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Stephen Toulmin May Be Conditions, in B Stephen Toulmin may be conditions, in b. 1922 o\. 'lb~ Harry was born in Ber ject (claim), because i (warrant), as we knov Stephen Edelson Toulmin was born in London and was educated at Cambridge (backing), unless, of University, where he took his undergraduate degree in mathematics and science in Harry has become a na 1942. He served in several capacities during World War II, first as a scientific offi­ Toulmin states thar cer in radar research and development and later in technical intelligence work. After demic disciplines) bee the war, he earned his master's degree in 1946 and his Ph.D. in 1948, both in phi­ same in all fields, eve, losophy at Cambridge . He has held a variety of academic posts, at Oxford Univer­ a qualification (that is, sity, New York University, Brandeis University, Michigan State University, and the ity, says Toulmin, has University of Chicago . After more than twenty years at Chicago, in 1995 he moved lated mathematically, to the University of Southern California. He has published voluminously in the his­ ments depend on warr tory and philosophy of science and has won a number of academic honors . Though depends on the field. T his work on the structure of argument has had tremendous influence as a theory of or irrational than anot~ rhetoric, Toulmin has betrayed little interest in the field, directing his work almost based on stipulated c: exclusively to philosophers . aloof from practical a In The Uses of Argument ( 1958), Toulmin notes that Aristotle conceived of logic problems might be sol as the study of how claims and conclusions of all kinds are proved or justified. But, suggests here. laments Toulmin, logic became instead a highly abstract and formalized system in­ Like Perelman, Toul tended to establish absolute, rational standards for the truth of propositions. Speak­ tional, logical and rhet, ing as a philosopher, Toulmin is distressed by the isolation of logic, by its virtual ir­ ments about value in Ja, relevance to the problems of knowledge in most academic disciplines, and by its ences as well. For ToulJ separation from the practical reasoning that is essential in law, ethics, and daily life. which therefore deserve Chaim Perelman (p. 1372) regrets the Cartesian implication that logic is the only ~\a.I,-,., .......!.) In Human Understa, ---- ground of truth and that probabilistic reasoning is therefore essentially false. Toul­ Thomas Kuhn's thesis i min, taking a different perspective, is concerned that logic itself is a solipsistic ac­ tific knowledge advance tivity, cut off from the real work of human understanding. Toulmin argues that eve To remedy this situation, Toulmin proposes a formal study of practical reason­ change in a discipline. ~ ing, a "logic" of arguments rather than of propositions. In The Uses of Argument relativist standards of (excerpted here), he sets forth a model of the structure of arguments that is remark­ Whereas absolutism em able for its clarity, flexibility, and reasonableness. His purpose in constructing this must be the only grounc model is to demonstrate, first, that most arguments have a more complex structure no standards at all. Touh than the syllogism and, second, that the syllogism misrepresents the very nature of cepts might be studied a argument by its arbitrary restriction to a three-part structure. the arguments that const In Toulmin's scheme, a claim is based on data. Harry (to take Toulmin's ex­ The Uses of Argument, 1 ample) is, we claim, a British subject. We base this claim on data - in this instance, rationality, though he st that Harry was born in Bermuda. To establish the connection between claim and seems clearly called for. data, we may cite a warrant. Thus Harry is a British citizen (claim) by virtue of ject. In his first book, A11 being born in Bermuda (data), because Bermudians are legally British (warrant). uses the term rhetoric to Often, a warrant needs further support, or backing. In Toulmin's example, we place of the terms rheto, would cite British nationality statutes regarding British colonies to back up the war­ reasoning. rant. The claim may have a qualifier, such as surely, likely, or perhaps; that is, it is Toulmin's many boo~ likely that Harry is a British subject for the reasons we have given. Finally, there ology of science, with r 1410 MODERN AND POSTMODERN RHETORIC may be conditions, indicated in the rebuttal, that would suspend the claim. Thus Harry was born in Bermuda (data), and so presumably (qualifier) he is a British sub­ ject (claim), because a person born in Bermuda will generally be a British subject (warrant), as we know from British nationality statutes regarding British colonies s educated at Cambridge (backing), unless, of course, neither of Harry's parents were British subjects or .thematics and science in Harry has become a naturalized citizen of another country (rebuttal). , first as a scientific offi- Toulmin states that his argument model holds across fields (for example, aca­ 1 intelligence work. After demic disciplines) because