Agents of Change? Civic Engagement of Western-Educated Youth in Kazakhstan CAP Paper 222, July 2019

Sergey Marinin is an independent researcher, special- ter interim president Tokayev’s ized in politics and democratic governance in Central decision to rename the capital Asia. Most of his career has been connected to the OSCE city to Nur-Sultan yet again with- broader network: he graduated from the OSCE Acade- out consulting the public, young people expressed their disagree- my in Bishkek with an M.A. in Politics and Security in ment online. As more young Ka- Central Asia and worked with OSCE/ODIHR Election zakhstanis have joined this wave Observation missions in Kazakhstan. He was also a Re- of discontent, the country has search Fellow at the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly’s seen a spree of creative youth Secretariat in Copenhagen, where he worked on elec- protests, from a series of online tion observation and human rights issues in Central sketches ridiculing the regime’s Asia. Prior to that, Sergey worked for Kazakhstan’s reaction to peaceful actions like Human Rights Commissioner’s Office as a consultant writing famous slogans on their on the National Preventive Mechanism (NPM) dealing bodies or holding up blank signs with problems of ill-treatment and torture. on public squares (for which the young people involved are still detained). As these examples azakhstan has a signif- develop policies that would bring show, the youth of Kazakhstan icant youth population. considerable social benefits for are coming up with new ways of Over 51 percent of citi- young people. Activities include, K inter alia, social engagement speaking their minds. However, zens are under the age of 29, the the dichotomy between a state vast majority of whom were born with the state through volun- that wants a positively engaged under the rule of the first presi- teerism and social responsibility youth, on the one hand, but does dent of independent Kazakhstan, initiatives. not allow it to peacefully express Nursultan Nazarbayev. Over 25 itself, on the other, has created a percent of the nation’s popula- Although this initiative is well-in- problem with serious repercus- tion are millennials.1 The younger tentioned, it may, ironically, have sions. generation is faced with numer- been jeopardized by the young ous socio-economic challenges, people themselves—who dared, My interest in this paper is in including lack of employment for the first time in a long time, how youth engage in civic and opportunities and job growth, to make their voices heard after social initiatives. I am especially limited social mobility, underrep- Nazarbayev decided to resign concerned with the contribution resentation in the state structures, from the presidency in March. On of Western-educated young peo- and limited space for social and April 21, 2019, two young activists ple to social change. This social political expression. As a step held up a banner at the Almaty group represents a compelling toward tackling this vast array of marathon that read, “You cannot case—with some of them already problems, 2019 was declared the run from the truth,” for which in power, they will have a tremen- “Year of Youth” in Kazakhstan. they both received 15-day prison dous opportunity to shape the The program for this year seeks to terms. Even earlier, in March, af- CAP Fellows Paper 222 1 post-Nazarbayev era, including actors and what they do on the the scope of what comprises civ- by fostering democratic values. ground. Third, it analyzes the en- ic engagement due to the mul- Hence, my research question is: gagement of Western-educated tifaceted nature of the concept How do young Western-educated youth by presenting and inter- and, in our case, the lack of data Kazakhstani young people pro- preting the survey data. on youth’s perception of what mote social change through civic it means to be socially engaged. engagement initiatives? Theoretical Framework However, the main idea is that “[the] active citizen participates To answer this question, I sur- Theorizing Civic/Social Engage- in the life of a community to im- veyed 113 individuals from Ka- ment prove conditions for others or to zakhstan aged 18-35 who ei- help shape the community’s fu- ther received their education In this paper, “civic engagement” ture.”6 or worked abroad (primarily in and “social engagement” (hereaf- Western countries). The sur- ter CSE) will be used interchange- In this research, I employ the vey included questions on the ably. Coming to terms with what notion of a “latent”—also called spheres in which they are civical- constitutes CSE is an arduous “pre-political”—form of civic en- ly engaged, their motivation for process; the scholarly community gagement, a notion developed by participating in such initiatives, contends that this concept is hard Ekman and Amna.7 Their concept factors inhibiting their civic en- to define and to measure. Owing illuminates the hidden tenden- 2 gagement, and how their interna- to “conceptual stretching,” the cies of civic participation in au- tional experience changed their term might include a wide range thoritarian states. The citizenry in perception of the notion of social of activities depending on how non-democratic regimes do many engagement. the notion of “civic” is construed. things that should not necessar- Robert Putnam advocates for a ily be categorized as direct civic The limitations I encountered comparatively all-encompass- engagement leading to political during the project centered on the ing definition, stating that civic involvement or results. However, lack of extended studies on the engagement includes a wide va- they might have strong potential topic of Kazakhstani youth en- riety of actions, from social net- to become political involvement gagement and Western-educated works and political participation or have a particular influence on 3 graduates in particular, as well to newspaper-reading. Other policies. Many young people are as the sample size of the survey. groups of authors give the term engaged in formally non-political A larger sample would have been a more nuanced definition. -In or semi-political domains. This needed to ensure that the study stead of “civic engagement,” they type of activity does not