 1st mode, have been improved compared to those of sandwiched handle bat #2. The first three mode frequencies are: 180, 444, and 710 Hz.

Cao (2006) proposed a design of Cricket bat handle for controlling the vibration at the bat handle. The handles of Cricket bats is traditionally made of wood. If the lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is directly attached to wood, little strain can be transferred into the PZT. The solution is to use the carbon-fibre strip attached to the whole handle area as PZT-shunt circuit effectiveness interfacing medium, and then attach the PZT patch somewhere on the carbon-fibre strip. Since the stiffness of carbon-fibre material can be very large and is specified by the designer, enhanced

Chapter II Review of Related Literature vibration control effects can be achieved by using the carbon- fibre strip. The results of FEA simulations and experiments have shown remarkable vibration reduction for the carbon-fibre beam using the passive piezoelectric vibration method. However, if the carbon-fibre strip is attached to one side of the wooden beam, there is still the problem of little strain being produced in the carbon-fibre beam such as when the PZT patch is attached to the wooden beam. In order to have high strain in the carbon-fibre layer, two identical carbon-fibre strips were attached at both sides of a wooden beam, which makes a sandwich beam. The cross sectional area of the sandwich beam. Wooden material is sandwiched between two carbon-fibre strips attached to both outer side surfaces of the wooden beam. Since the sandwiched beam is symmetric along the centeroid, the neutral surface is in the middle of the composite beam cross sectional area. It is seen that with the sandwiched beam structure, the strain in carbon- fibre layers is larger than the strain in the wooden layer regardless of large Young‘s modulus of carbon-fibre material. One might say why don‘t we directly attach the PZT patches to both side of the handle to make a sandwiched structure? The PZT patch is about 70 mm long and can only cover a small part of handle. Since the PZT is much stiffer than wood, the anti-node will not reside in the area where the PZT patches are attached.

Therefore the PZT patches will not bend much. This is the reason the PZT patches are not directly attached to both side of the wooden handle. The PZT patch and the carbon-fibre strip of the sandwiched beam can be treated as another composite beam structure, i.e., the PZT-carbon-fibre beam structure. Since the Young‘s modulus ratio of the PZT-carbon-fibre composite beam is much smaller than the Young‘s modulus ratio of the PZT-wood composite beam, more strain can be produced in the PZT layer when the PZT patch is attached on the carbon-fibre strip than when it is attached directly on the wooden beam. If the carbon-fibre strip is made much stiffer and thicker than the PZT patch, the structure alternation of the sandwiched beam due to the PZT patch attached can be neglected. Besides, for the PZT-carbon-fibre composite beam structure, a softer and thinner PZT patch can result in more strain in the PZT layer than that in the carbon-fibre beam layer. In order to maximize the strain in the PZT layer, the analysis will dictate the following for maximizing the strain in the PZT patch for a given young‘s modulus ratio: 1) Small Young‘s modulus ratio between the PZT patch and carbon-fibre strip, which means the carbon-fibre strip

Chapter II Review of Related Literature should be made as stiff as possible. 2) Small thickness ratio between the PZT patch and the carbon-fibre strip, which means the carbon-fibre strip should be made thicker than the PZT patch unless their Young‘s modulus ratio is extremely small (in the case of soft PZT being used). Practically, if the carbon-fibre strip is made too stiff, the anti- nodes of the cricket bat, especially that of first mode, will not be present in the handle but in the blade area, which means that the cricket bat handle will barely bend. This will reduce the strain in the PZT patch since the PZT patch is only allowed to be placed in the handle area. This is the reason why it is preferred to use the variable stiffness carbon-fibre strips to control the anti-node positions. There is a compromise between stiffening the carbon-fibre strip and positioning the first anti-node within the handle area. On the other hand, if the carbon-fibre strip is made too thick, it will also shift the first anti-node out of the bat handle.

So the design should be made accordingly. The design of the Cricket bat handle has been proposed in order to maximize the removal of vibration energy from the cricket bat handle with the passive piezoelectric vibration shunt control method and the benefits of using carbon-fibre strips in the Cricket bat handle are also described. Other advantages of the inherent increase in the natural frequency of the structure when using carbon-fibre strips are presented. This is argued from the drastically reduced power spectrum characteristics for frequencies above a threshold value.

Cao (2006) several cricket bat designs were modelled and analyzed with different handle materials and geometry shapes and a new cricket bat model was proposed. The major change in the newly designed Cricket bat is the use of high stiffness to weight ratio advanced fibre composites as part of the material variation to the handle. The purposes of this include: (a) to enhance the strain distribution in the PZT patch, and (b) to increase the natural frequencies of the bat. A cricket bat with a wooden handle model was constructed by using Solidworks®, CAD software. The model then was imported into ANSYS®. The diameter of the handle is 16 (mm) and the length of the handle is 300 (mm) and the length of the blade is 560 (mm). The blade of the bat is made of willow which density equal to 420 Kg/M3 and the Young‘s Modulus is equal to 3 GPa. The handle of the bat is made of cane with density equal to 700 Kg/M3 and the Young‘s modulus is equal to 6.6 GPa. The second cricket bat handle is made with composite hollow cylinder tube. The outer

Chapter II Review of Related Literature diameter of the cylinder tube is 16 (mm), and the inner diameter of the cylinder tube is 13 (mm). The length of the cylinder tube is 300 (mm). The density and the Young‘s Modulus of the composite are equal to 1350 Kg/M3 and 70 GPa respectively. And the structure of the cylinder tube is highly resistant to bending though it can greatly increase the natural frequency, so another design has been made. Instead of using a composite cylinder tube, a fork like composite beam structure was attached to the outer sides of the wooden handle to make a third type of Cricket bat with sandwiched handle.

Constraint is an important factor to determine bat performance. Brody (1990) used two softballs, one wood and one-aluminum bat to experimentally measure vibration. Comparison of the vibrational response between freely, hand held and vice clamped bats was done. The freely suspended bat had the same vibrational response as the hand-held bat but there was a difference in the vibrational response in the clamped bat. He concluded nevertheless that grip firmness should not determine the post-impact velocity of the ball.

Cross (1998) also discusses the idea of a sweet-zone. Cross says that the sweet spot on a baseball bat can be defined in terms of a vibration node or in terms of the Centre of Percussion. Cross attempts to measure the forces that are felt by the hands of the batsman/batter before and during impact. Cross mentions the work done by (Brody 1985) and discusses the sweet-zone in terms of the node of the first mode of vibration and the Centre of Percussion. Cross points out that since these two spots are fairly close together, they could lie in a zone that could, in fact, be the sweet-zone on the bat. After his experiments, Cross concludes that there exists a zone of about 3cm in width such that when the ball strikes the bat in this zone, the impulse sent to the hands on the batsman is minimized. Cross measures this force electronically by using two ceramic piezoelectric disks taped to the bat handle. Cross claims that this zone exists because of the Centre of Percussion and the node of the first mode of vibration.

Curtis (2009a) in 1910 Henry Gradidge got patented a bat with which was laminated with cane handle along-with the flat springs. In 1954 John Lewis of the Rubber Improvement Company patented the first idea for a plastic bat to be made in a mould. He referred to using hard-setting resins that could be reinforced with glass, nylon or cotton, and the cavity filled with cork, wood, sponge or ‗like-filling‘

Chapter II Review of Related Literature substance. A modern example of striving to use new materials is a patent by Michael Curtis (no relation) of Dunlop‘s in 1993, who were then the owners of Slazenger and producer of Slazenger cricket bats. He proposed a predominantly plastic bat that had a willow insert for the striking surface though the interesting part was that Michael Curtis did know very well that the existing rule doesn‘t permit any ‗non-wood‘ material in the blade of a bat.

Eftaxiopoulou, Narayanan, Dear, & Bull (2011) conducted a study on seven cricket bats, four standard and three significantly different designs, were tested for a set of mechanical properties: equivalent bending stiffness, moment of inertia, and freely-suspended vibration. These properties are known to be related to the performance of the cricket bats in terms of pick up weight, vibrations imparted to the batsman, and energy imparted to the cricket ball. The aim of this work was to determine whether these novel designs improve the bat‘s performance parameters. The results showed that by redistributing the mass of the bat further away from the rotational axis the MoI increases, which aims to increase the bat‘s COR transferring more momentum to the ball. Carbon fibres in the bat provide the advantage of having a stiff blade combined with a relatively less stiff handle, which is an optimum for imparting maximum energy to the ball combined with minimizing vibration discomfort to the batsman. Which one of these characteristics affects the bat‘s COR more was not quantified in this study. Where the vibration performance of a bat is concerned carbon fibres marginally improved it meaning this is an area that may hold some scope for innovation by bat manufacturers, subject to ensuring that the bats conform to the laws of the game.

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was originally developed for solving solid mechanics problem that would not necessarily be possible with direct mathematical analysis where finding an exact solution is difficult. FEA simplifies a real engineering problem into a problem that can be solved using an approximate solution. The behaviour of bats has been modelled using FEA and then COR related with analytical approaches, and triangulated with a series of experimental tests (Symes, 2006). These approaches allow the effects of geometric alterations under different load conditions to be analysed. In a comprehensive study of the impact characteristic of sports balls and the performance of striking implements, Cross (2014), employed FEA models. Penrose & Hose (1998) utilized FEA techniques to assess the cricket bat-ball impact

Chapter II Review of Related Literature and so providing guidelines to bat manufacturers in the shaping of the bat to control its properties of flexibility and vibration. FEA was seen as a feasible method of calculating the behaviour of cricket bats, even for simplified models (John & Li, 2002). Ruggiero, Sherwood, Drane, Duffy, & Kretschmann (2014) employed FEA to develop calibrated models of the breaking of wood baseball bats in controlled lab conditions, and then explored how the bat profile influenced ―bat durability and what potential changes can be made in bat profile to satisfy player desires while increasing bat durability.

Fisher, Vogwell, & Ansell, (2006) measured the hand loads on five different commercial bats. Three clamping configurations were employed on rigid clamps, in a hand simulator, and hands of a human subject. The clamps were positioned 210 mm apart and rigid clamps were tightened to 300 N, whereas hand the simulator was tightened to 8 N, equal to human grip force. The impact positions were at 6cm intervals from the end of the bat, impacted from a ball drop tube at 9 m/s. He found that the hand simulator clamped loads were very similar in distribution to hand loads, for the load measured along the length of the bat. It was also observed that the rigid clamped grip load was ten times the magnitude of the hand-held bat.

From the literature of cricket bat research, researchers mainly focus on improving the dynamic performance of cricket bats. Grant, & Nixon (1996b) used Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to optimise the blade geometric parameters and (Grant, 1998b) suggested that handle stiffness be strengthened with composite material in order to raise the 3rd flexural vibration mode out of the excitation spectrum, that is, the 3rd mode is not excited during ball/bat impact, results in the 3rd vibration mode being removed completely, leaving only the 1st and 2nd modes to have significant impact on the batsman. Knowles, Mather, & Brooks (1996b) compared impact characteristics and vibrational response between traditional wooden Cricket bats and full composite cricket bats through impact tests as well as computational analysis. Their findings implied that the composite bat could have higher Coefficient of Restitution (COR = ball output speed/ball input speed) which means the ball can be bounced back at faster speed.

In addition, they implied that the contact time of bat/ball might be optimally tuned with the composite bat, to match the time it takes for the bat to deflect and

Chapter II Review of Related Literature return to its original position (Brooks, Knowles, & Mather, 1997). The energy of vibration in the bat can then be returned to the ball giving it a high exit velocity. This contact time matches one of the vibration frequencies of the bat. In similar studies with FEA, (Penrose, & Hose, 1998) and (John, & Li, 2002) had similar conclusions that the bat/ball contact time (or dwell time) appears approximately constant and dictated by the local Hertzian parameters. The ball exit velocity might be increased by optimal tuning of the frequencies of the 2nd or 3rd modes to give a time period of half a cycle approximately equal to the time of contact. They also believed that the 1st flexure mode dominates the impact. These researchers have given an insight and valuable contribution to designing better cricket bats in future.

However, there is little information regarding to the attenuation or reduction of the vibration excited in the cricket bat. The study of removing or controlling the post- impact vibration in cricket bats is still in its infancy. The goal of this study was to explore the post-impact vibration control of the cricket bats. In the next few sections, traditional vibration control methods as well as the emerging new vibration control with smart material components will be discussed.

Gillespie, & River (1975) and Vick, & Okkonen (1998) gave examples of such work in which techniques to accelerate the test procedures are employed. Substrate and adhesive tests can provide mechanical data for the bond and provide a visual assessment of bond quality following insertion of a knife or chisel into the glue line to produce failure in a 'cleavage' or 'peel' mode. Tests can be quantified in terms of mean load or stress required to rupture the specimen. Measurement of creep under sustained loading is important for some adhesive bonds as is fatigue resistance due to the swell and shrinkage of substrates. Exposure and accelerated exposure tests are used to quantify the change in mechanical properties due to anticipated environmental conditions over a period of time,

Grant & Nixon (1996b) developed a parametric finite-element model of a bat. The model used an isotropic material with physical properties of English willow taken from Lavers (1983). Initially Correlation with the experimental modal model was poor. Modal frequencies were some 20% lower than experiment, while the overall weight estimate was almost 50% too high. Grant and Paisley (1997) made independent density measurements from scanning electron micrographs of a blade

Chapter II Review of Related Literature section. The results of spot-density measurements taken at 0.5-mm intervals from the surface of a sectioned blade. The measured density is much higher than that indicated in the literature and varies spatially by some 20% in a small sample. Using the average measured density of 621 kg/m3, both modal frequencies and weight determined from the model coincided almost exactly with the observed values. Once calibrated, the finite-element model was used to investigate the effects of typical geometric design features introduced into the back face of the blade. Results showed that none of these design features had a significant effect on flexural frequencies for a given bat weight.

Grant & Nixon (1996b) studied about a simple rigid-body model of a cricket bat predicted an idealised performance not achieved in practice due to vibrations set up in the bat during its impact with ball. There are three significant flexure mode of vibration in a typical excitation spectrum. A Finite Element model is used to compare the model performance of a variety of designs that incorporate popular design features. Most of these features are ineffective in raising the frequency of the highest mode out of the excitation spectrum. Those features that do enhance performance essentially increase the stiffness of either handle or the blade. Whilst it is feasible to design out the influence of the highest significant flexure mode, the remaining two modes could remain a problem with a rigid handle.

Grant (1998b) concluded that the Newton's coefficient of restitution e provides an appropriate measure of bat performance. Contours of this parameter, as measured in laboratory tests, will identify the size and position of the sweet spot. A rigid-body analysis of a bat-ball interaction shows that the optimum point of impact occurs near to the tip of the blade. Hence the rigid model is incorrect as vibrations detract from this performance. The rigid-model performance may be viewed as ideal in that it may be approached but not achieved in practice. Modal modelling in laboratory tests shows that only three significant flexure modes of vibration exist within the excitation spectrum. Grouping of nodes for all three modes is not a practical method of improving performance. Geometric design factors aimed at improving perimeter weighting do not increase modal frequencies significantly. This result is not unexpected because moving material to the edges will not greatly affect the section's stiffness. Perimeter weighting will improve the bat's inertia about the long axis and so may improve the width of the sweet spot. Flexural vibrations affect only the length of

Chapter II Review of Related Literature the sweet spot. Manufacture of the handle in a modern composite fiber appears to offer the most scope for increasing performance. However finite, element studies show that this can only be a partial solution. Regardless of how much the stiffness of the handle is increased, only the third flexure mode can be removed from the excitation spectrum. Further stiffening of the blade would be necessary to remove the remaining two modes.

Grant (1998b) suggested that the modern composite materials could be used to increase the flexural stiffness without adding weight, thus causing modal frequencies to rise. The ratio of stiffness to density properties of willow in comparison with carbon, glass and Kevlar fibers. For the same weight, fibre composites—in particular carbon fibre composite—can be seen to offer plenty of scope for increased stiffness. The handle offers the greatest opportunity for increasing the three significant modal frequencies because it has relatively high amplitude of vibration in all modes. Unlike the blade, the laws of cricket (MCC, 2017) do not insist that the handle be made of wood. The results from the finite element model after arbitrarily increasing the flexural stiffness of the handle and leaving the weight unchanged. The three significant modes of vibration increased their characteristic frequencies as the elastic modulus rose from 6.6 GPa to about 40 GPa. Further increases in stiffness produced little additional increase in modal frequencies. Only mode 3 rose above the excitation spectrum regardless of the stiffness of the handle.

Grant (1998b) used a finite element model to compare the performance of a variety of designs. The basic model was correlated to experimental data. Agreement improved when the density of the wood was increased by 50% from that found in the literature. It was observed that the mode one and two frequencies were identical whereas third mode was 4% lower.

Grant, & Nixon (1996a) and Sayers, Koumbarakis, & Sobey (2005) observed that during the manufacture of a bat, the blade is compressed (knocked) in order to resist the dynamic impact of the ball without getting damaged. Little has been done, however, to consider the effect of knock-in or wood species on performance. Studies have shown that the surface hardness of the cricket bat increases with knocking, which produces a stiff and dense region that affects the flexural stiffness and vibration of the bat. Recent advances in technology and materials have motivated a number of

Chapter II Review of Related Literature changes in cricket bat design. Advanced composite materials are used to stiffen the blade and is purported to improve durability. While some studies suggested these advances have not affected performance, more work is needed to quantify their contribution of (Stretch, Brink, & Hugo, 2006).

Grant, & Nixon (1996a) studied the effect of microstructure on the impact dynamics of a cricket bat to improve the accuracy a cricket bat computer model. The face of a cricket bat blade was pressed during manufacture producing a surface better able to withstand impacts encountered during play. The authors believed this process significantly affected the dynamic behaviour of the bat through modifying the flexural vibration characteristics of the implement. In a previous study of (Grant, & Nixon, 1996a) concluded that flexural vibration characteristics were significant in determining the elasticity of ball impact. Samples cut from the surface face of the bat were weighed and subjected to a three point bend test with the pressed face uppermost in accordance with BS 373 and values for flexural stiffness against mean density were determined. A computer model of the test was developed and the values of density and elastic modulus were modified for layers of variable thickness to represent the pressed layer in the specimen. The model showed that if a thin layer of the beam were to have its density and elastic modulus increased, then the mass and flexural stiffness of the beam would also increase. Mass, stiffness and frequency values were plotted against layer thickness and a value of -1.4 mm was determined to accurately represent the pressed layer. The study did not investigate the relationship between flexural stiffness and bat impact characteristics.

Grant, & Nixon (1996b) used Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to optimise the blade geometric parameters and (Grant, 1998b) suggested that handle stiffness be strengthened with composite material in order to raise the 3rd flexural vibration mode out of the excitation spectrum, that is, the 3rd mode is not excited during ball/bat impact, results in the 3rd vibration mode being removed completely, leaving only the 1st and 2nd modes to have significant impact on the batsman.

Grant, & Thethi (1994) suggested that improved performance may be possible if the frequency of one or more of the significant modes of natural vibrations could be raised above the excitation spectrum. Comfort and performance therefore appear to be conflicting design requirements. Due to that (Grant, & Nixon, 1996b) use modern bats

Chapter II Review of Related Literature which have invariably sprung handles that consist of a number of alternate cane and rubber strips. The purpose of rubber is to make handle more complaint in an attempt to isolate the batsman‘s hands from painful vibrations. The effect is to lower the frequency of natural vibrations.