the "force" of qualifying terms such as probably is the .D. in 1948, both in phi­ same in all fields, even though the specific criteria for determining what counts as posts, at Oxford Univer­ a qualification (that is, what probably means) change from field to field. Probabil­ State University, and the ity, says Toulmin, has the same rational force in an argument whether it is calcu- icago, in 1995 he moved lated mathematically, meteorologically, or in any other way. Similarly, all argu­ voluminously in the his­ ments depend on warrants, though the nature of the warrant in a given argument cademic honors. Though depends on the field. Toulmin concludes that no field is intrinsically more rational influence as a theory of or irrational than another. In every field, including formal logic itself, reasons are irecting his work almost based on stipulated criteria. Toulmin chides traditional logicians for standing aloof from practical ;irgument and further points out that a number of logical stotle conceived of logic problems might be solved by carefully revising the syllogism along the lines he proved or justified. But, suggests here. 1d formalized system in­ Like Perelman, Toulmin regrets the division of reasoning into rational and irra­ t of propositions. Speak­ tional, logical and rhetorical. Both writers try to discover the rationality of argu­ of logic, by its virtual ir­ ments about value in law, aesthetics, morals, and politics; Toulmin includes the sci­ e disciplines, and by its ences as well. For Toulmin as for Perelman, knowledge is the product of argument, 1w, ethics, and daily life. which therefore deserves the attention of philosophers. Jn that logic is the only In Human Understanding (1972), Toulmin has two aims. First, he challenges ! essentially false. Toul ­ Thomas Kuhn's thesis in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970) that scien- itself is a solipsistic ac- tific knowledge advances not by accumulation but by revolutions in world view. Toulmin argues that evolution, not revolution, is the proper model for conceptual ""- '' ~ ~ l,'--' udy of practical reason­ change in a discipline. Second, he analyzes and rejects both the absolutist and the w I ~"'-V",w.- ' The Uses of Argument relativist standards of rationality that have, he claims, dominated philosophy. ""'-~ c.-.. t...~ ·guments that is remark­ Whereas absolutism errs in assuming that there are eternal standards of truth that mse in constructing this must be the only grounds of knowledge, relativism e1Ts in assuming that there are \~ b. I I\ more complex structure no standards at all. Toulmin seeks a middle ground, one where the evolution of con- "" O • !Sents the very nature of cepts might be studied and the concepts themselves judged through an analysis of the arguments that constitute them. Seen as an extension of the concerns raised in (to take Toulmin's ex­ The Uses of Argument, Toulmin's analysis raises the status of argument in defining t data-in this instance, rationality, though he studiously avoids using the word argument, even where it tion between claim and seems clearly called for. Indeed, Toulmin shows little interest in rhetoric as a sub­ :en (claim) by virtue of ject. In his first book, An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1948), he :gaily British (warrant). uses the term rhetoric to refer to emotional statements about ethical principles. In 'oulmin' s example, we place of the terms rhetoric and argument, he clearly prefers the phrase practical ..\i....l--;C-.\ ~ nies to back up the war­ reasoning. or perhaps; that is, it is Toulmin's many books and articles concern the history, philosophy, and soci­ ve given. Finally, there ology of science, with the only exceptions being his textbook Introduction to STEPHEN TOULMIN 1411 Reasoning (1979), based on the argument model in Uses of Argument, and the The Proceedings, first published lecture "Logic and the Criticism of Arguments" (1982; excerpted here). years. In addition, the J In that essay, Toulmin acknowledges the help of American speech communica­ number of articles on , tion scholars in showing him the connection between his work and rhetoric. Here, 1982). too, he abandons the hope that formal logic will wither away, but he calls for a rapprochement between logic and argument in pursuit of the study of practical reasoning. Selected Bibliography From The l The Uses of Argument was published by Cambridge University Press in I 958 and was reprinted in 1964. "Logic and the Criticism of Arguments" was delivered as a lecture at the For the sake of bre University of Michigan in 1982 and was printed in J. Golden et al., The Rhetoric of Western to introduce a technic. Thought (4th ed., 1983). talk of afield of argun Other works by Toulmin include An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics ( 1948), be said to belong to th, Human Understwuiing, Volume I: The Collective Use and Unders1a11di11gof ConceptJ and conclusions in ea (1972), and An 111/roduction to Reasoning (1978), with Richard Rieke and Allan Janik .
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