directly was representative. Still, this pa- propose “active citizenship,” put- target the authorities, but it nev- per offers significant insights into ting the focus on collective rather ertheless results in involvement the issue of youth civic engage- than individual action and seeing in current social processes. These ment and the role of Western-ed- civic involvement as being based activities may include volunteer- ucated youth in it. It proceeds on engaging with community is- ing, charity, helping to support as follows. First, it discusses the sues through work in all sectors, vulnerable social groups, educa- 4 theoretical concepts of civic and not only the government. This tion initiatives, or online means social engagement, with a specific could also be described as “col- of engagement (social media ac- focus on the political landscape lective action [that] influences tivities). However, unlike Ekman 5 of Kazakhstan’s authoritarian re- the larger civil society.” Finally, and Amna, I do not draw a line gime and how this affects forms civic involvement as a precursor between “civic” and “social,” as of civic activism. It also touches to political participation involves the two processes produce essen- upon the interplay between the moving individual actions toward tially the same result: involving quality of education and the level collective action solely through young citizens in civic activities. of engagement. Second, the paper the instrumentality of the politi- explores the general environment cal process. Ekman and Amna find the clos- of youth engagement in Kazakh- est equivalent to “latent engage- stan, mapping key youth policy It is a challenge to narrow down ment” in Schudson’s notion of CAP Fellows Paper 222 2 “monitorial citizens” who are in- ment, and volunteering in the system is hobbled by its failure formed about and interested in community (service learning).11 A to develop students’ soft skills. politics yet who generally choose comprehensive study of civic ed- According to the Organization to avoid formal channels of polit- ucation in 28 nations has shown for Economic Cooperation and ical participation. Although they that among the aforementioned Development (OECD) assess- remain active in the civic realm, factors, classroom climate (dis- ment, Kazakhstan’s universi- they act politically only when cussing social and political issues ty-level education lags behind on “they feel it is really imperative.”8 in the classroom freely and open- a multitude of such indicators, I believe these related concepts ly) is the most significant.12 including “cognitive and prac- apply well to the current state of tical skills,” “decision-making,” youth involvement in civic pro- Kazakhstan is making progress and “autonomy,” as well as more cesses in Kazakhstan. toward such academic and ad- complex indicators such as “ad- ministrative freedom. In 2018, vanced knowledge of a field,” How Does Education Influence Nazarbayev signed a bill that “critical understanding of theo- Social Engagement? enshrined these freedoms into ries and principles,” “advanced law. This law goes hand in hand skills demonstrating innovative Better-educated youth contrib- with step 78 of the “100 Concrete approaches to solving unpredict- ute to society in various ways, Steps,” a landmark development able problems,” “reflection,” and including civic activities. An in- strategy designed to allow Ka- “self-regulation.” None are di- dividual’s relative level of educa- zakhstan to achieve its ultimate rectly pursued in the higher ed- tion has a causal effect on his or goal of becoming one of the 30 ucation system of Kazakhstan.15 her level of democratic engage- most developed nations in the This reality is directly relevant to ment.9 Someone who has a com- world by 2050. It gives universi- understanding the progress (or paratively higher level of formal ties almost full control of curricu- lack thereof) of youth’s social in- education than others in a given la formation, as well as the ability volvement. The absence of these social setting enjoys higher so- to select which majors to offer on soft skills from both local univer- cial status. This means that the the basis of market demand rath- sity curricula and extracurricular more educated individual is bet- er than the state’s priorities (as activities reflects the absence of ter equipped to convey a political they were historically selected). a “classroom climate” or general message, thus making it more This is undoubtedly a positive critical engagement with material likely that he or she will become step toward greater transparency within the local system of higher politically involved. and healthy competition among education. Hence, my hypothe- universities that will improve the sis is that Western-educated Ka- The interplay between the lev- quality of higher education and zakhstani youth should be more el and quality of education and enhance academic freedom. socially engaged. younger generations’ involve- ment in civic activities might Higher education enrollment Alternative Forms of Youth En- seem obvious—education univer- and literacy rates are also trend- gagement sally brings improvements to all ing upward. All in all, 496,209 forms of engagement.10 Though people were enrolled in Kazakh- Informal modes of youth activism it is difficult to identify specific stan’s higher education insti- typically originate in an authori- variables that cause more edu- tutions in 2017/2018, of whom tarian and repressive milieu. Re- cated individuals to participate females comprised 54.3 percent gimes that inhibit civil freedoms at a higher level, some of the (n=269,649).13 The number of encourage new types of action, main factors are development of students increased by 4 percent especially in the online realm. So- bureaucratic competence, civic in 2018. The adult literacy rate cial media and online platforms skills, cognitive capacity, curric- (15+ years) of Kazakhstanis is alike create more space for youth ulum (also known as “classroom 99.8 percent, an improvement activism and involvement than climate”), student government, over the 1989 figure of 97.5 per- do major political institutions. habits of associational involve- cent.14 However, the education The former serves not only as a