Gutaj (2004) used three different methods to model the dynamics of a cricket bat. Like, (Penrose, & Hose, 1999) and (Hariharan, & Srinivasan, n.d), Gutaj made use of a Finite Element method. Gutaj used of both a tapered and uniform beam model to supplement the Finite Element model. Gutaj argued that the rigid body models introduced would help to model the performance of bats when impact is made near the sweet-spot but don‘t take into account the energy that is lost to vibrations when impacts are made away from the sweet-spot; a similar argument to that of (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990). Gutaj (2004), like (Brearley, Burns, & De Mestre, 1990). and (Brody, 1985), questioned whether the Centre of Percussion is the sweet-spot of the bat and leans towards the idea that the sweet-spot is some point between the Centre of Percussion and the Centre of Mass. Gutaj‘s Finite Element model stressed the importance of the first mode, which was consistent to the results found (Cross, 1998; Knowles, Brooks, & Mather, 1996a, and Penrose, & Hose, 1999)

Hariharan and Srinivasan (n.d) also used computational Finite Element approach, in order to predict the performance of a cricket bat. Hariharan and Srinivasan used modal analysis to determine the location of the region between the first two modes of vibration. By doing this, they were able to establish the relationship between these two nodes and the area that provides the highest velocity to the ball after an impact has occurred. Hariharan and Srinivasan found that for all the tests that were conducted at various ball speeds and bat angles, this area (or just outside this area) produces the maximum post impact velocity of the ball. So now a new concept could be considered; the idea of not just a sweet-spot but rather that of a sweet-zone on the bat that can produce the highest post impact ball velocity.

Hariharan, & Srinivasan (n.d) conducted a study on bat performance with various impact combinations. Model analysis was used to determine the region where the maximum ball exit velocity was located. It was found that the region for maximum ball exit velocity in the finite element model was between 0.72m and 0.8m from the top of the bat.

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Hisham, Mokhtar, Tahir, Yazid, & Hassan (2015) studied on the laminated rattan strip from large diameter rattan (Calamus Manan) of more than 50 mm was investigated. The commercial rattan was cut into square shape of 25 mm X 10 mm X 320 mm (W x T x L) and glued together with urea formaldehyde resin (UF) either as face to face or edge to edge bonding. Each bonding was fabricated to 2, 3 and 4 layers. The physical and mechanical properties were tested in according to Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) and British Standard (BS). Overall, the study found that the water absorption, thickness swelling and delimitation in either cold or hot water were not significantly different with the type on bonding and number of layer. The Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Maximum Load (ML) were significantly different with type of bonding, but not the Modulus of Rupture (MOR). The MOR and MOE were not significantly different with number of layer. The ML increased with increasing layers. Large diameter Calamus Manan can be laminated with either type of bonding or number of layer.

In developing an Finite Element (FE) model for cricket bats and balls, James, Curtis, Allen, & Rippin (2012) established the validity of a rigid body model of the cricket ball-bat impact, whilst a finite element rigid body model was similarly developed for two bat geometries, with ball/bat impact simulations (Allen, Fauteux- Brault, James, & Curtis, 2014). Rigid body analysis has further been shown by (Symes, 2006) as an appropriate method of investigating bats (the rigid body) following object collision. This is relevant to the cricket bat and ball contact situation. A bat and cricket ball FE model was developed and validated against laboratory-based experimental ball testing.

James, Curtis, Allen, & Rippin (2012) showed that the rigid body impact models have been used in a number of racket and bat sports to better understand how physical properties such as mass, moment of inertia and balance point can affect ball rebound speed. Cricket is sport whereby players can select their preferred bat with a wide range of different physical properties. No previous studies have attempted to validate the use of rigid body impact models in cricket, and player choices are typically made through intuition with little consideration of impact mechanics. This study measured the performance of three different cricket bats in freely suspended impact tests, and compared the results to predictions made by a rigid body model. Ball rebound speed was measured using high speed video on impacts locations across the

Chapter II Review of Related Literature blade. The physical properties of the different bats were measured and used as the input for the rigid body model predictions. It was found that for impact locations close to the bat‘s centre of mass, the rigid body model worked well, but some discrepancies were found as the impact location moved away from the centre of mass. These discrepancies were believed to be caused by the large vibrations evident during the impacts (a clear violation of the model‘s rigid body assumption) and the erroneous method that was employed to measure the bats coefficient of restitution. It was concluded that using a rigid body model to describe the impact of a cricket ball with a cricket bat is valid as a first approximation and that it has significant value in terms of exploring how changing a bat‘s physical properties may affect its performance.

John, & Li (2002) designed an innovation of introducing fiber reinforced rubber layer is evaluated. The new rubber layer contains 5% of the Graphite (T-300) Fiber parallel to the long axial of the handle. The purpose of using rubber layer is to decouple the handle from blade and increase the damping effect of bat. However, it deteriorates the stiffness of the handle and lowers the frequencies of the bat considerably. An innovation of fiber-reinforced rubber was evaluated and it shows its advantages by increasing the sweet region significantly while holding the property of high damping coefficient of the rubber.

John, & Li (2002) separating the ball-bat impact into two steps helps to understand the nature of this phenomenon. The energy transformations in the first step determine what degree of vibration will be generated in the second step. At the same time, the amount of energy causing vibration in the second step has great affect on the coefficient of restitution (COE) that decides the performance of a hit. A method of calculating the bat-absorbed-energy by the deflection of the hitting point when the ball leaves the bat is created. Post-dynamic analysis of a FEM model shows the bat- absorbed-energy varies a lot by the location of the hit point. As identified in the discussion above, mode shape and nodes location have great affect on bat-absorbed- energy and this eventually determines the performance characteristics of the bat. The purpose of using rubber layer is to decouple the handle from blade and increase the damping effect of bat. However, it deteriorates the stiffness of the handle and lowers the frequencies of the bat considerably. An innovation of fiber-reinforced rubber was evaluated and it shows its advantages by increasing the sweet region significantly while holding the property of high damping coefficient of the rubber. The force

Chapter II Review of Related Literature applied on the bat during impact was assumed to have a triangular shape (on a force- time plot) and is only proportional to the initial speed. An analysis of force time relation by experiment will offer a better understanding of energy transformations during the ball-bat impact and this should enable a better method of performance evaluation of the cricket bat.

John, & Li (2002) studied the deflection of cricket bats experimentally and numerically. His experimental work involved modal analysis with a clamped handle. His numeric model constrained the proximal end of the bat. The bat vibrational frequency was measured from ball impacts in the numerical model and compared with experiment. The FEM model showed good agreement with experimental results, suggesting that the FEM model is a feasible numerical tool to predict the performance of a cricket bat. It was observed that the performance of the bat varied with impact location.

Kant, Padole, & Uddanwadikar (2013) conducted a research in which they evaluate the stresses into the hands of a cricket batsman. Very less literature has been found to attempt such an analysis, although it can be of great use, like predicting the location of injury, predicting the performance of the safety wear being used by the batsman, etc. One of the aims of this work is also to study in detail the variation in the ball exit velocity with respect to the impact location on the blade. Finite Element Modeling is used as an approach to predict the exit velocity of the ball. Three situations with various velocities of bat and ball are considered and simulated. The results confirm the existence of sweet spot, and indicate the same location where minimum amplitude of vibration is expected. A study on the reaction forces on the hand due to both the bat swing as well as ball impact is done. It is seen that reaction forces are minimum for sweet spot impact. The load on the hand is observed to be a dynamic load, occurring for a period almost five times the impact period of ball. A study is also performed on the stress distribution in the hand of the batsman, due to these reaction forces.

Kant, Padole, & Uddanwadikar (2013) worked on Finite Element Analysis is used as a tool to examine the effects of impacting a ball on a cricket bat. The existence of a high performing region, called sweet spot, is verified using various methods. The region where the minimum amplitudes of bat vibration occur is

Chapter II Review of Related Literature identified through modal analysis. Balls impacting in this region are found to result in maximum exit velocity after the impact. A study of reactions forces on the wrist involved in hitting the ball is done. Forces due to both, swinging of bat as well as impact of ball on the bat are considered. Sweet spot impacts are found to result in lower reaction forces. These reactions forces are used to study the stresses developed in the hand. It is found that stresses obtained using the analysis are quite feasible, though may not be experimentally verifiable, as far as the authors could presently see. Although it may not experimentally verifiable, it can be physically experienced by a batsman, though can‘t be quantified. It is known that players often experience pain in the back portion of the elbow. This is precisely the location of maximum stress, as predicted by the analysis. The stresses obtained in the bone and the ligaments are found to be much lower than their yield stress values. This shows that the stresses are within an acceptable range. It is also observed that for sweet spots impacts the stresses in bones and ligaments is least. Another important observation is that since a right hand batsman is being considered, the right hand is the one that experiences more forces as compared to the left hand. This observation is also validated by the experience of right handed batsmen.

Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali (2016a) stated that there were no regulations on cricket bats, up until the mid-nineteenth century so players used many different types of wood bats from long, heavy, round ones to short, flat bats that were similar to baseball bat and hockey sticks, but today bat geometry is tightly regulated in all levels of play. The rules of cricket, although strict, have left open an opportunity to alter the handle design (i.e. round or oval handle, to a new octagonal shaped cricket bat handle) and use of material as the new Law 6 the-bat, came into effect from 1st October 2008. Furthermore, new technologies have afforded the use of new materials in the form of aluminium alloys, carbon fiber, polymers, titanium, magnesium etc. that are found most suitable material. Where there is no limitation to the innovative possibilities, either in the form of improved structure, material composition or additional instruments incorporation in the handle. It is possible to include new high- tech technologies to provide enhanced performance. The use of high stiffness to weight ratio advanced fiber composite and the opportunity for innovative design and manufacture using composite materials, present the possibilities of significantly altering the mechanical characteristics of the bat by tailoring the design of the handle

Chapter II Review of Related Literature that can have a significant effect on performance. But now in recent, the manufacturers and sports engineers have re-designed and use some newly engineering materials that are to be used into the cricket bat handle as compared to the past days for making the cricketing equipment, not only performance oriented but also they do not violate the Law 6 of MCC. So, a new research had been carried out on a cricket bat with detachable handle that has been invented by (Ali, & Murtaza, 2014). And after that an applied research is to be carried out to examine a specific set of circumstances, and its ultimate goal is related to the results to a particular situation and more research is needed in the detachable handle especially the installation of assembly on handle and the assembly should be made of which material etc. The majority of research studies revealed that the problems start with the cricket bat has traditionally been directed from those problems that encounters maximizing the speed of cricket ball after impact with the bat, flexural stiffness and vibration control, surface hardness of cricket bat. But the current study gives a brief overview on history and research being carried out on cricket bat handles. Recent advances in technology and use of materials have motivated a number of changes in design of cricket bat handle. Advanced composite materials are used to stiffen the handle and is purported to improve durability. While some studies suggest these advanced materials have not affected performance and more work is needed to quantify their contribution. This left a door open for possibilities to design innovative cricket bats. These changes are however under the control of the MCC.

Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali (2016b) carried a review to identify published work on cricket bat design and development of its manufacturing. The majority of research into cricket bat has traditionally been directed at the problem of maximizing the speed of the cricket ball after impact with the bat. As development and popularity of the game is increases by seeing this entire thing basis carpentry skills were brought to put up with. There has been a major transformation in cricket bats throughout the history. The cricket bat, a wondrous thing of control and power, has attempted to develop from its 1860's incarnation. In the geometry and style, cricket bat changes constantly and the bat manufacturers & producers look to be different themselves, driven by materialistic need to make new models for every season. It echoes a previous burst of creativity at the start of the last century, but this time the guardians of the rules, the MCC, have taken a dim view of all this new cleverness by the manufacturers. The

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MCC decided the trend would tilt the balance in favour of the batsmen too much, where ball, pitches and boundaries have remained unchanged. So they modified Law 6 (now Law 5), and allow only 10% of 'non-wood' material in the handle. But the necessity is the mother of invention so once again in the light of MCC‘s rule of cricket bat characteristics and in spite of regular attempts made to include new materials and techniques for the advancement and modification of a new recent development in cricketing equipment and this little development in its implement based on modern technologies as unlike most major sports would be dominant in the era of modern cricket.

Khan (2013) invented a cricket bat in which the striking surface is off-set a distance of 1-2 cm from the front-line of the handle is disclosed. The bat may conform to the relevant Laws of Cricket, having a flat striking surface; a blade made of wood, 10.8 cm or less in width, and when combined with a handle, made mostly of cane, 96.5 cm or less in length. The handle is 52% or less of the bat's total length. In other versions, the bat may not conform to the Laws of Cricket, may be modular in construction and made of aluminium, glass or carbon fibre, a suitable plastic, or some combination of such materials. The blade and the handle may be joined by screw- attached brackets making the components interchangeable, allowing for customization of bat size, weight, length, colour and decoration.

Kilpatrick, Mulcahy, & Blicblau (2016) investigated the difference in performance of a cricket bat with and without inserts as utilized by amateur batsmen facing amateur bowlers. The potential improvement of a cricket bat is two-fold; the rebound velocity of the ball can be increased while also reducing the weight by reducing the edge thickness or redistributing the mass to improve other sections of the bat. The outcomes of this report show that the addition of a 6mm thick insert in the sides of a cricket bat can significantly improve a cricket bat‘s performance, both in the area of the sweet spot and the overall improvement in the COR of the bat. The outcomes of his work shows that the addition of a 6mm thick insert in the sides of a cricket bat can significantly improve a cricket bat‘s performance, both in the area of the sweet spot and the overall improvement in the COR of the bat.

Knowles, Brooks, & Mather (1996a) extended the idea of vibrational analysis in bats. They also model their bat as a beam and make the simplifying assumption of

Chapter II Review of Related Literature the ball to be a sphere. Their model uses a combination of vibrational and impact theory through a computer model, a cricket ball impact test as well as a modal analysis. Their results are in agreement with (Penrose, & Hose, 1999) with regard to the dominance of the first mode but state that it is difficult to determine the role of higher modes in a real bat due to the cross-section variations in cricket bats. Further, (Knowles, Brooks, & Mather, 1996a) claim that their model comes up short with regards to the batsman holding the bat. They reason that the batsman‘s hands cannot be modelled accurately as a clamp and different boundary conditions should be considered. Finally, (Knowles, Brooks, & Mather, 1996a) reason that a stiffer and heavier bat will vibrate less and will hit the ball the furthest.

Knowles, Mather, & Brooks (1996b) compared impact characteristics and vibrational response between traditional wooden Cricket bats and full composite cricket bats through impact tests as well as computational analysis. Their findings implied that the composite bat could have higher Coefficient of Restitution (COR = ball output speed/ball input speed) which means the ball can be bounced back at faster speed. In addition, they implied that the contact time of bat/ball might be optimally tuned with the composite bat, to match the time it takes for the bat to deflect and return to its original position (Brooks, Knowles, & Mather, 1997). The energy of vibration in the bat can then be returned to the ball giving it a high exit velocity. This contact time matches one of the vibration frequencies of the bat.

Larsen (2003) filed a patent with the Publication USD475425 S1 of is related with the ornamental designs for a cricket bat handle. Another US Patent number US20130316860 disclosed that Richardson, & Richardson (2013) invented a grip for a cricket bat handle.

Laver (2002) designed and tested the Carbocane handle in order to offer a different handle option to Laver & Wood customers. He has used several different designs since then and released the latest version in May 2008. He has changed the design of the handle to comply with the new laws recently released by the MCC. The new laws require that no more than 10% of the handle is made from materials other than cane, wood or twine. These extra materials also must not project more than 82.6mm into the lower portion of the handle.

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The Carbocane handle is a unique option for L&W customers. A carbon/S- Glass tube is inserted 75mm into the top of the handle. This insert helps the handle retain its stiffness and strength for a longer period of time whilst staying well within the new 2008 cricket laws. This also helps to make the bat retain power after substantial use. A standard traditional cane handle tends to become quite flexible after a period of use, resulting in a decrease in power. They are also researching the use of different timbers in the handle construction. This is due to current cricket bat handle cane being harvested from rain forests and not replanted. This leads to depletion of the world's natural resources. Carbo bats come with the Carbocane handle and are available in our top 2 Grades of English Willow: the Carbo Firefly (Grade 1) and the Carbo Comet (Grade 2). The weight range for our Carbo bats is 2lbs7ozs to 3lbs6ozs. These bats are most popular in the 2.10-2-12 weight range as they have a huge amount of willow in the blade and therefore plenty of power without being too heavy. The willow we use allows us to produce the lightest pickup imaginable for such a large amount of wood. The face of this bat is available flat or with a slight bow and is prepared mostly by hand mallet in terms of pressing. The edges are consistently huge and the profile depth massive. The profile can also be made to a lower or higher sweet spot depending on your specification. A higher sweet spot gives a lighter pickup and faster bat speed than a lower sweet spot.

Li, Thornton, & Wu (2000) used aluminium and wooden bats to study the effect of grip firmness and bat composition. Bats were clamped in a vise or freely suspended. Three impact locations were used: center of percussion, center of gravity and the end of the bat. The rebound velocities for impacts at the center of gravity for the wooden bat were the same for clamped and freely suspended constraints. It further signified that the constraints do not affect the performance of the bat.

Morey, Kermond, & O‘Neill (2016) invented a handle of a cricket bat including a grip is disclosed in a patent (NZ631735 (A), 2016). At least one guide extends along the grip generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the handle. The guide is arranged to assist in the positioning of a batsman‘s hands during play. The guide is offset from the plane by a distance of 1 to 5mm bisecting the bat lengthways and passing through the spine of the bat.

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Much of the previous literature referred for this study concerns itself with baseball. Many researchers like (Van Zandt, 1992) and (Nathan, 1999 & 2000) have confirmed the role vibrations play in an impact of bat and ball. The exit velocity of ball as a function of impact location as studied by these researchers confirms the existence of a region of higher impacting efficiency. (Sarkar, James, Busch, & Theil, 2012) have confirmed these physical analysis by experimental work for a cricket batsman, showing that for sweet spot location impacts, the wrist mounted accelerometers show considerably lower readings. Singh (2008) studied the effect of mass distribution and composite reinforcements on a cricket bat‘s performance. One of the parameters of paramount importance is the ‗sweet spot‘. Sweet spot is a location primarily identified by the batsman as the best location on the bat with which the ball can come in contact. The sweet spot has three physical interpretations (Gayatri, 2004). It is a location on the bat which produces maximum batted ball velocity. It is also understood as the location on the bat which produces minimum sting on the batsman‘s hand. A third interpretation is the location on the bat which produces minimum amplitude of vibration. Hariharan & Srinivasan (n.d.) found that two of the three interpretations of the sweet spot correspond to a similar location on the cricket bat.

Murtaza, Ali, & Katiyar, (2015a) carried out a retrospective study was based on the progression to Law 6 -the bat (now Law 5). The first codified rules were written in 1744 and the sequence of changes influencing the bat was made firstly in 1774 (the first rule for the bat) i.e. confining the width of the bat to a most extreme of 4.25 inches, after that the width of cricket bat standardized for the first time and published in 1809, and then after the length of bat limit is to 38 inches this is an additional restriction was added in 1835. In 1979, it was stated that the blade of a bat must be made altogether of wood. The 3rd edition of the 2000 code was published in 2008, together with a newly created Appendix E. The changes might have made some sense to protect the spirit and balance of the game MCC denied all the possibilities of real innovation in cricket bats, not just in design but in all manners, it creates drawback for testing and improvement in the essential tool for batsmen and left a slight dark note around the game. As likely compared with different sports, cricket has lost all the opportunities and get to be behind this time in the advancement and

Chapter II Review of Related Literature testing of new equipment for the batsman after the MCC‘s newly created Law 6 the- bat (now Law 5).

Murtaza, Ali, & Katiyar, (2015b) stated that even though in-spite of the fact that the sports of cricket is 500 year old, there has been little scientific researches done to study the bat. Since the 17th century cricket bat has been changed various times; the earliest cricket bats were made from a single piece of wood. The gradual development of cricket bat made this single piece of wood in to two parts i.e. the blade and the handle. Over the last 3 years there has been a spate of innovation in cricket bat handles to improve bat performance. But this time the guardian of the rules MCC decided the trend would tilt the balance in favour of the batsman too much, where the ball, pitches and boundaries have remained unchanged. So they modified Rule 6, and allow only 10% of ‗non-wood‘ material in the handle. So by keeping in mind the rules of cricket bat characteristics a new recent development takes place that would be dominant in the era of modern cricket. This innovation further bifurcates the handle in two parts and the blade will remain same as it was (Ali, S. & Murtaza, S. T. 2014).