CAP Fellows Paper 222 3 modern Habermasian “public contributions, rely on various country’s youth policy landscape sphere,” but also as a primary forms of internet and new media includes many joint “State-IO” setting for youth involvement in technologies. Other forms of civic projects or more independent consuming, discussing, circulat- engagement, namely issue-based youth projects backed solely by ing, distributing, and producing activism (a form of activism mo- IOs. Non-institutionalized struc- content.16 Social media offer new tivated by specific issues such as tures are also present and func- modes of engagement and remain environment or gender issues, tion on the Internet, targeting a a safe venue for dialogue between etc.), lifestyle politics, and iden- younger audience. The state like- youths. Social media have signif- tity politics have been on the rise wise realizes the necessity of uti- icant potential to become a pow- among Western youth as well.19 lizing younger generations, so the erful tool for further increasing However, it is not clear if the Salem Social Media agency, led civic and political participation. Kazakhstani younger generation by the former press secretary of necessarily participates in all of the Nur Otan presidential party, Another driving force behind the these. Aleksandr Aksyutits, has recent- emergence of unconventional ly become a significant player youth activism is disillusionment Mapping the Youth Engage- on the Internet scene, attracting with the country’s current politi- ment Environment in Ka- some famous bloggers to boost cal trajectory and lack of trust in zakhstan the apolitical agenda among the politicians. Today’s youth tends young, marginalizing creators of to withdraw from institutional The spectrum of actors in the political content online.20 activities because the authori- field of Kazakhstan’s youth poli- ties are not receptive to younger cy is quite diverse, and the state The Kazakhstani regime generations’ demands and be- is the dominant one. The govern- conceptualizes its youth policies cause young people consider pol- ment devises youth engagement through the State Youth Policy itics “remote and irrelevant.”17 strategies, directs state policies Act of 2015 as well as presidential If conventional means do not to meet youth’s “gut issues” (such messages and state strategies. work, they resort to new modes as employment and housing), etc. The latest strategy—“Kazakhstan of expression that are “less pro- It also welcomes investment in 2020: Path to the Future,” adopted fessionalized and controlled.”18 Kazakhstan’s human capital on in 2013—was a predecessor of the These activities, ranging from the part of international orga- Youth Act and laid down the main community service to charitable nizations (IOs). As a result, the mechanisms for implementing

Table 1. Forms of youth activism in Kazakhstan

Pro-government Sponsored by international Informal structures organizations/ donor foundations • Mainly aimed at • Looser in regulation • Mostly in online spaces, social troubleshooting young • Higher quality media, and video platforms people’s socio-economic • More effective in terms of • Least regulated; may be problems civic engagement completely unregulated • Patriotic and accountable • Initiatives include Zhas Camp, to state initiatives Youth Corps, Y-Peer, AIESEC, • Social volunteerism etc.

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research

CAP Fellows Paper 222 4 youth policies. For the first time, due to the state paternalistic— and AIESEC. These types of the law increased the involvement rather than “equal partner”— initiatives are supported by of young people in the work of approach. The authorities engage international organizations and consultative and advisory bodies. in propagandistic and ideological NGOs, international foundations, The law also defined volunteerism mobilization instead of welcoming and embassies. The mentioned as “community service” not self-starters and proactive youth organizations deal with a broad affiliated with any political or leaders, with the result that they range of youth activities, such religious organizations.21 One of do a poor job of raising awareness as informal peer education, the law’s key aims is to engage of their initiatives and increasing leadership and soft skills youth in the socio-economic and their visibility. Moreover, state development, volunteerism, and socio-political life of the country.22 initiatives in practice neglect professional and entrepreneurial The law generally focuses on the the rural youth population. exchanges between youth social realm—chiefly education, Administrative organs coerce and experts in the business health, employment, and business students to attend various pro- community. activities, countering corruption, state events or listen to yearly nurturing “green thinking,” and presidential messages that do not Non-institutionalized social fostering patriotic sentiments.23 inspire youth to engage. Funding engagement, on the other hand, for social engagement activities is has been driven primarily These multiple strategies for allocated through the main pro- by issue-based activism and engaging youth with state entities state youth organizations, Zhas informal modes of social and addressing youth social Otan and Zhas Ulan, creating influence. Traditional forms problems evolved into the 2019 corruption risks and limiting of youth engagement (voting, Year of Youth. For the time being, de-centralization. The sporadic participation in political parties) it is the overarching framework character of youth policies also are falling, especially in the within which for the government makes them a comparatively industrialized world.27 A recent to work with the younger ineffective strategy for tackling large-scale study of Kazakh population. Its key priorities— youth engagement. As Irina youth showed that the majority education, employment, Mednikova, Director of the of young people are indifferent affordable housing, support for Youth Information Service of to politics and barely vote.28 young families—mainly target Kazakhstan, notes: Mutual distrust between the state the basic social problems. The and the younger generation is state has for instance initiated […] it is quite possible that this leading youth to evade formal multiple programs for supporting year will only be a sedative to modes of interaction with classic youth entrepreneurial activities systemic wounds of youth policy to institutions. Many young people and business start-ups. The prevent the growth of discontent therefore prefer the less-regulated and radicalization of this large and project’s roadmap also prioritizes online space, where they can be active social group. But I always say social activism, namely tree- that young people need freedom and freer to express themselves in planting campaign—based on the participation in decision-making. various forms. While the majority “Zhasyl Yel” (“Green Nation”) Only then do they become a resource of young Kazakhs do not follow national green movement—and for the state, not a problem.25 political content, they are not the re-creation of construction indifferent to what is happening brigades and military-patriotic Independent and international in their country. In fact, according education.24 donor-funded activism has to a recent public opinion study been less voluminous but more conducted among the capital city State efforts to engage the effective than that of the state, youth, 54.7 percent of surveyed younger generation on according to “Youth Mapping” young people said they “feel the ground run up against research conducted in five active about” their community. countless problems. Youth’s post-Soviet states in 2018.26 When asked about the possibility responsiveness to the myriad Prominent projects include of participating in a socially- government projects is very low ZhasCamp, Youth Corps, Y-Peer, driven protest, 44.2 percent

CAP Fellows Paper 222 5 responded positively.29 These still is—a vision of Kazakhstan’s presumptuous. The Kazakhstani figures indicate that semi-civic future, a Western-values-driven elite’s political disposition toward attitudes may have the potential approach to nurturing people liberal ideas is quite moderate; to transform into political action with “less blinkered vision.” modernization without in the future. The program was established to “excessive” Westernization is support the entry of independent perceived as the most desirable The Case of Western- Kazakhstan’s new generation outcome.32 The so-called Educated Youth Engagement into the globalized world “Bolashak generation” imports in Kazakhstan and overcome “Soviet-style” more technocratic approaches anachronisms in education.30 In than democratic values and is Having observed a tendency 2010, Kazakhstan became part tightly controlled both at home toward pre-political behavior of the Bologna process, with a and abroad.33 among Kazakhstan’s youth, let us view to drawing even closer to now turn to look at how Western- the developed world. This move In this study, I attempt to educated Kazakhstanis perceive recognized the excellence of look at some aspects of civic civic engagement and understand Western science and education. engagement—social/civic their place in it. It should be noted Then-president Nazarbayev even initiatives, volunteerism, and at the outset that it is difficult to concluded in a 2006 speech that charity work—and how Western- locate Western-educated young “[the] Soviet education system is educated youth are involved in people in the heterogeneous pool archaic and poses a danger to the them. For this purpose, I designed of civic activities because they security of the [Kazakh] nation a survey comprised of 16 open are dispersed across all listed and the state.”31 and multiple-choice questions. categories. The survey does not specify the However, to assert that scope and definitions of the The creation of the “Bolashak” Kazakhstan’s Western-educated categories mentioned, as I wanted study-abroad program in 1993 youth wholeheartedly support to explore how respondents was—and to a certain extent liberal values would be too understand what it means to be