Penrose, & Hose (1998) and John, & Li (2002) had similar conclusions that the bat/ball contact time (or dwell time) appears approximately constant and dictated by the local Hertzian parameters. The ball exit velocity might be increased by optimal tuning of the frequencies of the 2nd or 3rd modes to give a time period of half a cycle approximately equal to the time of contact. They also believed that the 1st flexure mode dominates the impact. These researchers have given an insight and valuable contribution to designing better Cricket bats in future.

Petrie (2000) discussed in his Handbook of Adhesives and Sealants that Bonding two different types of wood or bonding wood at different fibre orientation may lead to dissimilar dimensional changes across the glue line. A change in dimension occurs through a change in moisture content which may result from the wood structure absorbing adhesive moisture on application or through change in ambient moisture content. In both cases, this can lead to glue line stress, which may diminish the quality and strength of the bond. Bond performance concerns the adhesive properties that exist after the hardening process and considers the immediate mechanical properties of the bond as well as the change in those properties whilst in

Chapter II Review of Related Literature service. The mechanical properties can be derived from tensile tests on adhesive films to measure values such as stiffness, strength, and elongation to break. These can be compared to the properties of the wood in determining suitability. An adhesive is chosen to provide equal or greater strength than the substrate whilst having similar values for stiffness, in order to minimise stress concentrations in the bond layer.

Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell (2001) investigate to develop and verify a predictive capability of determining baseball bat performance. The technique employs a dynamic finite element code with time dependent baseball properties. The viscoelastic model accommodates energy loss associated with the baseball's speed dependent coefficient of restitution (COR). An experimental test machine was constructed to simulate the ball–bat impact conditions in a controlled environment and determine the dynamic properties of the baseball. The model has found good agreement with the experimental data for a number of impact locations, impact speeds, bat models and ball types. The increased hitting speed generally associated with aluminium bats is apparent, but not for impacts inside of the sweet spot. A reinforcing strategy is proposed to improve the durability of wood bats and is shown to have a minimal effect on its hitting performance. The utility of using a constant bat swing speed to compare response of different bat types is also discussed.

Smith, & Singh (2009) conducted a study in which they experimentally measure and numerically describe the performance of cricket bats and balls. A dynamic finite element model was employed to simulate the bat-ball impact. The ball was modeled as a linear viscoelastic material which provided the mechanism of energy loss during impact. An experimental test apparatus was developed to measure the performance of cricket bats and balls under dynamic impact conditions representative of play. Experiments were conducted to measure the elasticity and hardness of the cricket balls as a function of incoming speed. A bat-performance measure was derived in terms of an ideal batted-ball speed based on play conditions. The model found good agreement with experimental data for a number of impact conditions. A composite skin, applied to the back of some bats, was observed to increase performance experimentally and in the numerical model. While different treatments and designs typical of cricket bats had a measurable effect on performance, they were much smaller than the 10% difference observed between some solid-wood and hollow baseball and softball bats.

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Stretch, Brink, & Hugo (2006) compared the rebound characteristics of wooden and composite cricket bats. In this study two composite, three English willows and one Kashmir willow bats having similar weight and shape were compared at impact speeds of 42, 63 and 81 mph. It was found that the average rebound speed of the composite bats was lower than the traditional willow bats at all the three incoming speeds. The rebound speed of the Kashmir willow was almost 20% lower than the traditional English willow at all the three approaching speeds. Most of the modern cricket bat designs are ineffective at increasing the frequencies of flexural vibration. The factors that might make significant improvement in bat performance suggested by Grant (1998b) i.e. increasing the diameter of the handle, removing the damping material (rubber strips) from the handle and increasing the thickness of the bat.

Sulaiman, & Lim (1991) made the investigation on nine stems of 11-year old Calamus manan grown in FRIM premises were examined for their physical and anatomical features. The stem diameter varied from 2.2 to 3.7 cm, internodes length from 2.3 to 38.8 cm and specific gravity based on green volume and oven dry weight from 0.22 to 0.54. Anatomical features examined were the structure of the epidermis, periphery of the central cylinder, vascular bundles, the parenchyma ground tissues, and the fibres. There were some appreciable differences in the anatomical features among the bottom, middle and top portions of the nine canes studied.

The idea of a more realistic flexible bat is now introduced. Penrose, & Hose (1999) used a Finite Element method to model the mechanics of the impact between bat and ball. Penrose and Hose claim that the impact point that provides the greatest velocity to the ball after it has been hit by the bat is dependent on the bat‘s vibrational properties and is not necessarily at the Centre of Percussion. Penrose & Hose model their bat as a uniform beam. In their experiments and model, Penrose & Hose showed that the first flexure mode was of significant importance. This leads to their reasoning that an impact at the node of the first flexure mode will not excite this mode and more energy will be imparted to the ball as kinetic energy as opposed to an impact away from this same node, which will excite this mode and absorb an amount of energy as vibrational energy. Penrose & Hose further reason that it would be desirable to excite as few modes as possible, in order for as few vibrations to take place in the bat as possible and more kinetic energy to be transferred to the ball.

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They also argued that the flexural and vibrational properties in cricket bat design should be given more consideration than they have been granted in the past.

The methodology used for baseball bat research is used for cricket bat. Smith, Hermanson, Rangaraj, & Bender (2000) in their paper determined dynamic interaction of bat and ball. Linear elastic property was used for bat and nonlinear property for ball. The bat and ball was given linear velocities. The effect of impact location on ball exit velocity was presented. Nicholls, Miller, & Elliot (2001) analyzed the dynamics of bat ball impact using finite element method. Kinematic input was obtained from experimental setup. Aluminium and wood baseball bat was used for analysis. Linear elastic isotopic model was used for bat. Both ends were assumed to be free to rotate and translate. Results between ball exit velocity and impact location is plotted to determine the location of maximum BEV. Sherwood, Mustone, & Fallon (1998) analyzed the change in the performance of bat due to changes in wall thickness, handle flex, material properties, and weight distribution. Experimental data was calibrated using finite element method. Mooney rivilin material model was used for ball. Automatic surface to surface contact algorithm was selected. Aluminium bat made of C 405 alloy was considered and meshed using shell element. Solid wood bat was also used for analysis. Graph was plotted between BEV and time for wood and aluminium bats. Aluminium bat had higher ball exit velocity. Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell (2001) compared the performance for wooden bat and composite bat. The effect of bat constraints on stress and performance is determined. Graphs were plotted between hit ball speed and bat impact location and Bat impact location and axial stress. Noble (1998) provided scientific basis for examining and developing new bat design and manner in which bat is swung and forces transmitted during swing and properties of bat were considered. Mass, Moment of inertia, Coefficient of restitution, COP and Fundamental node of vibration were the properties considered.

The previously established values made by many cricket bat researchers to know the respective ultimate strengths of cane wood materials for that many authors carried out tensile, compression and bending tests and the ultimate strengths of cane material are studied and listed. And, so far many research studies reviewed, and only six (06) were selected for reference purpose. Because in all the studies cane wood was predominantly used as a material for cricket bat handle, in which density and Young‘s

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Modulus of cane wood had been tested and reported and the data were summarized in the following table:

Table 2.1 Mechanical Properties of previously established values for Cane wood Young’s Density S.No Authors Modulus (Kg/m3) (GPa) 1. Smith & Singh (2009) 8.8 498 2. Allen, Fauteux-Brault, James, & Curtis (2014) 5.0 520, 595 3. John & Li (2002) 4.34 561 4. Singh (2008) 8.8 498 5. Fisher (2005) 6.73 358.7 6. Okhio, Waning, & Mekonnen (2011) 8.8 498

Various modifications and designs have been developed using wood, aluminium and composite materials to improve the performance of baseball and cricket bats (Eftaxiopoulou, Narayanan, Dear, & Bull, 2011; Pang, Subic, & Takla, 2011; Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell, 2001; Smith, Shenoy, Axtell, & Sem, 2000; Sridharan, Rao, & Omkar, 2015). An alternate approach has been to modify the wooden bat with wooden side inserts, originally sourced from staves used in old wine barrels, developed by Ron Sears (Echuca Times, 2012) with a version being recently marketed (Slazenger, 2016). The wooden insert staves are flattened and twisted before being inserted into the sides of the bat, retaining their spring.

Wahab, R., Sulaiman, O., & Samsi, H. W (2004) investigated that the basic density of Calamus manan cane grown in plantation and its relationship to strength. Cane samples were obtained from two plantation area in Malaysia. The results indicated that the lower part of the cane have higher basic density compared to the higher part of the cane. The older canes (18 and 24 year-old) show a higher basic density compared to young canes (7 and 11 year-old). Samples with higher basic density show to have higher strength compared to those with lower basic density. Older canes indicate to have a 7-8-times higher strength compared to young canes.

Wahab, R., Sulaiman, O., Rasid, K. A., & Samsi, H. W (2007) studied on four age-groups of rattans comprising 8, 12, 18 and 24 year-old culms at portions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 from the base were used in this study. The rattans were harvested from two

Chapter II Review of Related Literature rubber plantation estates in Terengganu and Pahang that possess similar soil characteristics and properties. Generally, the results of the study indicated that rattans with higher basic density possess higher compression and bending strength compares to those with lower values. The lower part of the rattans shows to have higher basic density compare to higher part. The 18 and 24 year old rattans showed to have higher basic density compare to the 8 and 12 year-old. The 18 and 24 year old rattans indicated to have 7 to 8 times higher strength compares to younger rattans. It can be concluded that the cultivated rattans of age 18 and above possessed the mechanical characteristics that makes them suitable for utilization.

Yeh, Hartz, & Brown (1971) showed particular interest of bonding. The most significant test for the bond being the loading condition that results from an impact of the bat with a cricket ball. In this instance, the durability of the bond defines its ability to withstand multiple ball impacts without failure. It is also anticipated that the adhesive properties will also have an effect upon the COR of impact. The author devised experiment to measure the adhesive damping properties in wood joints. The results illustrated that shear motion was dominant in generating energy loss and the value of damping increased with glue line thickness.

Chapter III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES

Hence, the researcher himself chalked out the particular type of methodology to carry out this study. The methodology and procedures involved in the processing of materials used for the making of prototype handle, and testing their performance were followed sequentially.

This chapter aims to describe each type of materials and their processing and methods to employ to fulfil the required specifications.

To deal with the preceding study the researcher adopted the following processes:

1) Part I discusses and describes the preparation and manufacturing of specimens. 2) Part II deals with the testing of prepared specimens.

RESEARCH METHODS USED IN THIS STUDY

Methods and tools of data collection, and the data analysis techniques are presented. Both qualitative and quantitative methods of research that are used in cricket bat research.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Historical deal with the past events in order to establish facts and draw a conclusion, comparative method employs historical research to compare the present situation and supplies researchers with a natural experiments in which non-essential phenomenon is eliminated by looking at the examples, descriptive methods deals with observation as a means of collecting data.

It seeks to comment on the normal situation and predict the future on the basis of biased questions in interviews, questionnaires and selective observation of event and evaluation methods they do not include ‘how thing are’ and ‘how they work’ are qualitative, they represent meaningful construction of things that contribute to the situation.

While the experimental (also known as cause and effect method) method is quantitative, in which we attempt to isolate and control every relevant condition of an event to be investigated to observe the effects. This method is composed of several sub-classes including pre-experimental method in this method assumption are made despite the lack of control over the variable, True experimental method, rigorous checking of the identical nature of groups takes place before testing the influence of a variable under controlled circumstances. In quasi-experimental method, not all conditions of the true experiments are fulfilled and the shortcomings are identified.

In correlation method, looks at the cause and effect relationship between two sets of data. And the ex-post facto method, interprets the cause by observing its effect when reversing the experiment; for instance.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS TOOL

In qualitative research, most data collection tools are questionnaire, interviews, data archives, past histories etc. However, some technological tools are also involved in a passive way but sometimes it is used for checking a hypothesis derived from the methodology adopted to validate the data or defining the direction ahead. It also validates the results derived from the knowledge and experience of the person who observe and analyses on the selected parameters related to a performance.

In quantitative research, most cases utilise technological tools as a central part of system in a direct way or indirect way and sometime it might require the data collection tools used in qualitative research as an optional method for validation of the results and allows validation from a scientific perspective providing numerical results. 70

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

PART I

3.1 PREPARATION AND MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SPECIMENS

This part specifically deals with the production and manufacturing process used for preparation of specimens, which were already determined for this study in the delimitation section of chapter 1. In this part all the work had been carried out step by step thoroughly in the following manner:

Table 3.1 Flow Chart of Work Plan Step 1 3.1.1 Selection of Geometrical Parameters for a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle Step 2 3.1.2 Constraining Geometrical Parameters of the Handle Step 3 3.1.3 Selection of Materials for Joint Assembly and Handle Step 4 3.1.4 Manufacturing Process of Laminated Cane Handle Step 5 3.1.5 Determining the 10% Volume of a Referenced Handle Step 6 3.1.6 Designing and Making of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof Step 7 3.1.7 Defining the Different Location to Mount the Joint Assembly Step 8 3.1.8 Designing and Making of Handle to Mount the Joint Assembly Step 9 3.1.9 Mounting of Joint Assembly on the Handle

3.1.1 SELECTION OF GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS FOR A REFERENCED CRICKET BAT HANDLE The preceding work is intended to determine and to set new geometrical parameters for a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle due to geometric variations found in the handle. As consequence of material restrictions, most cricket bat developments are geometry related. An accurate model could aid developers in predicting the effect of changes to design of a bat (Allen, Fauteux-Brault, James, & Curtis, 2014). The

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures dimensions of a bat vary depending upon the need of individual player as suggested by (Fisher, 2005) and can be ranges significantly. Ashby (1999) noted that a structure’s design is the contribution of the functionality, the geometric parameters and material properties. Therefore, the performance can be maximised by correctly selecting a material and optimum geometric dimensions. So, the geometrical parameters and material composition are the main factor which are always to be kept prior to design and construction of bat to determine performance and comfort of player. For this purpose the researcher determines the following Technical geometric parameters of a cricket bat handle such as (Full Handle, Handle Outside the Blade, Handle Inside the Blade, Handle in the Neck Region, Diameter of Handle, and Rubber Insertions) which are used to describe a Referenced Handle in respect to features of a more conventional cricket bat handle as given in Table 1.

Table 3.2 Geometrical Parameters of a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle Main Parameters of S.No Technical Parameters Symbol Handle 1 Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB Handle Outside the 2 Length of Top Part LTP Blade Length of Middle Part LMP Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck Point LHIBNP

Handle Inside the Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 3 Blade Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP

Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 4 Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 5 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 6 Rubber Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI

From the above Table 3.2 all the parameters, related to cricket bat handle are already described and, here the brief drawing with the help of the Auto CAD (2018) software had been done and presented in Figure 3.1.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Figure 3.1 Geometric Parameters of a Referenced Handle

Note: Here, in this section we present the result only that was taken from our previously described work. The full paper describing the whole process that has been appended to this study was carried out by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018a) and is given at the last in the Appendix 05.

3.1.2 CONSTRAINING GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF THE HANDLE

After the selection of geometrical parameters for Referenced Handle, next were to constraint the measurements of handle on to the selected geometrical parameters as described in the previous section.

Now a day’s handles are available in the market with different structural make-up i.e. long and short in size and round and oval in shape (Laver, 2002). Due to the different shapes of cricket bat handles available in the market, taking design (i.e. size and shape) as a variable. For this reason a preceding work had been appended to this study and new constraint measurement (value) for a Referenced Cricket Bat Handle of short length was found in order to overcome the problem of using 10% non-wood material (i.e. Joint Assembly and Parts thereof) within the limit of Law 5 the-bat (MCC, 2017) pertaining the use of material into the handle for making the detachable handle with their distinct length (i.e. short to long) via joint assembly.

The aim of conducting such type of work is to gives an overview, measures and to record the prevalence of many type of design and structure of handle from

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

minimum to maximum range used in different types of handle used into different models of cricket bat manufactured by different agencies in order to predicting a different value for a referenced cricket handle of short length for our purpose.

Table 3.3 Constraint Measurement of Cricket Bat Handles Ranging from Minimum to Maximum size, alongwith the Standard Values.

Cricket Bat Main Standard S.No Manufacturing Parameters of Technical Parameters Symbol Range Value Agency Handle (mm)

Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 410-430 425

Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 215-260 235 Handle Outside Length of Top Part LTP 20-30 25 the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 190-220 210

Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 170-190 185 Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck LHIBNP 120-135 130 Point Handle Inside the Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 20-38 35 1 Blade SG Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP 38-50 45

Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP 20-30 25 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP 2-8 4

Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 50-70 60 o Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS 10-20 3 , 15

Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 34-36 35 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP 30-35 32 Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 250-270 270 Rubber Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 250-270 270

Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 410-425 420

Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 210-260 230 Handle Outside Length of Top Part LTP 20-28 25 the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 200-225 205

Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 175-185 185 Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck LHIBNP 120-135 125 Point Handle Inside Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 20-45 40 the Blade 2 SS Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP 45-55 50 Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP 20-30 25 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP 2-5 4 Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 60-70 65 o Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS 18-25 5 , 20 Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 34-36 35.5 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP 30-35 32.5

Rubber Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 250-280 270 Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 250-270 260

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 415-435 430

Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 230-265 250 Handle Outside Length of Top Part LTP 25-32 30 the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 200-230 210 Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 170-185 180 Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck LHIBNP 120-135 130 Point Handle Inside Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 30-40 35 the Blade 3 SF Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP 45-50 45 Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP 20-30 25 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP 2-5 2 Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 40-60 50 o Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS 10-20 4 , 15 Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 34-36 34.5 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP 30-35 31.5 Rubber Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 260-280 270 Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 280-300 300

Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 415-430 420 Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 220-260 240 Handle Outside Length of Top Part LTP 25-30 25 the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 200-220 205 Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 170-190 180 Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck LHIBNP 115-125 120 Point Handle Inside Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 30-40 35 the Blade 4 BDM Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP 45-50 45 Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP 20-30 23 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP 2-5 4 Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 55-65 60 o Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS 15-25 2 , 20 Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 34-36 34.5 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP 30-35 32.5 Rubber Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 240-250 245 Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 260-290 280

From the above Table 3.3 estimation was made on the behalf of measurement (numerical values) taken from different size of handles ranging from minimum to maximum alongwith the standard values of handle used into different models of cricket bat from different manufactures (i.e. SG, SS, SF & BDM), keeping in view on their distinct parameters separately. So, by this way a new constraint measurement for a Referenced Handle of (short length) is found and given below in Table 3.4 and illustrated in the Figure 3.2.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Table 3.4 Constraint Measurements of Geometrical Parameters for a Referenced Handle Main Predicted S.No. Parameters Technical Parameters Symbol Value (mm) of Handle 1 Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 430 Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 235 Handle Outside 2 Length of Top Part LTP 30 the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 205 Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 195 Length of Handle Inside Blade from Neck Point LHIBNP 130

Handle Inside Thickness of Handle at Neck Point THNP 35 3 the Blade Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THBP 50

Breadth of Handle at Neck Point BHNP 25 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHBP 5 Handle In Neck Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 65 4 o Region Tapered Angle of Handle in spine TAHS 3 , 20 Handle Diameter of Handle’s Top Part DHTP 36.5 5 Diameter Diameter of Handle’s Middle Part DHMP 32.5 Rubber Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 270 6 Insertions Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 260

Figure 3.2 Constraint measurements of handle for a Referenced Handle

Note: Here, in this section we present the result which gives an overview, measures and to record the prevalence of many type of design and structure of handle from minimum to maximum range used in different types of handle and finding pertaining to the results from which we constraint the measurements of handle on to the selected geometrical parameters as described in the previous section.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

The full paper describing the whole process and existing methodology of this work, that had appended to precede this study were carried out by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018b) and, is also given at the last in the Appendix 05 for further reading.