Figure 1. Location of education and/or training

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research CAP Fellows Paper 222 6 socially/civically engaged. I also On average, respondents had In terms of respondents’ current looked into specific factors that spent 33.6 months abroad. In residence in Kazakhstan, two hamper the civic engagement terms of ethnic composition, main locations were named: of Western-educated youth. 85.9 percent (n=97) of the Astana (n=43) and Almaty Finally, I analyzed how Western- sample were Kazakhs, 9.7 (n=32). Twenty-two respondents style education influences percent belonged to other ethnic were in other cities (n=22), respondents’ civic and social groups (n=11), and 4.4 percent while 16 declined to indicate engagement (CSE). of respondents did not indicate their current place of residence their ethnic background (n=5). (n=16)—see Figure 2. For the purposes of this study, I The overwhelming majority of define Western-educated youth respondents had studied abroad The plurality of respondents work as young people aged 18 to 35 who (67.2 percent/n=76), another in the public and quasi-public have received a higher education 25.7 percent (n=29) had both sector (n=47), followed by the degree, work experience, or studied and interned abroad, private sector (n=33). The main practical training in Western-style 6.2 percent (n=7) had solely had sectors in which respondents are academic settings and/or Western internships/training abroad, employed are shown in Figure 3. countries, predominantly and 0.9 percent (n=1) had both those in the European Union/ studied and worked abroad. When asked how they obtained European Economic Area (EU/ their education and/or training EEA) or North America. A total of As Figure 1 shows, the vast experience, the Bolashak program 113 participants were involved in majority of respondents obtained dominated (n=56), followed by the survey: 65 females, 47 males, their training and education in other scholarships (n=56) and and one non-binary individual. the EU/EEA. self-financing (n=17).

Figure 2. Current geographic distribution in Kazakhstan

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research

CAP Fellows Paper 222 7 Figure 3. Employment by sector

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research

Figure 4. Factors inhibiting CSE

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research CAP Fellows Paper 222 8 In response to the question of rather indicative, as it shows • The “classroom climate” whether they took part in any respondents’ predisposition in the West—an educational social, civic, charity, or volunteer toward future civic action. Among environment where students activity in addition to their main the main factors inhibiting and instructors could informally job, 50 respondents answered respondents’ CSE were four key and freely discuss social and in the affirmative against 63 reasons, displayed in Figure 4. political issues pertaining to their who responded in the negative. countries; Comparing these numbers to Among “other” responses, people • Comparison of their how respondents received their expressed fear of engagement experiences at home and abroad, education revealed that Bolashak and concerns about a lack of which motivated them to change graduates are slightly more freedom of speech or freedom of things up; involved in CSE organizations expression. • Conceptual and critical than those who received other understanding of how civic scholarships or self-financed, with Returning to the theoretical initiatives influence public Bolashak graduates representing premise that education level has institutions; and 28 of the 50 respondents who a causal effect on CSE, the survey • Participation in CSE participated in CSE activities. revealed that the overwhelming organizations abroad and majority of respondents (n=95) willingness to transfer best To the question “Do you consider think that their experience and practices to Kazakhstan. it important to participate in education abroad had a significant the civic life of the country?” impact on their understanding Some of the respondents gave a significant majority—96 of of what it means to be socially rather encompassing descrip- 113 participants—responded engaged. tions of what prompted them to positively; seven responded Positive responses to this engage in CSE upon returning to negatively and nine did not question clustered around several Kazakhstan: answer. This number is experiences. These included:

Figure 5. Has your international education/work experience improved your understanding of civic engagement?