3.1.3 SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR JOINT ASSEMBLY AND HANDLE

The selection of optimum material for handle can have significant effect on to the overall performance of cricket bat. The performance and potentiality of any sports equipment can be maximised if the selection of optimum materials done thoroughly by its composition, and based on the type of material used. Therefore, the selection of material should be made on the basis of the following three primary requirements for a cricket bat material: 1. It should be able to withstand high-speed ball impacts without damage, 2. The subsequent vibrations should not cause discomfort to the player, and 3. The bat must be as light as possible, while still maintaining enough mass to propel the ball as far as possible.

For this reason, and in order to investigate the influence of material selection for cricket bat handle, the selection of representative material properties for cricket bat handle had presented in this section. Moreover, in this section an alternative method for the selection of materials for cricket bat handle and Joint Assembly & Parts thereof had presented.

3.1.3.1 Material Constraint Used for Referenced Handle: The material used for Referenced Handle was determined earlier in the delimitation section of Chapter I, principally it should be made up of cane wood particularly with largest genus (Calamus manan), exported from Southeast Asia. The process from the time of harvest, may have become a little more mechanised over the years, but is still essentially the same as it was in the 1850’s (Allen, Fauteux-Brault, James, & Curtis 2014; and Laver & Wood, 2017). The material for the handle is not generally prescribed. Cane wood is invariably used, interlaced with strips of rubber (Grant, 1998b). Down the years and behind the scenes, experiments had carried out on the use of different type of materials used into handle. However, none matches the strength and flexibility of cane wood, used in the handles for its stiffness, lightness and natural strength.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.1.3.2 Material Constraint Used for Joint Assembly & Parts thereof: It was reported by many researchers that the wood is a natural material. Elastic properties of the wood can vary within the same species (Singh, 2008), and density varies from species to species. Wood is an orthotropic material, which means the mechanical properties change in the longitudinal, transverse and radial directions (Kretschmann, 2010). For a cricket bat, the longitudinal axis of the willow is aligned, with the longitudinal axis of the blade to maximise strength and stiffness (Subic & Cooke, 2003). The transverse properties of the handle are even less important and the orthotropic properties of cane wood are not known for this reason. So, it was assumed isotropic (Singh, 2008).

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3.3 (a to c) Selected Material for Referenced Handle (Cane Wood)

3.1.3.3 Methodology

In order to maximise the equipment performance, it is necessary to establish the optimum material for its construction. Ashby (1999) noted that a structure’s design is the contribution of the functionality, the geometric parameters and material properties. Therefore, the performance can be maximised by correctly selecting a material and optimum geometric dimensions.

For this purpose, first we need to determine some simple material properties (i.e. Young’s Modulus and Density) of Referenced Handle’s material, to achieve this, a thorough literature review was done, to find out previously established values made

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures by many cricket bat researchers. And, so far many research studies reviewed, and only five (05) were selected for reference purpose. Because in all the studies cane wood was predominantly used as a material for cricket bat handle, in which density and Young’s Modulus of cane wood had been tested and reported and the data were summarized in the following table:

Table 3.5 Mechanical properties of Previously Established Values on Cane Wood Young’s Density S.No Authors Modulus (Kg/m3) (GPa) 1. Smith & Singh (2008) 8.8 498 2. Allen, Fauteux-Brault, James, & Curtis (2014) 5.0 520, 595 3. John & Bang Li (2002) 4.34 561 4. Singh (2008) 8.8 498 5. Fisher (2005) 6.73 358.7

Moreover, we had also calculated the material properties of selected cane wood for Referenced Handle. To establish a referenced value, this had been representative for Joint Assembly & Parts thereof, within the selected material properties (i.e. Modulus of Elasticity and Density).

Table 3.6 Mechanical Properties for Selected Cane Wood for Referenced Handle S.No Authors Young’s Modulus (GPa) Density (Kg/m3) 1. - 4.39 500

Secondly, we need a Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) program developed by Ashby (1999) which provides an objective method of comparing the performance of different materials for a given application (Ashby, 1999). Within an index, a material is displayed in a property region, the size of which indicates the range of the material properties relative to the selected variables. In the Figure 3.4 displays guidelines for material selection, which help identify materials that would perform equally (lie on the line) or those that would perform better. The line has been selected as this represents the selection criteria (Ashby, 1999).

The Modulus of Elasticity and Density of selected cane wood varies from 4.34 to 8.8 GPa, and 358.7 to 595 kg/m3 respectively. And, the modulus of elasticity 4.39 GPa and Density 500 kg/m3 was determined for the Referenced Handle, which was lower than the handle that represent the construction type that include three rubber inserts, which most cricket bat uses. The calculated properties of selected cane wood

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures fall in between the lower and higher values taken from review literature. There is a similarity between the selected cane wood and online data due to the cellular structure of the two natural materials.

So, a representative referenced value had selected from previously established and computed values within the selected material properties (i.e. Modulus of Elasticity and Density) for selection of material for Joint Assembly & Parts thereof.

By using CES programme, in which Young’s Modulus was plotted against Density then only it was possible to identify and assess many alternative engineering materials for Joint Assembly & Parts thereof, and would be worth considering. The material falls in between, where cut-off points meet when a guideline with a diagonal slope of E/ρ was plotted. The material which located was at the intercept between Density of 500 kg/m3 on (X co-ordinates) and the Young’s Modulus of 4.39 GPa on (Y co- ordinates), The location where intercept meet, there was only wood-to-wood materials is located. Therefore, it is impossible to choose any alternatives material for joint assembly.

Figure 3.4 Ashby diagram with Young’s Modulus and Density

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Figure 3.3 shows an example of an Ashby diagram highlighting the locations of different materials relative to their Young’s Modulus and Density. Wegst & Ashby (1996) reports an investigation of optimum material selection for cricket bat in a chapter of a doctoral thesis. However, the procedure adopted in this study was believed to be a more thorough investigation than was previously published literature. Even so, according to the investigation results not found as per the expectations.

The need for selection of an alternative material for Joint Assembly and Parts thereof is due to the severity and requirement of this study to accomplish the task. For that reason, the researcher discussed this matter with their supervisors and talked with the experts and they suggested an alternative method to select the material for Joint Assembly & Parts thereof. This consider all those sport equipment where similar nature of hitting skills are present as like baseball, hockey, golf, tennis, badminton etc., and also identify those materials, which might have used more profoundly and offer more scope for material alteration in the designing & manufacturing of sports equipment due to technological advancement in the geometry.

Advanced materials help improve bat performance without violating the rules of the game. Such advancements, together with use of stiff and lightweight composite materials, have engendered many designs. Innovation is limited in cricket where the rules insist that the blade be made of wood (Grant, 1998b).

So, by further literature review and discussions with experts then only, it was possible to identify and make an alternative material selection process, the method that is currently used in this study believed to be a more rigorous in nature and by this way, we taking up the following materials in our study to take the materials from the family of advanced composite material (ACM) used for Joint Assembly i.e.

1. Metal Alloys (MA): a) Brass b) Aluminium Alloy 2. Polymer Mix Composite (PMC): a) Teflon b) Nylon 3. Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP): a) Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) b) Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

(a) (b)

Figure 3.5 (a to d) Alternative Materials Selected for Joint Assembly and Parts thereof.

3.1.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF LAMINATED CANE HANDLE

After constraining the measurement on to the selected parameters of Referenced Handle, next was to construction and manufacturing of specimen from raw material.

Here, in this section, the manufacturing process of laminated cane handles are followed step by step and by using these methods and process, the Referenced Handle was prepared and this work also add on for further proceeding of this study, from which the final laminated cane wood handle was prepared.

3.1.4.1 Processing and Grading of Raw Rattan

The canes are imported and transported in two (2) basic thicknesses, thick and thin pole lengths of around 3 metre and graded by straightness and evenness of the stranding. They are initially cured or boiled in oil improve the strength properties of Rattan cane (Yudodibroto, 1985) after that the canes are washed and air-dried in an open area for several weeks. Before being graded, the canes go through the process of sulphur fumigation in a chamber with external container burning sulphur. The fumigation process uses the sulphur fumes to bring out the best of the canes’ colour, while at the same time as killing any borer that may be present in the cane. The fumes are carried into the chamber by a flue, and the canes are smoked overnight, sometimes up to 24 hours, until an even colour is obtained. After that, the canes are graded

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures according to the stem diameter and evenness of diameter along the length (Razak, Tarzimi, & Arshad, 2001). Then it was cut down into the pieces of 1.5 metres (60 inches) in length for further actions.

3.1.4.2 Process of Making Laminated Handle from Raw Materials

The best pieces of cane that were thick in diameter and straight with even strands along the length were chosen for this study. The most popular pattern used for making handle from large diameter cane for long or short in length had been typically consist of four (4) pieces of cane with three (3) rubber inserts. Between the cane section rubber or cork is inserted before the handle is glued, sanded and spliced together using twine (Edlin, 1973). Cane for the short handles is firstly sawn to the right length of 480 mm and then three cuts are made along the length, then the cane was split and separated into four (4) pieces. The first cut, straight down the middle of the cane along the length and the second and third cuts are made either side of the middle cut from top to bottom of the cane.

Now, the faces planed to ensure a good gluing surface and glued together with three cork or rubber laminations used for shock absorption. A single piece of cork/rubber of 170 mm long and 0.5 mm thick is then placed into the middle cut and remaining two piece of rubber/cork of 160 mm long and 0.5 mm thick is then placed into either side of the middle section. A wedge is jammed into the middle cut allowing glue to be applied thoroughly, followed by a piece of fibreboard of 60 mm in length, Two more pieces of latex bonded cork in rectangular strips of 70 mm in length of 2 mm thick and width half the diameter of the handle are then glued together and positioned within the handle composite along their thinnest edge are then applied with glue and used to fill the other two cuts.

The handle is tied up and left to dry for 24 hrs. Once the dry handle is untied, next is to cut the remaining wedge out from the cleft that is positioned within the centre of the handle 'sandwich' to approximately 80% of its length from the final element to the handle. The reason for including the wedge is to increase the depth of the handle towards its base as many bat models exhibit a deep cross section towards the shoulder of the bat. The handle needs to accommodate this deep cross section to ensure a continuous surface over the back of the blade for following machining. The freshly glued handles are stacked and wedges are used to separate the handles and provide some compression to aid the adhesion of all elements.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.1.4.3 Process and Technique Involved for Finishing and Shaping of the Handle

Once the glue has cured, the handles are cross cut to the exact length and sawn to the required handle length and set aside for machining because when the laminated handles get there they will be about half to twice as thick as the finished handle.

The First Stage: The manufacturing process is to turn the handles on a lathe, which reduces them down close to the width required to go into a bat. The top part of the handle is then shaped according to the constraint measurements. The circular profile of the handles is machined between centres on a copy-shaping machine with a rotating cutter and the handle is rotated slowly to produce a round section. Handles are turned to an appropriate size however, various profile patterns exist for the different sizes for example, and the handles may be turned to produce either long or short in length and round and oval in shape.

The Second Stage: The base of handle is ready for cutting the splice and sawn so as to it is fitted through the precise splicing of the handle into the blade. A splicing saw is used to cut the deep V into both blade and handle, using special jigs, this cut needs to be carefully made so the join between the handle and the blade fit together tight and perfectly fitting is vital to achieving both balance and performance of the bat.

The Third Stage: The splice of handle and blade has been cut then the handle can be fitted in to the blade using a mallet. Before fitting against each cleft, the handles are checked and make sure that it has reached to the base of the joint then, the handle are aligned to set slightly forward of the blade, according to the bow and the particular characteristics of the blade and glued together by using PVA adhesive to ensure a strong joint is made. The bat is then clamped and left to dry/cure for a minimum of 15 hours or an overnight. After the due course of time, the adhesive is strong enough for further machining.

The Fourth Stage: The bare cane handles are wounded/covered with a layer of traditional linen/cotton thread which is applied on a custom made binding lathe. The bat is mounted in the lathe which is controlled using a foot treadle; the handle is brushed with glue and whipped with the twine which provides strength to the splice and throughout the length of the handle. The winding process begins at the top of the handle and the string is stapled upon reaching the shoulders of the bat. It is believed that the string adds structural support to the handle increasing flexural rigidity and

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures also the tension applied during winding acts to compress the handle reinforcing the integrity of glued components.

The Fifth and Final Stage: The rubber grip is added to the handle on top of the wound string, increasing the diameter of the handle and gives a surface with substantial grip against the batsman's gloves. The tubular rubber grip has a diameter smaller than the handle and so must be strained to fit the handle. This is achieved through expanding the rubber tube over the inside of a larger diameter pipe by removing the air between the two. The handle is then positioned inside the pipe and the vacuum released, the rubber attempts to regain its original shape tightly enveloping the handle.

Each handle is then weighed together with the accompanying rubber handle grip to measure the mass of the finished product. The handles are stamped to register according to their shape and size, corresponds to the mass of the bat.

(a) (b)

(e) (f)

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k) (l)

(m) (n)

(o) (p)

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

(q) (r)

(s) (t)

(u) (v)

(w) (x)

(y) (z)

Figure 3.6 (a to z) Manufacturing Process of Laminated Cane Handle

Note: The full paper describing the whole process and existing methodology of this work carried out by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018c), that had appended to this study is also given at the last in the Appendix 05 for further reading. 87

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.1.5 DETERMINING THE 10% VOLUME OF A REFERENCED HANDLE

Cricket bat handles vary in size, shape and materials. So, by changing their overall profile and materialistic quantities within the limit as proposed by MCC, would greatly affect the performance of the bat. This experiment was designed to test logistics and gather information prior to a larger study in order to improve the latter’s quality and efficiency, reveal deficiencies, save fund, time and resources that would be expended on further research process, also identify adverse effects caused by the procedure, and the effectiveness of actions to reduce them for reliable and valid results. The total volume of the handle is determined by using water displacement method and mathematical calculations to determine 10% volume of non-wood material from which the Joint Assembly and Parts thereof would be prepared for further research process. The aim of conducting such type of experiment is to find out 10% volume of non-wood material (i.e. rubber spring and any other material for making Joint Assembly & Parts thereof), and provide a reliable method to determine the volume of non-wood material as per the Law 5-the bat (MCC, 2017) made restriction on the use of non-wood material in the cricket bat handle.

Table 3.7 Constraint Measurement for Referenced Cricket Bat Handle of Short Length

Constraint Handle Handle Parameter Symbol Values Type (mm) Full Handle Total Length of Handle TLOH 430 Total Length of Handle Inside the Blade TLHIB 195 Length of Handle Inside Blade at Neck Point LHIBN 130 Handle Inside the Thickness of Handle at Middle of Neck Point THMN 35 Blade Thickness of Handle at Bottom Point THME 50 Breadth of Handle at Middle of Neck Point BHMN 25 Breadth of Handle at Bottom Point BHME 5 Length of Handle Total Length of Handle in Neck Region TLHN 65 o Modified In Neck Region Tapered Angle and Length of Handle in Neck TALH 3 , 20 Handle Total Length of Handle Outside the Blade TLOB 235 Length of Handle Length of Top Part LTP 30 Outside the Blade Length of Middle Part LMP 205 Diameter of Handle Top Part DHTP 36.5 Handle Diameter Diameter of Handle Middle Part DHMP 32.5 Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 30 x 36.50 x 0.5 Top Part Rubber Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 30 x 35.10 x 0.5 Insertions (lxbxh) Middle Insertion of Rubber MRI 240 x 32.50 x 0.5 Bottom Part Side Insertion of Rubber SRI 230 x 30.92 x 0.5

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

By conducting the experiment as described in our previous work (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018d), we found the volume for constrained measurement of handle in order to overcome the problem using non-wood material used into handle likewise rubber spring used for damping vibration and other material for making Joint Assembly & Parts thereof used for attaching and detaching the handle from its distinct length (i.e. short to long) or vice versa.

Table 3.8 Results of the Experiment By S. No Type of Material Name of Material By Volume Percentage Wooden Cane Wood 307.04 cm3 90% Constraint Rubber Insertion 12.62 cm3 1. Handle Non-Wood Joint Assembly and Parts 21.49 cm3 10% thereof Numerical Values of the Referenced Handle by their Volume and 341.15 cm3 100% Percentage

In this experiment, the Referenced Handle of constraint measurements had been used to find out volume non-wood material used into detachable handle. As per the handle constraint the total volume of handle was (341.15 cm3) found and in light of our purpose, we are considering only 10% volume from total volume of handle. So, 10% volume of material is 34.11 cm3, out of that (12.62 cm3) material used as rubber, and (21.49 cm3) material would be used for Joint Assembly and Parts thereof.

Note: After the construction of Referenced Handle from laminated cane wood, on to the constraint measurements on selected geometrical parameters, next was to determine the total volume of the handle and then to find out the 10 % volume from the total volume of a Referenced Handle.

For this purpose a supported experiment was carried out by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018d) which described the whole process and existing methodology of this work that had been appended to this study is also given at the last in the Appendix 05 for further reading.

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Figure 3.7 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all Measurement in mm

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3.1.6 DESIGNING AND MAKING OF JOINT ASSEMBLY AND PARTS THEREOF

Here in this section, only the method of designing and manufacturing the joint assembly are presented. So, here in this section, a joint assembly & Parts thereof was developed from a known amount of volume i.e. 21.49 cm3 as only 10% volume of non-wood material is permissible according to law 5 the-bat (MCC, 2017).

Next to that designing and manufacturing of the Joint Assembly and Parts thereof had been done. For this purpose Joint Assembly & Parts thereof were prepared in CAD software to improve the geometry and quality of the designing to increase the productivity. And for manufacturing the advanced methods and techniques of novel (CNC) machining process were applied to the designed geometry that enabled the development of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof. By using these methods, new kind of equipment with enhanced properties, as well as improving the overall design of sporting goods were produced.

3.1.6.1 Design and Description of Joint Assembly and Parts thereof The Joint Assembly & Parts thereof are shown in Figure 3.8. The joint assembly is made of Adaptor, Sleeve, locking screw & locking pin as shown in Figure 3.8(a), 3.8(b), 3.8(c) & 3.8(d) respectively.

Figure 3.8 Detailed Drawing of Improved Design of Joint Assembly and Parts along with their measurements in mm

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Adaptor has also a hole of 2 mm diameter and the center of this hole is 5 mm apart from its right end as shown in Figure 3.8 (a).The one end of the detachable handle is driven into the hole of the adaptor and a lock pin is also inserted into a hole of 2 mm diameter for fastening the adaptor with the detachable handle, the adaptor has external threads on its left end; the length of threaded portion is 9.5 mm.

The sleeve remains attached to one end of the lower part of the handle and the adaptor remains attached to one end of the upper part of the handle. The sleeve has a hole of 2 mm diameter and center of this hole is 5 mm apart from its left end. The wedge shaped end of the lower part of the handle is fixed with the blade of cricket bat, another end of the lower part of the handle is driven into the sleeve and locking pin is inserted into 2 mm hole for fastening the sleeve with this end. The sleeve has internal threads on its right end; the length of threaded portion is 10 mm. A hole of 5 mm diameter is provided in the right end of the sleeve, the center of this hole is 6 mm apart from the right end of the sleeve.

The adaptor also has 32.5 mm diameter up to 23 mm from its right end and 33.5 mm diameter from 23 mm up to 25 mm in order to provide flanges on the adaptor and the sleeve has 32.5 mm diameter up to the length of 20 mm from its left end and 33.5 mm diameter from 20 mm up to its right end in order to keep the wrapped thread in its proper position.

In order to change overall length of the cricket bat, upper parts of the handle having different lengths but same dimension of the adaptor are used.

Note: The method of designing and manufacturing of the Joint Assembly & Parts thereof was presented, and based after finding out 10% volume from the total volume of a Referenced Handle.

After computing 10% volume of non-wood material (i.e. 21.49 cm3), which was used to make the Joint Assembly and Parts thereof for this purpose, a supported work had been already pretended by the researchers (Katiyar, Murtaza, & Ali, 2018e) which described the whole process and existing methodology of this work, that had been appended to this study, the concerned work is also given at the last in Appendix 05 for further reading.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.1.7 DEFINING THE DIFFERENT LOCATION TO MOUNT THE JOINT ASSEMBLY

Here, the handle is divided into three different parts i.e. top, middle and bottom parts. The joint assembly was installed in the lower region of the middle part of the handle by the said inventers (Ali, & Murtaza, 2014) in one of their patents (993/DEL/2014 A, 2014). To further see the effect of the placement of joint assembly on to different regions of the middle part of the handle, in comparison to lower end. The researchers further added 2 more regions i.e. middle and upper regions of the middle part of the handle. So, three major locations were selected, where joint assembly was installed i.e. Upper region, Middle region and Lower region.

Figure 3.9 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all Measurement in mm

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3.1.8 DESIGNING AND MAKING OF HANDLE TO MOUNT THE JOINT ASSEMBLY

The handle was designed and constructed as per the location defined to mount the joint assembly and according to the constraint design of joint assembly and Referenced Handle.

Figure 3.10 CAD Design of Standard Short Handle with all Measurement

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.1.9 MOUNTING OF JOINT ASSEMBLY ON THE HANDLE

A pilot study was conducted prior to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the studies design. Installation of assembly in the handle would be determined by adopting two different methods.

Method 1: In this method, the whole bat is used and by cutting the handle into two parts and then the assembly is being installed into the lower and upper portion of the handle by using locking pins and screws.

Method 2: In this method, the only one part of the bat i.e. the handle is used. The pure handle is being cut up into two parts then after the assembly is installed onto the handle. After the installation of assembly, the handle is ready for fixing into the recesses of blade and the whole bat is ready.

The cricket bat handle is shown in Figure 3.11 which is divided into two parts i.e. lower and upper part as shown in Figure 3.11(a) & 3.11(b) respectively.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

The wedge shaped end of the lower part of the handle is fixed with the blade of cricket bat, another end of the lower part of the handle is driven into the sleeve and locking pin is inserted into 2 mm hole for fastening the sleeve with this end as shown in Figure 3.12. The one end of the detachable handle is driven into the hole of the adaptor and a lock pin is also inserted into a hole of 2 mm diameter for fastening the adaptor with the detachable handle as shown in Figure 3.13.

To attach the upper part to the lower part of the handle, the threaded portion of adaptor is driven into the internal threaded portion of the sleeve and a lock screw is driven into the 5 mm diameter threaded holes provided into the both adaptor & sleeve to lock the assembly as shown in Figure 3.14.

Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

To detach the upper part of the handle from lower part of the handle, the lock screw is loosen and is drawn out from the 5 mm diameter holes of adaptor and the sleeve. After that adapter attached with the upper part of the handle is loosen and drawn out from the threaded portion of the sleeve. In this way the overall length of the cricket bat can be changed by using upper part of the handle having different lengths.

In Figure 3.15 a full representation of Modified Handle with Lower & Upper part of handle by using joint assembly was presented in both the views i.e. front and side view.

Figure 3.15 Assembled Handle With of Lower & Upper Parts of Handle Using Joint Assembly

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So, method 2 is found more suitable and feasible for installation of joint assembly on to the handles.

(a) (b)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

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(i) (j)

(k) (l)

(m) (n)

Figure 3.16 (a to n) Process of Mounting the Joint Assembly on to the Referenced Handle

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PART II

3.2 TESTING PROCESS OF PREPARED SPECIMENS

The motion of the cricket bat is similar to that baseball or softball bat. Dynamic analysis of performance is unable to perform due to that motion of bat swing is complex, three dimensional, involves translation & rotation (Adair, 1995 and Shenoy, Smith, & Axtell, 2001), and is difficult to replicate experimentally. A simulation only requires replicating the bat motion during the instant of contact with the ball; however which primarily involves pure rotation.

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The reliability of the performance of the handle is dependent on the description of materials involved. The physical and mechanical properties of wood can also vary widely within and especially between species. This becomes especially difficult when the materials are non-homogeneous due to this, the assessment of bat performance is significantly depends upon many factors that are difficult to control or quantify. The elastic behaviour of a lumber member in bending is influenced by a number of factors including density, temperature, and moisture content of the wood, testing geometry, and rate of loading.

Once they determined, all other relevant properties may be found easily, on which the performance of handle is determined i.e. Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Modulus of Rigidity (MOR), and Torsional Stiffness (k). These are the main key parameters, which are directly associated to the handle in relation to overall performance of cricket bat in terms of pick up weight, vibration imparted to the batsman & energy imparted to the ball.

In order to establish the physical properties of materials i.e. Density, Moisture Content test are needed, and for mechanical properties of materials, it is often necessary to use a bend test, tensile test and torsion test. But only for the Referenced Handle, both the test (i.e. Physical and Mechanical Properties) were conducted; and for Modified Handle only Mechanical Properties were accessed due to the use of non- homogeneous material into the specimens.

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Table 3.9 Flow Chart of Work Plan for Part II: Testing Process of Prepared Specimens Step 1 3.2.1 Determining Physical Properties of Referenced Handle Step 2 3.2.1 Determining Mechanical Properties of Referenced and Modified Handle Step 3 3.2.1 Procedure and Steps Involved for Bend Test Step 4 3.2.1 Procedure and Steps Involved for Tensile Test Step 5 3.2.1 Procedure and Steps Involved for Torsion Test Step 6 3.2.1 Analysis of Key Parameters Associated with the Performance of Cricket Bat Handle Step 7 3.2.1 Statistical Analysis

3.2.1 DETERMINING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFERENCED HANDLE

As per the delimitation of the study procedure for testing physical properties, in which Density and Moisture Content test were conducted and presented only for the Referenced Handle.

It is important to know the physical properties of the specimen before going to the mechanical testing because Density and Percent Moisture Content (%MC) both determine to a great extent the mechanical properties of wood including elastic properties which characterize resistance to deformation and strength properties that characterize resistance to applied loads. In general, density explains from 60 to 98% of variations when modelling modulus of rupture and elasticity, compression strength and even hardness in softwoods (Tsoumis, 1991).

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All together (n=20) Referenced Handles were selected from 120 specimens which were prepared by us, on constraint measurement on to their selected geometrical parameters. In which (n=10) specimens for each experiment were used to determining the density and percent moisture content.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.17 (a & b) Prepared Specimens of Referenced Handle, Selected for Physical Tests

Both the experiments were carried out in Structure of Materials (SOM) Laboratory, in the Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (U.P), India, under the supervision of Technical Assistant (TA) Mr. Khadim Abbas. Both the experiments on physical properties were conducted according to the ISO standards (1975). Density, Green Moisture content, was determined according to ISO standards 3130, 3131 respectively.

3.2.1.1 Density: The density ( ) is elementary physical property of matter. For a homogeneous object, it is defined as the ratio of its mass per unit volume of wood substance. It is expressed as kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) or grams per millimetre (g/cm3) at specified moisture content.

( ) ( ) .... (3.1) ( ) Where, Density, ,

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(a) (b)

Figure 3.18 (a to d) Experiment Conducted to Determine Mass and Volume of the Referenced Handle

3.2.1.2 Moisture Content: Wood is a natural, fibrous material, and it gains and/or loses moisture as changes occur in the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air. For example, lumber located in a cool humid climate would tend to have higher moisture content than if the climate was warm and dry. This ability of wood to absorb or desorbs moisture is important in wood design since moisture content affects the structural properties of wood. Basic properties affected by moisture content include increase or decrease in weight, dimensions, strength.

The primary oven-drying method is intended to determine the moisture content of the selected Referenced Handle. Moisture content for a given specimen of wood is defined as the weight of water in wood expressed as a percentage of the weight of wood fibrous material (which is considered to be the oven dry weight of the specimen). In the lab, a specimen of wood is weighed then placed in an oven set at 100o C for 24 hours as per (ASTM D 4442-07). The oven dry specimen is then weighed. The moisture content is then calculated by the following equation:

The weight of moisture contained in a piece of wood expressed as a percentage of its oven dry weight is almost universally referred to as its moisture content, mathematically it can be expressed as:

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( ) ( ) .... (3.2)

Where, MC (%) = Percent Moisture Content

Wg = Green Weight of the Wood Wo = Oven Dry Weight of the Wood

(a) (b)

Figure 3.19 (a to d) Experiment Conducted to Determine Percent Moisture Content (%MC) of the Referenced Handle

3.2.2 DETERMINING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR REFERENCED & MODIFIED HANDLE

Before going directly to test the specimens, it is necessary to check the compatibility between machines and prepared specimens. This is done because the machines used for the testing is not made only for specific testing of cricket bat, for this reason, we have to do two things, first is, to prepare the specimen according to machine’s compatibility and second is, to prepare the fixture to hold the specimens as per the machines compatibility.

3.2.2.1 Handle Models and Materials

A Referenced Handle of constraint measurements on selected geometrical parameters were used in this study, that was more similar to a traditional design made up of laminated cane wood.

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The handles are often produced separately and without regarding their possible influence on the bat’s performance. Each handle was constructed with Singapore cane, bonded together using PVA glue and without any extra bound as twine which provides extra strength to the splice. Each handle was 430 mm in length and approx 32.5 mm in diameter. The rubber inserts were made of 0.5 mm thick natural rubber. The inserts were cut into strips before being shaped to conform to the dimensions of the handle. These parameters were chosen as they matched many of the commercially available cricket bat handles.

3.2.2.2 Selection of Sample Size for each type of Handles

All together total thirty six (36) handles were used, out of that nine (09) were Referenced Handles in which a set of three (03) handles were used for each type of mechanical test. And, rest of twenty seven (27) were Modified Handles on which a set of three (03) handles each a joint assembly was installed on to three (03) different locations, were also tested on each type of mechanical test.

3.2.2.3 Preparation of Specimens

The dimensions of the specimens are to be put constraint before performing the test, all the specimens were prepared in a manner that the procedure does not harm the specimen’s characteristics and may not loose the originality of being, and act accordingly as it works and looks in the normal conditions.

In order to test the mechanical properties on laminated cane handle construction; four types of handles were produced.

1) Referenced Handle (as shown in Figure 3.20 (a)) i) Handle (a) has a more usual Referenced Handle, particularly used into cricket bat.

2) Modified Handle (as shown in Figure 3.21 (b to d)) ii) In Handle (b) the assembly was located on to the top part of handle, iii) In Handle (c) the assembly was located on to the middle part of handle and iv) In Handle (d) the assembly was located on to the bottom part of handle part.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3.20 (a) Referenced Handle Figure 3.21 (b to d) Modified Handle

3.2.2.3.1 Preparation of Specimens used for Bend Test: All the specimens were prepared as per the design of test and according to testing machine. Moreover, the description of specimen is as given below:

(a) (b)

Figure 3.22 (a & b) Prepared Specimens for Bend Test

Finished bat handles are generally oval and vary in cross section along their length. However, the bending, tensile and torsion test required specimens with a uniform circular cross section. Therefore, specimens were machined from glued handle assemblies at the stage of manufacture. The glued assemblies were turned to a circular cross section ~32.5 mm diameter and cut to a length ~270 mm.

Figure 3.23 Effective size of Prepared Specimen for testing

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3.2.2.3.2 Preparation of Specimens used for Tensile & Torsion Test: For tensile and torsion test, the specimens were prepared as per the design of test and according to testing machine. Moreover, the description of specimens is as given above in Figure 3.23 and the prepared specimens are showed in Figure 3.24.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.24 (a & b) Prepared Specimens for Tensile & Torsion Test

3.2.2.4 Preparing Fixture and Specimen Holding Devices:

a) For Bend Test: Bend test does not require any specific fixture or holding device to hold the specimen due to the compatibility of machine.

b) For Tensile & Torsion Test: There is a specific requirement of fixture and holding device for performing tensile and torsion test. For performing both the tests the dimension of specimen is constraint. But the fixture is used to hold the specimen was prepared in a manner that its working principle does not change and same to hold the specimen in between of fixture. But the dimension of holding device is used for gripping the fixture is not similar due to variability found into the procedure and testing machines. So, only dimensions of holding device are altered to hold the fixture in between of machine.

Fixtures were manufactured to hold the specimen in holding/gripping devices of the testing machines as shown in the Figure 3.25.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.25 (a & b) Prepared Fixture to hold the Specimens during Tensile & Torsion Test

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3.2.2.5 Machine Used for testing:

The tensile and bending tests were carried out on the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in Figure 26 (a) & (b) and the torsion tests were carried out on the torsion testing machine as shown in the Figure 3.26 (c).

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 3.26 (a to c) Universal Testing Machine(UTM) Used for Testing Specimens

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3.2.3 PROCEDURE AND STEPS INVOLVED FOR BEND TEST

3.2.3.1 Bend Test

The three point bend test shown in the Figure 3.27, which is a classical experiment in mechanics, used to measure the Young’s Modulus of a material in the shape of a beam. The beam, of length L, rests on two roller supports and is subject to a concentrated load P at its centre.

Figure 3.27 Schematic of the three point bend test (top), with graphs of bending moment (M), shear (Q) and deflection ( ). (‘The Three Point Bend Test’)

It can be shown (see, for example, the Cambridge University Engineering Department Structures Data Book) that the deflection at the centre of the beam is:

.... (3.3)

Where, E is the Young’s Modulus. I is the second moment of area defined by

.... (3.4)

Where, a is the beam’s depth and b is the beam’s width.

By measuring the central deflection and the applied force P, and knowing the geometry of the beam and the experimental apparatus, it is possible to calculate the Young’s Modulus of the material. 110

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3.2.3.2 Experimental set up for Bend Test

When using a three-point bending method, the ratio between the outer roller span and rod diameter is an important factor. Harvey, Ansell, Mettem, Bainbridge & Alexandre (2000) reported that during the application of the load, flexural stresses and transverse shear stresses are developed, which have a significant effect upon the measured flexural strength.

Harvey, Ansell, Mettem, Bainbridge & Alexandre (2000) added that the effects of the transverse shear stress could be reduced by increasing the span of the outer rollers. It was suggested that a span to diameter ratio of 20 should be applied, although a ratio as low as 10 would still significantly reduce the effects of these stresses. As the length of the specimens was standard and short in length i.e. 270 mm only and an outer roller space and handle diameter ratio of 9:1 was possible. So, a span of 235 mm was used to deflect the handle.

The handle assembly was of laminate construction and the orientation of the layers in relation to the plane of bending affected the bending stiffness in the 2 direction. The orientation illustrated in Figure 3.28 was used in determining a value of bending modulus since ball impacts predominantly excited transverse bending modes acting to deform the handle in this orientation. So, for this reason the handle was placed on to the outer roller space in such a way that the inserts (or glue line) of the handles were horizontal.

(a) (b)

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(e) (f)

Figure 3.28 (a to f) Experimental Setup of Bend Test

3.2.3.3 Testing Procedure for Bend Test

Bending stiffness is one of the most important properties of a structural element. Bat performance should increase with flexural stiffness. So, a three-point bend method was used to establish the flexural stiffness and to compares the average stiffness.

The bend test was performed on to all the specimens prepared for each set of handles. The specimen was supported on two supports and a center load was applied on the center of the specimen using Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The load rating was set at 20 kg per minute in a load frame (MTS Systems Corporation, MN), and results were recorded. A Digital Dial Gauge was placed at beneath the handle on the middle point of the handle and deflection was recorded. The load was applied with increment of 20 kg until visual deflection could be observed. The displacement was recorded in only horizontal orientation when a periodic 20kg load was passed in due course of time the loading was applied on it.

It was observed that there was deflection without increasing the load and values of loads and deflections were recorded which are given in the Appendix 02, Table C. The load was not increased any further, due to the possible irreversible damage that may have been caused to the handles.

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(a) (b)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 3.29 (a to h) Testing Procedure of Bend Test

3.2.3.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be tested: Material: ...... Original dimensions of Specimen Gauge Length = ------Span Length= ------Diameter = ------Cross-sectional Area = ------Note: Observation Table for Bend Test is provided in the last in Appendix 01, Table A

3.2.4 PROCEDURE AND STEPS INVOLVED FOR TENSILE TEST 3.2.4.1 Tensile Test The process of tensile test involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and slowly extending it until it fractures. During this process, the elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied force.

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Tensile test establish the axial relationships between the line of action of the load, P, passes through the centroid of the resisting cross-section:

( ) …. (3.5)

( ) …. (3.6)

If the material is linear, then:

( ) …. (3.7)

Where, E, is the Modulus of Elasticity; is stress, and is stain for the material The relationship between axial loading and deformation becomes:

( ) .... (3.8)

Figure 3.30 Axial Loading

3.2.4.2 Experimental set up for Tensile Test

To conduct a tensile test on to the selected specimen as described above, the entire specimen had been tested in order to determine the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E).

(a) (b)

Figure 3.31 (a to d) Experimental Setup of Tensile Test

In tensile testing, a load was applied hydraulically with pressurized oil in one of the two types of readily available universal testing machines. In addition to that, dynamic tensile tests for Referenced and Modified Handle specimens under various

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In our test, machine was operated manually, the rate of flow of hydraulic fluid can be controlled by opening and closing of the servo-valve, thus a desired stroke speed can be obtained. So, the valve was opened and the stroke accelerated until it reached a constant predetermined velocity, then the test specimens (a fixture holding assembly, in which testing specimen were hold from the both ends) were mounted between upper and lower grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. These grips have serrated surfaces to effectively clamp specimens and prevent any slippage during the loading process of tests.

The deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic up to the yield point. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original form as soon as load is removed. Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation when load is removed. A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the whole volume of the specimen. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand without failure is called the load at the ultimate strength. Beyond the ultimate load the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of the specimen and neck is formed. This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point.

3.2.4.3 Testing Procedure for Tensile Test

It is necessary to take initial measurement of the specimen i.e. original length and diameter before the test. The gauge length marked on the specimen. The specimen was fixed on the testing machine with the help of grips provided to hold the specimen. Dial of extensometer was adjusted at zero. The dial of a machine was also adjusted to zero to read load applied. The speed of crosshead is selected and started applying the load with increment of 20 kg; corresponding elongation can be measured from extensometer. The elongation was recorded when a periodic 20 kg load was reached and values of loads and elongation were recorded which are given in the (Appendix 02, Table D).

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The load was increased up to a limit at which there was elongation without increasing the load. As specimen get fractured, note down the total extension from extensometer dial. Final gauge length and cross sectional dimensions of the specimen after fracture were measured carefully.

(a) (b)

(e) (f)

Figure 3.32 (a to f) Testing Procedure of Tensile Test

3.2.4.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be tested: Material:...... A) Original dimensions Length = ------Diameter = ------Cross-sectional Area = ------B) Final Dimensions: Length = ------Diameter = ------Cross-sectional Area = ------Note: Observation Table for Tensile Test is provided in the last in Appendix 01, Table B

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3.2.5 PROCEDURE AND STEPS INVOLVED FOR TORSION TEST

3.2.5.1 Torsion Test

The most notable test that demonstrates the effects of shearing forces and resulting stresses is the torsion test of a solid circular bar or rod. As a matter of fact, this test generates a state of pure shear stress in the torsional loaded rod. Such a test is used to ascertain all the major shear properties of metal materials, i.e., the ultimate shear stress, the yield shear stress and the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

Figure 3.33 Schematic Diagram of Torsional Loading (‘Lab 2 - Torsion Test’ | n.d.)

The applied torque (T) as shown in Figure 3.32, to the specimen and resulting deformation (angle of twist, ) are measured during the torsion test. The simple torsion equation is written as:

.... (3.9)

Where r is the radius of the solid circular rod, L is the length over which the relative angle of twist is measured (this angle must be in radians) and J is the polar moment of inertia defined as follows:

.... (3.10)

The Shear Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the linear slope, of the shear stress, shear strain relationship, between zero shear stress and the proportional limit shear stress (defined below), i.e.,

.... (3.11)

3.2.5.2 Experimental set up for Torsion Test

The objectives of the torsion experiment include determination of shear modulus of elasticity ‘G’, Torsional stiffness ‘k’ of the testing specimen. In the torsion test, a torque ‘T’ is applied to one end of a circular cross-section of handle while the other end is held fixed in a stationary grip. We used a bench-mounted Digital Torsion Testing Machine shown in Figure 3.34. The machine has a variable speed drive electromechanical loading system with manual controls and LED digital display.