Source: Compiled by the author on the basis of research

CAP Fellows Paper 222 9 It seems to me that the issue is about ing volunteer initiatives and the engagement expressed in theory people, international environment, sense of belonging to a communi- is reflected in the Kazakhstani cultural differences. In my particular ty rather than being indifferent to realities on the ground. West- case, my professors, classmates, their social problems: ern-educated youth are engaged arguments, and our joint discussions in a variety of activities, not all of influenced me profoundly [...] We Participation in the development of talked a lot about the values that the which can be categorized as di- urban or state public policy through EU promotes within itself and in the rect civic engagement. Many of the expression of ideas, opinions, world. I think that encouraged me to them are in a latent form. Howev- and suggestions. For example, taking reflect on the values in Kazakhstan’s er, this hidden, unsystematic, and part in the construction of your society and my contribution to it.34 pre-political participation can residential neighborhood common lead to relatively explicit and po- area, housing estate, etc.38 Others noted their participa- litical demands, as demonstrated tion in initiatives abroad and by the unprecedented mass youth Many of this group’s civically en- explained that this transformed protests that preceded and fol- gaged youth suggested that CSE their psyche: lowed the presidential elections should involve creating a safe and of June 2019. inclusive platform, or feedback Active participation in a volunteer channel, for discussing and pro- student organization in the US gave The results of this study revealed posing solutions to the leading me a sense of [satisfaction] and skill that although Western-educat- development. I grasped the idea of societal challenges. 35 ed youth engage in social and what a community is. civic initiatives only on a limit- The second group focused more ed basis, they do engage. Young I understand that I can make positive heavily on the civic/political nex- people readily contribute to ed- changes at the local level, at my us, mainly the issues of protect- ucational, charitable, and volun- own level. Maybe these changes are ing human rights, exerting more teer activities, as well as to some not grand, but they benefit specific pressure on state bodies through human rights initiatives. They people, and I receive feedback the democratic mechanism of from [them]. It brings deep human do not perceive themselves as an self-organization, standing up for satisfaction.36 opposition force, but rather seek social rights, and exercising the opportunities within the estab- right to vote. Importantly, some Some respondents highlighted lished political order to increase respondents did not associate the issue of values—the value of social justice, promote respect for civic initiatives with the political human capital abroad, respect human rights, strive for the bet- opposition, stating that “civi[c] for individual freedoms, and how terment of society, and get their activity in Kazakhstan is often the lack thereof in Kazakhstan in- voices heard by decision-making confused with the opposition fluenced their perception of civic bodies. This vision of cooperation while it is not.”39 involvement: rather than confrontation is chal- lenging the established Western The majority of responses cen- In the West, a person is valued view that active youth civic en- tered on the importance of being primarily as an individual. Human gagement equates to opposition an active and responsible citizen dignity is praised there. And I liked to the state. this attitude; I wanted to make life who is not indifferent to the prob- brighter in Kazakhstan too.37 lems of his or her local communi- The survey also showcased the ty and society in general, and who receptiveness of this cohort to To the question of “How do you is not only active online but also change, and these young peo- understand the notion of social contributes to positive change of- ple are fairly likely to participate or civic engagement?,” respons- fline. in efforts to bring such change es took two main directions. The about. The regime, preoccupied first group—those in favor of so- Conclusion as it is with the transfer of pow- cial change—underscored the so- er and maintaining its stability, is cietal needs, primarily mention- The multifaceted nature of civic