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In our condition we conducted the test on the prepared specimens by using manual control because we had to record the Angle of twist resolution starting from 0.1 degree until, failure of specimen. So, the tests were conducted slowly by using manual mode. As the torque applied on to the specimen, the Torque was measured by Torque cell, and angle of twist measured through Rotary Encoder. All the data were recorded and displayed on to the LED display which is provided into machine Data Acquisition System.

`(a) (b)

(e)

Figure 3.34 (a to e) Experimental Setup of Torsion Test

3.2.5.3 Testing Procedure of Torsion Test

Before mounting the specimen firmly in the Torsion Testing Machine, we had to take pre-preliminary measurement as like overall length, gauge length and diameter of each and every specimen. The diameter, D, was taken by vernier calliper along the length. 118

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Once the specimen was clamped in the torsion testing machine proceed to increase the load very slowly by using manual, the direction of rotation of the hand wheel required to produce positive rotation as measured by the protractor or gearwheel. Ensure the hand wheel is rotated to the starting position and record increasing increments of strain starting from 0.1 degree angle of twist continue up to failure.

(a) (b)

(e) (f)

Figure 3.35 (a to f) Testing Procedure of Torsion Test

3.2.5.4 Physical Observation of the Specimens to be tested: Material: …………………….. A) Original dimensions Length of Specimen = ------Gauge Length = ------Span Length= ------Diameter = ------Cross-sectional Area = ------Note: Observation Table for Torsion Test is provided in the last Appendix 01, Table C

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Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.2.6 ANALYSIS OF KEY PARAMETERS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PERFORMANCE OF CRICKET BAT HANDLE

Equations are derived for adjusting Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Torsional Stiffness (k), and Flexural Stiffness (EI) for determining the performance of specimens.

3.2.6.1 Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI)

Bending Stiffness is a term frequently used in bat design and can refer to either the handle’s flexural rigidity or radial stiffness. Flexural rigidity of a material is the force required to bend the object by unit length whereas radial stiffness of a handle is its resistance to deformation when a force is applied. Studies conducted by (Smith & Cruz, 2008) and (Gutaj, 2004) showed that the bat’s COR increased when the flexural rigidity of the bat was increased, but decreased when the radial stiffness increased. This provides a conflict in the design stage of a bat, and the bat stiffness must be closely monitored to provide optimum COR, as bats with higher COR will produce the greatest post-impact ball velocity.

The bending stiffness, EI, of a beam relates the applied bending moment to the resulting deflection of the beam. It is the product of the elastic modulus, E, of the beam material and the second moment of area, I, of the beam cross-section.

All the handles were tested 3 times each on the handle. The load was always applied mid-span so that the bending stiffness (EI) of the handle in (Nm2) could be calculated by the following equation.

…. (3.12)

Where,

P, is the load (kN), L is the length (mm) between the two supports, and is the deflection in (mm).

When, a body is under stress, then that stress tries to change its shape and dimensions. Change in shape of the body is called deflection and change in the dimensions is called strain.

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Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

3.2.6.2 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

3.2.6.2.1 Young’s Modulus (E), which is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. Stress is the force per unit area ( ) and strain is the change of length per unit length( ).

Elastic Modulus is the mechanical property of material which is the ratio of tensile stress and strain. Greater the value of the elastic modulus, stiffer the material is and lower value of Elastic Modulus means the material deflect a lot at small stresses (Ashby, 2011).

( ) ( ) …. (3.13) ( )

Where,

E, is the Modulus of Elasticity (GPa), is tensile stress (MPa) and is tensile strain (unit less or %)

Stress ( ) is the ratio of an applied force (F) to the area (A) over which it acts. Stress is not directly measurable. We can calculate it from different formulas for different types of the loading (tension, flexural stress)

The force measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress, , using the following equation:

( ) ( ) …. (3.14) Cross sectional rea(A)

( ) …. (3.15)

Where,

F, is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen.

Strain ( ) is defined as the change of the length divided by the original (initial) length. Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or shape of a body as the result of an applied stress. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering strain, ε, using the following equation.

( ) ( ) …. (3.16) ( )

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Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Where,

( ) is change of the length (mm), L1 length after elongation (mm), Lo Original (initial) length (mm)

3.2.6.3 Modulus of Rigidity (MOR)

3.2.6.3.1 Shear Modulus (G) which involves a change of shape without a change of volume. (Modulus of Rigidity) is the coefficient of elasticity for a shearing force. It is defined as ‘the ratio of shear stress to the displacement per unit length (shear strain)’.

( ) ( ) …. (3.17) ( )

( ) …. (3.18)

Where, T= torque (Nm), D= Diameter (m)

Shear modulus (G) is established by using relationship distribution of shear stresses in circular shafts subjected to torsion test, the simple torsion equation is written as:

Where,

T is the applied torque or Moment of Torsion in Nm

J is Polar Moment of Inertia is the Maximum Shear Stress at the outer surface r is the Radius G is the Shear Modulus, also called the Modulus of Rigidity (GPa) is the Angle of Twist in Radians L is the Gauge Length

From the above equation Shear Modulus (G) is established using the following equation:

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Chapter III Methodology and Procedures

Where,

G is the Shear Modulus, also called the Modulus of Rigidity (GPa) T is the Applied Torque or Moment of Torsion in Nm L is the Gauge Length J is Polar Moment of Inertia is the Angle of Twist in Radians is the Diameter

( ) …. (3.19)

Where, D= Diameter (m), = Angle of Twist (Rad), L= Gauge Length (m)

3.2.6.4 Torsional Stiffness (k)

The torque required to produce per unit angle of twist, is called the torsional stiffness. The torsional stiffness k is calculated by the following equation:

…. (3.20)

Where, k= Torsional Stiffness T= Torque = Angle of Twist = Shear Modulus = Polar Moment of Inertia = Length

Note: The ultimate goal of adopting these procedures is to relate the results to a particular situation on the above mentioned invention.

123

Results and Findings

Chapter IV RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The study had been undertaken to develop experimental and predictive techniques for assessing the performances across different types of Modified Handles in comparison to a more conventional/traditional Referenced Handle, within the MCC’s law (2017), which quantify the effects of rule changes covering for all the level of games.

...... H7) indicated the sequential number of handles, the second character describes the type of handle (Ref= Referenced Handle, Mod= Modified Handle), followed by third character indicated the type of material used for joint assembly (B= Brass, A= Aluminium Alloy) with subscripts (T= Top Region, M= Middle Region, L= Lower Region) which indicate the location of placement of joint assembly on the handle. As there was only one Referenced Handle, the code for the cricket bat handle without joint assembly was H1 Ref.

For example, H2 Mod BT means, this is the second (02) type of handle, which is Modified Handle, the material of joint assembly is Brass, and the location of joint assembly is placed on top region.

In this chapter the results and findings were presented in the following manner:

Section 1 deals the results and findings pertaining to the physical properties associated with the performance of Referenced Handle’s mechanical properties.

Section 2 deals the results and findings pertaining to the key parameters associated with the performance of Referenced and Modified Handles’ mechanical properties. And finally a comparison was made in between of Referenced and Modified Handles on the basis of that which final results, discussions and conclusion were drawn out.

124 Chapter IV Results and Findings

SECTION I

4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

As per the defined methodology of the study, this section deals with the results and findings which were associated to the physical properties of the specimen.

4.1.1 Results for Density ( )

An experiment was carried out to determine the density of the specimen in which (n=10) were tested against their physical properties i.e. Mass (m) in gm and Volume (v) in cm3 and the final results were calculated by using mathematical formula of Density ( ) which is already described in the section 3.2.1.1 and the observation table for the experiment were given in the (Appendix 02, Table A), and from which here only the results were presented in the Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Mean and Standard Deviations of Density in (gm/cm3) n ̅ SD Mass (m) 10 170.80 3.74 Volume (v) 10 341.15 1.03 Density ( ) 10 0.50 0.01

Note: n= Number of specimen, ̅ = Mean value, SD= Standard Deviation

4.1.2 Results for Percent Moisture Content (%MC)

125 Chapter IV Results and Findings were given in the (Appendix 02, Table B) from which here only the results were presented in the Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Mean and Standard Deviations of % MC

n ̅ SD

Green Weight (Wg) 10 170.80 3.74

Oven Dried Weight (Wo) 10 156.20 3.29 Moisture Content % (MC) 10 9.09 0.76

Note: n= Number of specimen, ̅ = Mean value, SD= Standard Deviation

4.1.3 Findings for Density ( ) and Percent Moisture Content (%MC)

The statistics, means ( ̅) and standard deviations (SD) were used to determine the results and finding for density of Referenced Handle for which (n=10) specimens were tested in both the experiments.

The results which were accessed from Table 4.1 & 4.2 shows that the mean value and the standard deviation associated with the density ( ) was (0.50 ± 0.01) gm/cm3 and for the percent moisture content (%MC) was (9.09 ± 0.76) respectively.

126 Chapter IV Results and Findings

SECTION II

4.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

As per the defined methodology of the study, this section deals with the results and findings pertaining to the key parameters associated with the performance of Referenced and Modified Handle.

So, for this reason experiments were performed on to the prepared specimen to determine the key parameters (i.e. EI, G, E and k) which were associated to the performance of handle, and were reported in Table No. 4.3. Three different experiments were performed to study the Mechanical Properties of Referenced and Modified Handles. For Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) a Three Point Bend Test was performed by using simple supported beam, for Modulus of Elasticity (E) a Tensile Test was performed, for Modulus of Rigidity (G) and Torsional Stiffness (k) Torsion Test were performed consecutively.

Finally there were only six (06) different types of Modified Handles were tested against a set of Referenced Handle. The Referenced Handle was coded as H1

4.2.1 Results of Mechanical Testing

In this section the results and findings were presented only. The values which were recorded during testing specimens were transformed as per the need to compute final results.

The result of tested specimens on to their selected key parameters which were presented in Table 4.3 was determined by using the experimental values, these had

127 Chapter IV Results and Findings been calculated separately for all the specimens and by using simple conversation and following the procedures of elementary mechanics which were already described brief in methodology section.

The data collected from the experiments was written in their respective tables and provided at the last in (Appendix 02, Table C, D and E). And from there only the results were taken and presented in Table 4.3, and from the Table 4.3, the bar plot and graph plot were drawn against each key parameter associated with the performance of handle separately and, then the results were compared in between Referenced and

Modified Handle; the Referenced Handle’s values (i.e. H1 Ref) were used as a referenced value to make the comparison against Modified Handle values (i.e. H2

Mod BT, H3 Mod BM, H4 Mod BL and H5 Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL), from which the final result, discussion and conclusion were drawn out.

Table 4.3 Results of Tested Specimens on Selected Key Parameter of Handles Type of E G EI K S.No. Code Handle (GPa) (GPa) (Nm2) (Nm/rad) Referenced 1 H1 Ref 4.58 1.42 14.34 32.00 Handle 2 H2 Mod BT 0.12 1.81 18.47 40.82

3 H3 Mod BM 0.14 3.39 31.32 76.12 4 H Mod B 0.14 2.59 22.13 58.20 Modified 4 L 5 Handle H5 Mod AT 1.52 2.84 16.80 63.76

6 H6 Mod AM 0.31 3.61 29.95 81.21

7 H7 Mod AL 0.85 2.91 20.94 65.32

Note: E=Young’s Modulus, G= Shear Modulus, EI= Bending Stiffness, k= Torsional Stiffness

4.2.2 FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

With the help of the experimental data collected from the experiment, graphs were prepared for each and every case and all those graphs are mentioned and discussed below:

4.2.2.1 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Bend Test

In the first experiment the relationship between applied loads and deflection was accessed to determine the Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) or Flexural Stiffness,

128 Chapter IV Results and Findings for which the bend test had been performed on selected models of handles, deflection were recorded at various loads.

From the experimental data, a graph was plotted by taking flexural loads along the vertical axis (y-axis), and deflections resulting from these loads are plotted along the horizontal axis (x-axis) for each type of handles as shown in Figure 4.1. By using linear relationship between deflections at the various points of loads (EI) was calculated for the Referenced and Modified Handles and the results are shown in Table 4.3.

200

180

160

140

120

100

Load (Kg) H1 Ref 60 H2 Mod BT 40 H3 Mod BM H4 Mod BL 20 H5 Mod AT H6 Mod AM 0 H7 Mod AL

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Deflection (mm)

Figure 4.1 Graph Plot of Load Vs. Deflection for Referenced and Modified Handles

The H1 Ref bore a maximum load of 140 Kg with the maximum deflections of

14.86 mm, H2 Mod BT bore 140 Kg with maximum deflection of 14.26 mm, H3 Mod

BM bore 160 Kg with maximum deflection of 13.33 mm, H4 Mod BL bore 140 Kg with maximum deflection of 14.91 mm, H5 Mod AT bore 140 Kg with maximum deflection of 14.26 mm, H6 Mod AM bear 180 Kg with maximum deflection of 12.99 mm, H7 Mod AL bore 160 Kg with maximum deflection of 13.97 mm.

129 Chapter IV Results and Findings

From the experimental data, it was accessed that, during the initial phase of loading which is from 0 to 20 Kg does not show much difference in deflection but as the graph moves from 20 to 100 kg load, the deflection of Modified Handles increased much more rapidly than that of the Referenced Handle.

The performance of Modified Handles in which joint assembly was made up of aluminium alloy showed better results than those handles in which joint assembly was made up of brass material, because the deflection against given load was more than that of the brass, that shows the aluminium alloy is more ductile than brass alloy.

The Referenced Handle elastically deforms with the maximum deflection but the Modified Handles get deformed plastically with minimum deflection in all the handles. And the values of the deflection for the same load were accessed lesser in Modified Handle than to Referenced Handle. Due to that a liner relationship between loads versus deflection was present only in Referenced Handle and whereas it was absent in Modified Handles.

As per the analysis of results, the deflection of handle does depend upon the use of various types of materials and their placement. Comparison between Referenced and Modified Handles shows that the Modified Handles has much more resistance against deflection as compared to Referenced Handle and comparison between the placements of joint assembly on different location of handle show that, the top placed joint assembly had less deflection than other Modified Handles.

This much variation was accessed due to the use of different type of material for joint assembly and also due to the placement of joint assembly on different locations of handles, which makes the handles more rigid than to Referenced Handle.

So, from the results and graph, it was accessed that the deflection of Modified Handles is less than that of Referenced Handle.

4.2.2.2 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Tensile Test

In the second experiment the relationship between applied loads and elongation was accessed to determine the Modulus of Elasticity (E), for which tensile test had been performed on selected specimens of handles, elongation was recorded at various points of loads.

130 Chapter IV Results and Findings

From the experimental data, a graph was plotted by using increasing load against the elongation for each type of handles. The load was plotted along the vertical axis (y-axis), and elongation resulting from those loads was plotted along the horizontal axis (x-axis) for the tested specimen as shown in Figure 4.2. By using linear relationship between elongation and loads (E) was calculated for the Referenced and Modified Handles and the results are shown in Table 4.3.

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600 Load (Kg) H1 Ref 400 H2 Mod BT H3 Mod BM 200 H4 Mod BL H5 Mod AT 0 H6 Mod AM H7 Mod AL

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 Elongation (Inches)

Figure 4.2 Graph Plot of Load vs. Elongation for Referenced and Modified Handle

The experimental data were plotted it was accessed that, the Referenced Handle had a lot of strength to bear the external force than the Modified Handles. During the initial loading which is from 0 to 20 Kg does not show any changes in the original length of any handle but as the graph moves from 20 to 100 kg load the Modified Handles get deformed and increase much more rapidly than that of the Referenced Handle.

The H1 Ref bore a maximum axial load of 1360 Kg with maximum change in length 1.4 inches, H2 Mod BT bore 140 Kg with maximum change in length 0.15 inches, H3 Mod BM bore 140 Kg with maximum change in length 0.19 inches, H4

Mod BL bore 140 Kg with maximum change in length 0.20 inches, H5 Mod AT bore

360 Kg with maximum change in length 0.10 inches, H6 Mod AM bore 200 Kg with

131 Chapter IV Results and Findings

maximum change in length 0.20 inches, H7 Mod AL bore 240 Kg with maximum change in length 0.20 inches.

The change in original length for the same load were accessed greater in Modified Handle than to Referenced Handle due to that a liner relationship between load and deflection was present only in Referenced Handle (i.e. H1 Ref), and whereas it was absent in Modified Handle.

Finally from the result, it was concluded that all Modified Handles, within each group, showed statistically significant differences with their respective group. This shows that the elastic properties did vary from sample to sample due to the placement of joint assembly into different locations and use of different material into handle. Where the Referenced Handle had a much higher tensile strength and Modulus of Elasticity than the Modified Handles, and a sudden failure takes place, as the curve is linear until it breaks with no bending of the curve at high loads. Consequently, in Reference Handle, there is no permanent deformation during this test, which shows elastic behaviour of handle.

Tensile Modulus of Elasticity (E) is one of the two factors that determine the stiffness or rigidity (EI) of structures comprised of a material, the higher the Modulus of Elasticity of the material, the greater the rigidity; doubling the Modulus of Elasticity doubles the rigidity of the product. The greater the rigidity of a structure, the more force is required to produce a given deformation.

4.2.2.3 Findings and Interpretation of Results from Torsion Test

The third experiment looks at the relationship between applied torque and angular displacement to determine Modulus of Rigidity (G) and Torsional Stiffness (k). The experimental data of torsion test were plotted on to the graph by using torque against the corresponding angle of twist. The applied torque was plotted along the vertical axis (y-axis) and angle of twist resulting from torque was plotted along the horizontal axis (x-axis) for each specimen as shown in Figure 4.3.

By manipulating the torque angular displacement relationship in torsion, the Torsional Stiffness (k) and Modulus of Rigidity (G) was calculated for the Referenced and Modified Handle and the results are shown in Table 4.3.

132 Chapter IV Results and Findings

The slope of the angular deflection versus torque was plotted; that represent the torsion stiffness. If the relationship between torque and angle of twist is linear then the torsion stiffness predicts the performance behaviour of specimen more accurately in torsion test.

60 H1 Ref H2 Mod BT 50 H3 Mod BM H4 Mod BL 40 H5 Mod AT H6 Mod AM H7 Mod AL 30

20 Torque Torque (Nm)

0 5 10 15 20 25 Angle of Twist (Degree)

Figure 4.3 Graph Plot of Torque vs. Angle of twist for Referenced and Modified Handles

o The Referenced Handle which was H1 Ref had (12.88 Nm up to 55 degrees) o and Modified Handles, which were H2 Mod BT had (9.17 Nm up to 15 degrees), H3 o o Mod BM had (19.35 Nm up to 15 degrees), H4 Mod BL had (12.41 Nm up to 15 2 o degrees) and H5 Mod AT had (9.51 Nm up to 13 degrees), H6 Mod AM had (11.77 o o Nm up to 15 degrees), H7 Mod AL had (10.33 Nm up to 14 degrees).

The test results showed that there was very less deviation into the torque approximately 1.18 Nm to 2.79 Nm up to 1o degrees of angle of twist in all the specimens.

It is assumed that the torsion stiffness described above follows a linear curve where the stiffness can be accurately determined as the slope of a function involving the torque and the angle of twist.

133 Chapter IV Results and Findings

The linear trend of the curve was increased in a progressive manner as torque increased angle of twist was also increased. And this linear trend was present only in Referenced Handle, due to that the Referenced Handle had the good resistance power to absorb the torsional load caused by the external force and shows a good agreement in Modulus of Rigidity (G) and Torsional Stiffness (k) other than all the Modified Handles.

The results also showed that all Modified Handles, within each group, showed statistically significant differences with their respective group. This shows that the torsional properties vary from sample to sample due to the placement of joint assembly into different locations and use of different material into handle.

Longitudinal torsion endurance can be described as torsional rigidity, and having strength to hold the twist load caused by the impact of the ball and it shows how much torque is needed to deform the whole component of handles.

4.2.2.4 Interpretation of Results for Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) in Referenced and Modified Handles

Modulus of Elasticity represents a material's resistance of being deformed, so low values mean low resistance and high values mean high resistance. In other words, Low Modulus is said to be Flexible and a High Modulus is stiffer.

5 Handle Code

H1 Ref

4 H2 Mod BT

H3 Mod BM

H4 Mod BL

H5 Mod AT 3 H6 Mod AM

H7 Mod AL

Modulus ofModulus (GPa) Elasticity 1

0 Handle Types

Figure 4.4 Bar Plot of Modulus of Elasticity in Referenced and Modified Handles

134 Chapter IV Results and Findings

The results shows the following variation in the values of (E), for the

Referenced Handle i.e. H1 Ref was 4.58 GPa, and for Modified Handles i.e. H2 Mod

BT, H3 Mod BM, H4 Mod BL, H5 Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL was 0.12 GPa, 0.14 GPa, 0.14 GPa, 1.52 GPa, 0.31 GPa, 0.85 GPa respectively.

The tensile elastic modulus, tensile strength and elongation was significantly different in Referenced and Modified Handles. As per the results the Referenced

Handle (H1 Ref) had have high Modulus of Elasticity i.e. 4.58 GPa in comparison to other Modified Handles. But, one Modified Handle (i.e. H5 Mod AT) had the Modulus of Elasticity 1.52 GPa which had significantly higher MOE than other Modified Handles.

This means that materials which were having a high Modulus of Elasticity will require more stress to elongate the same amount of strain as compared to a material with a lower Modulus of Elasticity.

As per concluding remarks, none of the Modified Handles were stand with upon the Referenced Handle’s strength. So, from this experiment only, it was clear that the Referenced Handle would bear more external force in relation to all the other Modified Handles.

When the load of the same magnitude and in same directions were applied to the two different specimens of the same cross-sectional area and both the specimen were of same length.

One specimen was Referenced Handle and the other was Modified Handle in which joint assembly was mounted on three different locations. Since both type of specimens was put under the same magnitude of stress, but we got different results, why?

As an example if we take and check the separate Modulus of Elasticity of materials which were used in this study i.e. cane wood, aluminium alloy and brass, when a load is applied to the section, the metal alloys materials strain the same amount as the cane wood. But, since both materials have a different modulus of elasticity, the Metal alloy materials carry more stress than the cane wood.

This happens just because of the fact that, the Modulus of Elasticity is material dependent. So, it would always change, when the composition of material is altered,

135 Chapter IV Results and Findings and due to this, it becomes difficult to get analysed single modulus of elasticity by using heterogeneous materials of different materialistic properties. And since the specimens vary and had different Modulus of Elasticity, the values of strain differ too widely. This was not only the one big reason, why Referenced Handle’s MOE was significantly higher than those of all Modified Handles, the other reasons, which affects the MOE in Modified Handles; that is the bonding of two different composition of material together.

4.2.2.5 Interpretation of Results for Modulus of Rigidity (MOR) in Referenced and Modified Handles

The Modulus of Rigidity (MOR), also known as Shear Modulus, is defined as a material property with a value equal to the shear stress divided by the shear strain.

When a shear force is applied on a body which results in its lateral deformation, the elastic coefficient is called the Shear Modulus of Rigidity. Hence, Shear Modulus of Rigidity measures the rigidity of a body. Conceptually, it is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain in a body.

5 Handle Code

H1 Ref

4 H2 Mod BT

H3 Mod BM

H4 Mod BL

H5 Mod AT 3 H6 Mod AM

H7 Mod AL

2 Modulus ofModulus Rigidity (GPa) 1

0 Handle Types

Figure 4.5 Bar Plot of Modulus of Rigidity in Referenced and Modified Handles

136 Chapter IV Results and Findings

From the above Table No. 4.3 calculated values of (G), for H1 Ref was approximately near about 1.42 GPa, and for H2 Mod BT, H3 Mod BM, H4 Mod BL, H5

Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL was 1.81 GPa, 3.39 GPa, 2.59 GPa, 2.84 GPa, 3.61 GPa, 2.91GPa respectively.

So, from the results it was accessed that the value of (G) for H1 Ref (1.42

GPa), which was quite significantly lower than H2 Mod BT (0.39 GPa), H3 Mod BM

(1.97 GPa), H4 Mod BL (1.17 GPa), and H5 Mod AT (1.42 GPa), H6 Mod AM (2.19

GPa), H7 Mod AL (1.49 GPa).

Finally it was concluded that the Shear Modulus (G) of Modified Handles was found quite significantly higher than Referenced Handle approximately on an average 1.23 GPa. Therefore, this implies that the Modified Handles were more rigid than Referenced Handle, about 2 times more than that of Referenced Handle.

Shear modulus is related to Elastic Modulus of a material and depends on the different types of material. Shear Modulus can be used to explain how a material resists transverse deformations but this is applicable for small deformations only, the Shear Modulus of Referenced Handle resist the permanent deformation and able to make them return to their original state than to Modified Handle, this is because large shearing forces lead to permanent deformations.

For a ductile material, the plastic flow begins first in the outer surface. The materials which are weaker, shear longitudinally than transversely – for instance a wooden shaft, with the fibres parallel to axis, the first cracks will be produced by the shearing stresses acting in the axial section and they will appear on the surface of the shaft in the longitudinal direction.

In this case, the joint assembly’s material made the Modified Handle weaker in tension than in torsion. This is because of the fact that the state of pure shear is equivalent to a state of stress tension in one direction and equal compression in perpendicular direction.

A rigid bat will absorb and store less energy at impact and so more energy is transferred to the ball, this maximises the post impact striking distance. However, a

137 Chapter IV Results and Findings more rigid implement will have a higher natural frequency and this has been found to increase player discomfort (Bartlett, 2000).

4.2.2.6 Interpretation of Results for Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) in Referenced and Modified Handles

Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI) is appropriate to use Elastic Modulus (E) to determine the short-term rigidity of structures subjected to elongation, bending, or compression. It may be more appropriate to use the flexural modulus to determine the short-term rigidity of structures subjected to bending, particularly if the material comprising the structure is non-homogeneous.

35 Handle Code

30 H1 Ref H2 Mod BT H Mod B ) 3 M 2 25 H4 Mod BL H5 Mod AT 20 H6 Mod AM H7 Mod AL

10 Bending Stiffness (Nm

0 Handle Types

Figure 4.6 Bar Plot of Equivalent Bending Stiffness in Referenced and Modified Handles

The results for an Equivalent Bending Stiffness shows much variation in 2 relation to a more traditional or/ Referenced Handle. The H1 Ref (14.34 Nm ) was less 2 stiffer among all the handles which were tested, the H3 Mod BM (31.32 Nm ) and H6 2 Mod AT (29.95 Nm ) was the highest stiffer handles among all, which is probably due to middle placement of joint assembly’s on to the handle and their the material properties which was totally differs from the other handles.

138 Chapter IV Results and Findings

The other handles also show a great variation into the results in which joint 2 assembly was placed on lower regions i.e. H4 Mod BL (22.13 Nm ) and H7 Mod AL (20.94 Nm2) was less stiff than the middle placed joint assembly but if compared to 2 the top placed joint assembly handles i.e. H2 Mod BT (18.47 Nm ) and H5 Mod AT (16.8 Nm2) they were more less stiffer than middle and lower placed joint assembly.

Bending Stiffness (EI) is the resistance of member against bending deformation. Bending stiffness in beams is known as the Flexural Rigidity. The Flexural Stiffness is a measure of the resistance to bending the more difficult it is to bend, the higher flexural stiffness, lesser the flexibility it had.

From the results it was accessed that the Referenced Handle was less stiff than those of Modified Handles, due to addition of additional segment (i.e. joint assembly) of having high elastic modulus and density into the Modified Handle, the segment add the stiffness; where it is placed, and in result to it resist the bending movement than to less stiffer material.

The maximum strain of the 1st mode is almost concentrated at shoulder area (Cao, 2006), and the Modified Handle is too stiff for the 1st mode to be bend at shoulder area, so Modified Handle bends less than the less stiff handle does i.e. Referenced Handle. Since the amplitude of the 1st bending mode is the mode with the largest vibration amplitude and is felt worse by batsmen physically and it is the major mode which needs to be controlled (Penrose, & Hose, 1998).

This means that the handles which were stiffer and rigid that causes more vibration and may lead to discomfort to players. So, the Referenced Handle is optimum for imparting maximum energy to the ball with minimizing vibration discomfort to the batsman.

As per concluding remarks, none of the Modified Handles’ stood with upon the Referenced Handle’s equivalent bending stiffness (flexural stiffness). So, from this experiment, it was observed that the Referenced Handle would bear more external force and could not lead discomfort to the batsman, when a high speed ball impacts with the bat which causes painful vibration in relation to all other Modified Handles.

139 Chapter IV Results and Findings

Flexural stiffness and deflection relative to the performance of sporting equipment, which has received considerable interest, as the Flexural Stiffness increases that leads to an increased post impact ball velocity.

4.2.2.7 Interpretation of Results for Torsional Stiffness (k) in Referenced and Modified Handles

In order to determine the nature of the torsion stiffness, the torsion test was performed for a variety of applied torques and the angle of deflections were measured. The experimental data were analyzed to determine the linearity of Torsional Stiffness (k), i.e. torque per radian twist.

100 Handle Code

H1 Ref 80 H2 Mod BT H3 Mod BM H4 Mod BL H5 Mod AT 60 H6 Mod AM H7 Mod AL

Torsional StiffnessTorsional (Nm/rad) 20

0 Handle Types

Figure 4.7 Bar Plot of Torsional Stiffness in Referenced and Modified Handles

The results for torsional stiffness of Referenced and Modified Handles were taken from the Table No. 4.3 and a Torsional Stiffness graph was plotted against each handle type which shows a lot variation in relation to a more traditional or/

Referenced Handle shown in Figure 4.7. The H1 Ref (32 Nm/rad) was less stiffer among all the handles which were tested, the H6 Mod AT (81.21Nm/rad) and H3 Mod

BM (76.12 Nm/rad) was the highest stiffer handles among all, which is probably due

140 Chapter IV Results and Findings to middle placement of joint assembly’s on to the handle and their the material properties which was totally differs from the other handles.

The other handles were also shows a great variation into the results in which joint assembly was placed on top i.e. H2 Mod BT (40.82 Nm/rad) & H5 Mod AT (63.76

Nm/rad) and in lower regions i.e. H4 Mod BL (58.2 Nm/rad) and H7 Mod AL (65.32 Nm/rad).

From the results, finally it was concluded that the Referenced Handle had good mechanical properties like ductility and good resilience in comparison to Modified Handles. There is very little change in the Torsional Stiffness (k) into Modified Handles that make the handles tough and more rigid.

The results show that the Torsional Stiffness (k) of Referenced Handle is more than the Modified Handles, due to the placement of joint assembly into the Modified Handles that make the handles tough and rigid than the Referenced Handle, due to that more torque was required to twist the handle with minimum deviation into angle of twist, which causes permanent deformation into the Modified Handles.

This assumption is based on the fact that the angle of twist is related to the torque through geometric and material properties. If the material and geometric properties are constant then the torsion stiffness will be constant as well. This is analogous to that of a linear slope with a linear spring rate. It is possible that the torsion stiffness could end up nonlinear, in Referenced Handle it proved better model which accurately predict the torsion characteristics than to Modified Handles.

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Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations

Chapter V CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study had been undertaken to develop experimental and predictive techniques for assessing the performances across different type of modified handles in comparison to a more conventional/traditional Referenced Handle, within the MCC‟s law, which quantify the effects of rule changes covering for all the level of games.

The review of related literature provided background information pertinent to the investigation. The literature concerning to the science of cricket is reviewed together with the relevant studies from other sports. In relation to other major sports, the volume of published information regarding the use of different kind of material in cricket bat is scarce.

The methodology was prepared in a manner to carry out this particular type of study, which involved from the processing of raw materials up to the production and manufacturing of sample for making the prototype handle, and then after the performance evaluation had been done by testing the performance of prepared samples/specimens.

142

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations parameters were quantified and, the assumptions were made that, the manufacturing process are equivalent for all the specimens before the testing.

In the following testing procedure two types of samples were prepared, first was the Referenced Handle with constraint measurements similar to conventional handle and the other was Modified Handle. The performance of modified cricket bat handle had been predicted with a Referenced Handle. All the specimens used in this study were made up of laminated cane wood of constraint measurements on selected geometrical parameters, which were more similar to a traditional design.

Dynamic analysis of performance was unable to perform and it was assessed through experimental testing. The performance of handles was accessed by static test conducted by the means of dynamic machines, which were used for testing the mechanical and physical properties of the prepared specimens.

As per the defined methodology of the study, physical properties were accessed only for the Referenced Handle. For this reason, two experiments were

143

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations consecutively carried out to determine density and percent moisture content of the specimens which were taken for this study.

BM, H4 Mod BL and H5 Mod AT, H6 Mod AM, H7 Mod AL, Therefore, altogether in this study, we measured and compared the performance of seven (07) different models of cricket bat handles.

The results and findings pertaining to the key parameters associated with the performance of Referenced and Modified Handles‟ mechanical properties. And finally a comparison was made in between of Referenced and Modified Handles on the basis of that which final results, discussion and conclusion were drawn out.

The conclusions from this study undertaken so far and suggestions for future work to improve the bat handle are described as below:

5.1 CONCLUSION

144

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations mechanical advantage, but due to unfavorable and use of non-homogeneous material, the Modified Handle could not with-stand with the Referenced Handle‟s performance to provide the mechanical advantage in terms of to generate greater momentum, speed, time and to reduce player‟s burdon of being carrying extra weight in their kitbags.

For that purpose, prototype models of a Reference Handle i.e. similar to conventional handle, and a Modified Handle with having detachable properties attach and detach the handle by using joint assembly which were made up of brass and aluminium alloy materials, were designed, evaluated and fabricated on to their

145

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations constraint measurements, and all the Modified Handles were tested in order to meet out the demands of general playing properties of handle, in comparison to a more conventional handle. The experimental data was used to describe the performance of Referenced and Modified Handles. All the handles were tested experimentally, the results show the significant difference between the performances of all types of tested specimens.

2. By using the joint assembly made up of metallic materials, the weight of the handle get increased, that shifts the node of fundamental vibrational mode and Center of Mass (COM) of the bat, and due to that the balance of bat and Center of Percussion (COP) is disturbed.

3. There is a huge variability into the climatic condition which causes volumetric shrinkage and swelling in the natural material of the handle i.e. cane wood, and no change was observed in the material of the joint assembly. Due to the climatic changes, the joint loses its strength, from where the joint assembly was mounted and leads to the regular breakage due to shrinkage and swelling of the cane wood.

4. The process of manufacturing of Modified Handles was itself so tedious, in which the handle and joint assembly were separately design and manufactured, and then after they were assembled.

5. The process of assembling all the parts of the Modified Handles, in which gluing, locking and alignment of upper part to lower part with right positioning of locking screw comes and the whole process requires more time, care and manpower to align all parts with low production rate and on high cost.

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Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations

6. The Modified Handles were not proved so sustainable to provide economic feasibility and reliability than the referenced handle.

7. So, altogether the performance of Modified Handles was not so precise, feasible and fit for the purpose for that they were invented.

8. The Referenced Handle is the only the reliable and performance oriented material which showed good agreement between the key parameters, associated to the overall performance of the handle and bat.

The assumptions which were made in this study need to be reduced to improve the performance and durability of cricket bat handle in order to get mechanical advantage and accuracy. The handle of the bat need to be assigned a proper material, cane wood to be precise. Modern composite materials could be used to increase flexural stiffness without adding weigh, thus causing model frequencies to rise.

The process of manufacturing itself so tedious that blocks the way for any future research work regarding this invention, and the Modified Handles violate all the overall performance characteristics‟ of cricket bat and, also reduces the player‟s comfort in terms of vibrational sensation.

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Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations

5.2 DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESES

The hypotheses which were proposed in this study are already mentioned in Chapter 1 of this study, which are discussed here:

Ho1: The first hypothesis stated as “There will be no difference in the mechanical and physical properties of Modified Handle in comparison to more conventional/Referenced Handle”. The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the Referenced and Modified Handles‟ mechanical and

physical properties. Hence the null hypothesis (Ho1) is not accepted.

Ho2: The second hypothesis stated as “There will be no difference in the mechanical and physical properties of material that is used for making of joint assembly”. The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the materials properties of Referenced and Modified Handles‟. Hence the null

hypothesis (Ho2) is not accepted.

Ho3: The third hypothesis stated as “There will be no difference in the Modified Handles‟ mechanical properties by planting the joint assembly on to three different locations of the handle i.e. top, middle and bottom”. The analysis of results and findings showed that there was a significant difference found in between the placement of joint assembly on to three different locations of the handle i.e. top, middle and bottom, mechanical properties of Modified Handles‟. Hence the

null hypothesis (Ho3) is not accepted.

5.3 DISCUSSION ON RESULTS

It was emphasized that these results may be different for the same or different type of cane wood/or materials other than wood, justifying the use of this methodology in each research developed. The mechanical properties which were reported in the Table 4.3 were significantly different and affected by the specimens‟ material composition, in which non homogeneous material was used. Because the properties of wood i.e. the Modulus of Elasticity and Rigidity can vary widely within

148

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations and especially between same species, due to the percent moisture content and density of material.

The torsional strength of Modified Handles was increased with decreasing tensile strength and that of in Referenced Handle, the torsional strength were increased as the tensile strength increases. Torsional Stiffness (k) shows the maximum deformation with maximum stress in referenced handles during twist load. That means the handle can hold only maximum twist load and still deformed elastically than to modified handles.

Well in the Equivalent Bending Stiffness (EI), the deformation is quite found significant that shows the maximum deflection in the Referenced Handle within the elastic limits and is in with safe state, than the modified handle which had minimal deflection at the same point of load. Due to that maximum deformation was showed at the different part of handles where the joint assembly was mounted. The joint assembly provided more strength to the whole component of the handle, which makes the handles more rigid due to that they get deformed plastically that to referenced handle.

149

Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations selected and worked as per the basic demands of play and also from mechanical perspective. So, Referenced Handle‟s material is most substantial to work with in playing condition than to Modified Handles.

5.4 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The research work carried out in this study was the initial trial to further improve upon and to carry forward this process into industrial and practical applicability within the Laws of MCC (2017).

But, from the other perspective many researchers gave their suggestions and recommendations for using, practicing or implementation of advanced technological development for the improvement for the future research regarding cricket bat.

Moreover, the assessment of cricket bat performance depends upon many factors. Grant (1998b) gave five parameters that are needed to determine the bat performance:

 The point of impact on the bat.

 The pre-impact speed of the ball.

 The pre-impact speed of the bat.

 The post-impact speed of the ball.

 The post-impact speed of the bat.

The bat performance can be assessed by using various metrics including player‟s comfort, the sweet spot, and modal vibration analysis. The sweet spot is associated with minimum discomfort to the batsmen and maximum ball rebound velocity. It has been defined as the impact point that minimises the impulse forces transmitted to the hands, where the position of this point is governed by the mass distribution of the bat and its Moment of Inertia (Brooks, Mather, & Knowles, 2006; Cross, 2004, and Fisher, Vogwell, & Ansell, 2006).

Cricket bat construction and utilisation are of prime concern to players, and experts have suggested nine major bat characteristics to be taken into account in the design of cricket bats, as shown in Table 5.1.

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Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations

Table 5.1 Design characteristics of cricket bats and definitions Characteristic Definition The „Sweet Spot.' Point or area on a bat at which it makes most effective contact with the ball. Centre of Percussion (COP) Impact point between the tip and the handle of the bat where there is no sudden motion of the handle. Coefficient of Restitution The ratio of the bounce speed to the incident speed. (COR) Rigid Body Approximation How physical properties such as mass, moment of inertia and balance point can affect ball rebound speed. Moment of Inertia A measure of how difficult it is to change the rotational velocity of an object which is rotating about a pivot point (i.e. a cricket bat). Collision Replication What happens to a ball when it hits a bat. Bat Substitution Comparing materials, from a mechanical perspective and from the structural perspective; can there be a substitute for the English willow? Bat Vibration A special spot on a bat where the shot feels best- the fundamental vibration node and the centre of percussion. Forces between Bat and Force on the ball which has to slow it down to a Ball complete stop, and then accelerate it back in the other direction.

By keeping above mentioned performance characteristics of cricket bat, the selection of optimum material can have significant effect on to the overall performance of cricket bat. The performance and potentiality of any sports equipment can be maximised if the selection of optimum materials done thoroughly by its composition, and based on the type of material used. Therefore, the selection of material should be made on the basis of the following four primary requirements for a cricket bat material:

1. It should just feel like a normal cricket bat when the batsman holds it. 2. It should be able to withstand high-speed ball impacts without damage, 3. The subsequent vibrations should not cause discomfort to the player, and 4. The bat must be as light as possible, while still maintaining enough mass to propel the ball as far as possible.

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Chapter V Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations

The potential improvement of a cricket bat handle is twofold; the rebound velocity of the ball can be increased while also reducing the vibrational sting. An interesting idea suggested by Grant (1998b) is to raise the 3rd flexure mode of the cricket bat out of excitation spectrum of ball/bat impact by making the cricket bat handle with composite materials to completely remove the 3rd mode of vibration.

The bat with the higher Coefficient of Restitution (COR) will produce a ball with the greatest post-impact speed. The focus of manufactures has been to improve the COR of the bat. Most of the modern cricket bat designs are ineffective at increasing the frequencies of flexural vibration. The factors that might make significant improvement in bat performance are (Grant 1998b):

 Increasing the diameter of the handle.  Removing the damping material (rubber strips) from the handle.  Increasing the thickness of the bat.

Thus from this study, it can be deduced that the traditional cricket bat handle, which was termed as „Referenced Handle‟, is the only viable options for the cricketers, until and unless the rules regarding the cricket bat in general do not change.

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Appendices

Appendix 01 Preliminary Data Collection Sheets for Mechanical Tests

Sheet 1 Observation Table for Bend Test

S. No Load Deflection 1 2 ...... n

Sheet 2 Observation Table for Tensile Test

S. No Load Original Gauge Length Diameter Extension 1 2 ...... n

Sheet 3 Observation Table for Torsion Test

S. No Torque Angle of Twist 1 2 ...... n

xvi

Appendix 02

1. Raw Data for Physical Properties of the Selected Specimens

Table A: Observation Table for Density ( ) of the selected specimen S.No m (gm) v (cm3) (gm/cm3) 1 175 341.0 0.51 2 170 340.5 0.50 3 171 341.5 0.50 4 172 342.5 0.50 5 168 342.5 0.49 6 178 341.5 0.52 7 168 340.5 0.49 8 169 339.5 0.50 9 165 340.0 0.49 10 172 342.0 0.50 = 0.50

Table B: Observation table for Moisture Content (%) of the selected specimen Oven Dried Weight S.No Green Weight (Wg) Moisture Content (%MC) (Wo) 1 175 161 8.70 2 170 155 9.68 3 171 156 9.62 4 172 159 8.18 5 168 153 9.80 6 178 162 9.88 7 168 155 8.39 8 169 154 9.74 9 165 153 7.84 10 172 154 9.09 Moisture Content (%MC) = 9.09

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2. Raw Data for Mechanical Properties of the Selected Specimens

Table C: Observation Table for the Bend of the Selected Specimen Deflection in (mm) Load S.No H2 Mod H3 Mod H4 Mod H5 Mod H6 Mod H7 Mod (Kg) H1 Ref BT BM BL AT AM AL 1 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 20 2.89 1.67 1.45 1.41 2.33 1.98 2.14 3 40 5.06 3.55 1.92 2.53 3.14 2.07 3.9 4 60 7.92 5.27 2.63 4.42 5.55 3.42 4.16 5 80 10.09 7.91 3.56 6.21 9.28 3.64 5.97 6 100 11.77 10.22 4.11 7.32 12.87 5.21 7.55 7 120 13.62 13.18 8.15 14.12 13.98 6.48 9.84 8 140 14.86 14.26 12.34 14.91 14.42 8.21 12.9 9 160 - - 13.33 - - 10.28 13.97 10 180 - - - - - 12.99 - 11 200 ------

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Table D: Observation Table for the Tensile Test of the Selected Specimen Deflection in (mm) Load S.No (Kg) H2 Mod H3 Mod H4 Mod H5 Mod H6 Mod H7 Mod H1 Ref BT BM BL AT AM AL 1 0 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.2 0.02 0.02 0.02 2 20 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.2 0.02 0.02 0.02 3 40 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 4 60 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02 5 80 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.02 6 100 0.02 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.02 7 120 0.02 0.13 0.08 0.11 0.02 0.04 0.02 8 140 0.02 0.15 0.19 0.2 0.02 0.05 0.02 9 160 0.02 - - - 0.02 0.1 0.02 10 180 0.02 - - - 0.02 0.2 0.02 11 200 0.02 - - - 0.02 0.2 0.05 12 220 0.02 - - - 0.02 - 0.1 13 240 0.02 - - - 0.02 - 0.2 14 260 0.02 - - - 0.02 - - 15 280 0.02 - - - 0.02 - - 16 300 0.02 - - - 0.02 - - 17 320 0.02 - - - 0.02 - - 18 340 0.02 - - - 0.05 - - 19 360 0.02 - - - 0.1 - - 20 380 0.02 ------21 400 0.02 ------22 420 0.02 ------23 440 0.02 ------24 460 0.02 ------25 480 0.02 ------26 500 0.02 ------27 520 0.02 ------28 540 0.02 ------29 560 0.02 ------30 580 0.02 ------31 600 0.02 ------32 620 0.02 ------33 640 0.02 ------34 660 0.02 ------35 680 0.02 ------36 700 0.02 ------37 720 0.02 ------38 740 0.02 ------39 760 0.02 ------

xix

Deflection in (mm) Load S.No H2 Mod H3 Mod H4 Mod H5 Mod H6 Mod H7 Mod (Kg) H1 Ref BT BM BL AT AM AL 40 780 0.02 ------41 800 0.02 ------42 820 0.02 ------43 840 0.02 ------44 860 0.02 ------45 880 0.02 ------46 900 0.02 ------47 920 0.02 ------48 940 0.02 ------49 960 0.02 ------50 980 0.03 ------51 1000 0.04 ------52 1020 0.05 ------53 1040 0.05 ------54 1060 0.1 ------55 1080 0.2 ------56 1100 0.43 ------57 1120 0.43 ------58 1140 0.43 ------59 1160 0.43 ------60 1180 0.43 ------61 1200 0.43 ------62 1220 0.55 ------63 1240 0.55 ------64 1260 0.55 ------65 1280 0.55 ------66 1300 1.12 ------67 1320 1.22 ------68 1340 1.32 ------69 1360 1.4 ------

Table E: Observation Table for the Torsion Test of the Selected Specimen Deflection (mm) Load S.No (Kg) H2 Mod H3 Mod H4 Mod H5 Mod H6 Mod H7 Mod H1 Ref BT BM BL AT AM AL 1 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.1 0.27 0.07 0.15 0.09 0.18 0.41 0.32 3 0.2 0.34 0.11 0.26 0.19 0.22 0.71 0.47 4 0.3 0.44 0.13 0.37 0.27 0.45 0.79 0.49 5 0.4 0.56 0.31 0.42 0.35 0.52 0.84 0.52 6 0.5 0.69 0.47 0.59 0.51 0.66 0.87 0.63 7 0.6 0.79 0.55 0.71 0.63 0.69 0.89 0.71 8 0.7 0.87 0.77 0.97 0.82 0.81 1.05 0.84 9 0.8 0.96 0.86 1.17 0.91 0.83 1.13 0.97 10 0.9 1.08 0.96 1.91 1.17 0.97 1.27 0.99 11 1 1.18 1.23 2.79 2.01 1.22 1.32 1.01 12 2 1.69 1.86 3.82 2.89 2.72 1.52 1.54 13 3 2.16 2.01 4.12 3.11 3.54 2.71 2.16 14 4 2.45 2.19 4.51 4.05 4.18 3.96 3.2 15 5 2.85 2.33 5.1 4.6 5.13 5.06 4.1 16 6 3.06 2.97 6.09 5.21 6.21 5.91 4.98 17 7 3.38 3.69 7.36 6.09 7 6.9 6.08 18 8 3.75 4.15 8.46 6.89 7.73 7.02 7.13 19 9 4.03 4.89 9.92 7.58 8.62 8.26 8.12 20 10 4.31 5.47 10.69 8.51 8.84 9.28 8.9 21 11 4.86 6.39 11.99 9.92 9.27 10.57 9.87 22 12 5.07 7.14 13.69 10.62 9.51 11.25 10.25 23 13 5.27 8.16 15.19 11.18 9.51 11.62 10.29 24 14 5.52 9.15 17.72 12.39 - 11.68 10.33 25 15 5.76 9.17 19.35 12.41 - 11.77 - 26 16 6.03 ------27 17 6.23 ------28 18 6.37 ------29 19 6.53 ------30 20 6.67 ------31 21 6.83 ------32 22 7.01 ------33 23 7.12 ------34 24 7.30 ------35 25 7.56 ------36 26 7.82 ------37 27 7.89 ------38 28 8.08 ------39 29 8.31 ------

xxi

Deflection (mm) Load S.No H2 Mod H3 Mod H4 Mod H5 Mod H6 Mod H7 Mod (Kg) H1 Ref BT BM BL AT AM AL 40 30 8.52 ------41 31 8.69 ------42 32 9.00 ------43 33 9.34 ------44 34 9.16 ------45 35 9.66 ------46 36 10.10 ------47 37 10.39 ------48 38 10.58 ------49 39 10.76 ------50 40 10.98 ------51 41 11.21 ------52 42 11.37 ------53 43 11.61 ------54 44 11.75 ------55 45 12.01 ------56 50 12.24 ------57 55 12.88 ------

xxii

Appendix 03

1. Raw Data for Determining the Volume of the Referenced Handle

Table F Observation Table for Determining the Volume of the Handles Total Initial Level Raised Level of Water Volume of Type of Water S.No of Handle

Handle = V R R V – V 1 1 2 2 1 V2 1 2200 2538 2544 2541 341 2 2200 2539 2542 2540.5 340.5 3 2200 2538 2545 2541.5 341.5 4 2200 2540 2545 2542.5 342.5 5 2200 2540 2545 2542.5 342.5 6 2200 2538 2545 2541.5 341.5 7 2200 2538 2543 2540.5 340.5 8 2200 2538 2541 2539.5 339.5

9 Handle Referenced 2200 2538 2542 2540 340 10 2200 2540 2544 2542 342 Average Volume of Handle (cm) 3 = 341.15

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Appendix 04

LAW 5 THE BAT 5.1 The bat 5.1.1 The bat consists of two parts, a handle and a blade. 5.1.2 The basic requirements and measurements of the bat are set out in this Law with detailed specifications in Appendix B. 5.2 The handle 5.2.1 The handle is to be made principally of cane and/or wood. 5.2.2 The part of the handle that is wholly outside the blade is defined to be the upper portion of the handle. It is a straight shaft for holding the bat. 5.2.3 The upper portion of the handle may be covered with a grip as defined in Appendix B.2.2. 5.3 The blade 5.3.1 The blade comprises the whole of the bat apart from the handle as defined 5.2 and in Appendix B.3. 5.3.2 The blade shall consist solely of wood. 5.3.3 All bats may have commercial identifications on the blade, the size of which must comply with the relevant specification in Appendix B.6. 5.4 Protection and repair Subject to the specifications in Appendix B.4 and providing 5.5 is not contravened, 5.4.1 Solely for the purposes of either protection from surface damage to the face, sides and shoulders of the blade or repair to the blade after surface damage, material that is not rigid, either at the time of its application to the blade or subsequently, may be placed on these surfaces. 5.4.2 for repair of the blade after damage other than surface damage 5.4.2.1 Solid material may be inserted into the blade. 5.4.2.2 The only material permitted for any insertion is wood with minimal essential adhesives. 5.4.3 To prevent damage to the toe, material may be placed on that part of the blade but shall not extend over any part of the face, back or sides of the blade. 5.5 Damage to the ball 5.5.1 For any part of the bat, covered or uncovered, the hardness of the constituent materials and the surface texture thereof shall not be such that either or both could cause unacceptable damage to the ball.

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5.5.2 Any material placed on any part of the bat, for whatever purpose, shall similarly not be such that it could cause unacceptable damage to the ball. 5.5.3 For the purpose of this Law, unacceptable damage is any change that is greater than normal wear and tear caused by the ball striking the uncovered wooden surface of the blade. 5.6 Contact with the ball In these Laws, 5.6.1 Reference to the bat shall imply that the bat is held in the batsman’s hand or a glove worn on his/her hand, unless stated otherwise. 5.6.2 Contact between the ball and any of 5.6.2.1 to 5.6.2.4 5.6.2.1 The bat itself 5.6.2.2 The batsman’s hand holding the bat 5.6.2.3 Any part of a glove worn on the batsman’s hand holding the bat 5.6.2.4 Any additional materials permitted under 5.4 shall be regarded as the ball striking or touching the bat or being struck by the bat. 5.7 Bat size limits 5.7.1 The overall length of the bat, when the lower portion of the handle is inserted, shall not be more than 38 in/96.52 cm. 5.7.2 The blade of the bat shall not exceed the following dimensions: Width: 4.25in / 10.8 cm Depth: 2.64in / 6.7 cm Edges: 1.56in / 4.0cm. Furthermore, it should also be able to pass through a bat gauge as described in Appendix B.8. 5.7.3 Except for bats of size 6 and less, the handle shall not exceed 52% of the overall length of the bat. 5.7.4 The material permitted for covering the blade in 5.4.1 shall not exceed 0.04 in/0.1 cm in thickness. 5.7.5 The maximum permitted thickness of protective material placed on the toe of the blade is 0.12 in/0.3 cm. 5.8 Categories of bat 5.8.1 Types A, B and C are bats conforming to 5.1 to 5.7 inclusive. 5.8.2 Type A bats may be used at any level of cricket. 5.8.3 The specifications for Type D bats are described in Appendix B.7 and are for use by junior players in junior cricket only.

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5.8.4 Bats of Type B, Type C, Type D and any other bats may be used only at or below levels determined by the governing body for cricket in the country concerned. 5.8.5 Bats that do not qualify for any of the four categories A to D are not recognised in the Laws.

Appendix B: The bat (Law 5) B.1. General Guidance B.1.1. Measurements - All provisions in sections B.2 to B.6 below are subject to the measurements and restrictions stated in the Law and this Appendix. B.1.2 Adhesives – Throughout, adhesives are permitted only where essential and only in minimal quantity B.1.3 Categories of bat – The specifications given below relate to Type A, B C and D bats unless specified otherwise. B.2. Specifications for the Handle B.2.1 One end of the handle is inserted into a recess in the blade as a means of joining the handle and the blade. This lower portion is used purely for joining the blade and the handle together. It is not part of the blade but, solely in interpreting B.3 and B.4 below, references to the blade shall be considered to extend also to this lower portion of the handle where relevant. B.2.2. The handle may be glued where necessary and bound with twine along the upper portion. Providing Law 5.5 is not contravened, the upper portion may be covered with materials solely to provide a surface suitable for gripping. Such covering is an addition and is not part of the bat, except in relation to Law 5.6. The bottom of this grip should not extend below the point defined in B.2.4 below. Twine binding and the covering grip may extend beyond the junction of the upper and lower portions of the handle, to cover part of the shoulders of the bat as defined in B.3.1. No material may be placed on or inserted into the lower portion of the handle other than as permitted above together with the minimal adhesives or adhesive tape used solely for fixing these items, or for fixing the handle to the blade. B.2.3 Materials in handle – As a proportion of the total volume of the handle, materials other than cane, wood or twine are restricted to one-tenth for Types A and B and one-fifth for Type C and Type D. Such materials must not project more than 3.25 in/8.26 cm into the lower portion of the handle B.2.4 Binding and covering of handle – The permitted continuation beyond the junction of the upper and lower portions of the handle is restricted to a maximum, measured along the length of the handle, of

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2.5 in/6.35 cm in for the twine binding 2.75 in/6.99 cm for the covering grip. B.3 Specifications for the Blade B.3.1. The blade has a face, a back, a toe, sides and shoulders B.3.1.1 The face of the blade is its main striking surface and shall be flat or have a slight convex curve resulting from traditional pressing techniques. The back is the opposite surface. B.3.1.2 The shoulders, sides and toe are the remaining surfaces, separating the face and the back. B.3.1.3. The shoulders, one on each side of the handle, are along that portion of the blade between the first entry point of the handle and the point at which the blade first reaches its full width. B.3.1.4. The toe is the surface opposite to the shoulders taken as a pair. B.3.1.5. The sides, one each side of the blade, are along the rest of the blade, between the toe and the shoulders. B.3.2. No material may be placed on or inserted into the blade other than as permitted in B.2.4, B.3.3. and Law 5.4 together with the minimal adhesives or adhesive tape used solely for fixing these items, or for fixing the handle to the blade. B.3.3 Covering the blade. Type A and Type B bats shall have no covering on the blade except as permitted in Law 5.4. Type C and Type D bats may have a cloth covering on the blade. This may be treated as specified in B.4 below. The cloth covering permitted for Type C and D bats shall be of thickness not exceeding 0.012 in /0.3 mm before treatment as in B.4.1. Any materials referred to above, in Law 5.4 and B.4 below, are to be considered as part of the bat, which must still pass through the gauge as defined in B.8. B.4 Protection and repair B.4.1. The surface of the blade may be treated with non-solid materials to improve resistance to moisture penetration and/or mask natural blemishes in the appearance of the wood. Save for the purpose of giving a homogeneous appearance by masking natural blemishes, such treatment shall not materially alter the colour of the blade. B.4.2. Materials can be used for protection and repair as stated in Law 5.4 and are additional to the blade. Note however Law 5.6. Any such material shall not extend over any part of the back of the blade except in the case of Law 5.4.1 and then only when it is applied as a continuous wrapping covering the damaged area.

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The repair material shall not extend along the length of the blade more than 0.79 in/2.0 cm in each direction beyond the limits of the damaged area. Where used as a continuous binding, any overlapping shall not breach the maximum of 0.04 in/0.1 cm in total thickness. The use of non-solid material which when dry forms a hard layer more than 0.004 in/0.01 cm in thickness is not permitted. Additionally, for protection from damage, for Bat Types B, C and D, material may be inserted at the toe and/or along the sides, parallel to the face of the blade. B.4.3. Permitted coverings, repair material and toe guards, not exceeding their specified thicknesses, may be additional to the dimensions above, but the bat must still pass through the gauge as described in B.8. B.5. Toe and side inserts – The wood used must not be more than 0.35 in/0.89 cm in thickness. The toe insert shall not extend from the toe more than 2.5 in/6.35 cm up the blade at any point. Neither side insert may extend from the edge more than 1 in/2.54 cm across the blade at any point. B.6 Commercial identifications These identifications may not exceed 0.008 in/0.02 cm in thickness. On the back of the blade they must occupy no more than 50% of the surface. On the face of the blade, they must be confined within the top 9 in/22.86 cm, measured from where the bottom of the grip as defined in B.2.2 and B.2.4 would finish. B.7 Type D Bats Type D bats, as defined, shall comply with the size specifications and restrictions in Law 5 and this Appendix. The blade in addition may be: B.7.1 laminated but using only wood and with no more than three pieces. B.7.2. coloured, providing Law 5.5 is not contravened. B.8 Bat Gauge All bats that conform to the Laws of Cricket must meet the specifications defined in Law 5.7. They must also, with or without protective coverings permitted in Law 5.4, be able to pass through a bat gauge, the dimensions and shape of which are shown in the diagram on the following page.

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