CAP Fellows Paper 222 10 not particularly interested in giv- education; Notes ing free rein to youth civic activ- • Create university-based ism, let alone developing strong research centers that would 1 Marlene Laruelle, “Nazarbayev civic institutions. That is why the provide evidence-based models Generation. Kazakhstan’s Youth, space for youth social expression of civic engagement; National Identity Transformations and their Political Consequences,” remains minimal, and the state • Collaborate with international Voices on Central Asia, March 21, will probably continue to react donor organizations that 2019, http://voicesoncentralasia. quite harshly to uncontrolled dis- specialize in higher education to org/nazarbayev-generation-kazakh- plays of youth civic activism. support such research centers; stans-youth-national-identity-trans- and formations-and-their-political-con- Recommendations • Facilitate networking among sequences/. Western-educated alumni. 2 Joakim Ekman and Erik Amnå, Given this challenging political “Political Participation and Civic context—including the domi- Engagement: Towards a New nance of the state over virtually Typology,” Human Affairs 22, no. 3 (2012). doi:10.2478/s13374-012- all socio-political domains—and 0024-1. based on the research findings at 3 Ibid. hand, I propose that the Minis- 4 Richard P. Adler and Judy try of Education of the Re- Goggin, “What Do We Mean By public of Kazakhstan: ‘Civic Engagement’?” Journal of Transformative Education • Develop a campus-based 3, no. 3 (2005): 236-53, 238. university peer-learning pilot doi:10.1177/1541344605276792. 5 Ibid., 238. program that would employ 6 recent Kazakhstani graduates Aelita Skarzauskiene, Agne Tvaronaviciene, and Gintare of Western universities as Parazinskaite, “Cyber Security instructors to promote civic and Civil Engagement: Case of engagement through training in Lithuanian Virtual Community communication skills, critical Projects,” European Conference on thinking, and leadership. A Cyber Warfare and Security, July curriculum development and 2014, 181. oversight committee created 7 Ekman and Amna, “Political together with a Ministry Participation and Civic Engagement.” representative and comprised 8 of faculty members, a Bolashak Ibid, 288. 9 Richard Desjardins and Tom administrator, and more senior Schuller, eds., “Measuring alumni of Western universities the Effects of Education on would select these graduates Health and Civic Engagement: based on their proven track record Proceedings of the Copenhagen of leadership and engagement Symposium,” OECD, 2006, www. with civic initiatives. oecd.org/education/innovation- education/37437718.pdf, 39. I further recommend that uni- 10 Ibid. 11 versity management: Ibid., 28. 12 Ibid. 13 “Vysshie uchebnye zavedeniia • Increase partnerships with Respubliki Kazakhstan na nachalo Western universities and their 2017/2018 uchebnogo goda,” recent graduates to support accessed May 2, 2019, https:// the teaching of civic and www.zakon.kz/4900658-vysshie- social responsibility in higher uchebnye-zavedeniya-respubliki.

CAP Fellows Paper 222 11 html. molodezhi-18098. 34 Author’s survey. 14 “World Data Atlas, Kazakhstan - 25 Youth Information Service 35 Ibid. Adult (15+) Literacy Rate,” accessed of Kazakhstan (YISK), “God 36 Ibid. May 1, 2019, https://knoema. molodyozhi: na chto potratiat 37 Ibid. com/atlas/Kazakhstan/topics/ milliardy iz gosbiudzheta?” 38 Ibid. Education/Literacy/Adult-literacy- February 15, 2019, accessed March 39 Ibid. rate. 28, 2019, https://misk.org.kz/ 15 Higher Education in Kazakhstan events/1e04c257-5b1b-4792-b681- 2017: Reviews of National Policies 4c4fad922e84/. for Education (Paris: OECD 26 Ksenia Bondal, “Kto sozdaet Publishing, 2017), 90. kachestvennye programmy razvitiia 16 Annika Bergström and Maria molodezhi?” Kapital.KZ, October Jervelycke Belfrage, “News in Social 10, 2018, https://kapital.kz/ Media,” Digital Journalism 6, no. 5 gosudarstvo/73050/kto-sozdaet- (2018): 583-98. doi:10.1080/21670 kachestvennye-programmy- 811.2018.1423625. razvitiya-molodezhi.html. 17 Hilary Pilkington and Gary 27 David E. Campbell, “What Is Pollock, “‘Politics Are Bollocks’: Education’s Impact on Civic and Youth, Politics and Activism in Social Engagement?” In “Measuring Contemporary Europe,” The the Effects of Education on Health Sociological Review 63, no. and Civic Engagement. Proceedings 2 Supplement (2015): 1-35. of the Copenhagen Symposium, doi:10.1111/1467-954x.12260, 2. Copenhagen, 2006, accessed 18 Ibid. March 4, 2019, http://www. 19 Weiyu Zhang, “Redefining oecd.org/education/innovation- Youth Activism through Digital education/37437718.pdf, 39. Technology in Singapore,” 28 T. Umbetaliyeva et al., Youth in International Communication Central Asia: Kazakhstan. Based Gazette 75, no. 3 (2013): 253-70. on a Sociological Survey (Almaty: doi:10.1177/1748048512472858, Friedrich Ebert Foundation 254. Kazakhstan, 2016), 144. 20 Colleen Wood, “In Central Asia, 29 Talgat Kaliyev et al., “Life Politics by Way of Social Media,” Satisfaction and Sentiment of The Diplomat, February 22, 2019, Modern Youth in Astana (According https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/ to the Results of Sociological in-central-asia-politics-by-way-of- Research),” Kazakhstan-Spektr 2 social-media/. (84) (2018): 87. 21 Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan 30 Dossym Satpayev et al., Molotov “On State Youth Policy” (as Cocktail: The Anatomy of Kazakh amended on June 13, 2018), Youth (Almaty: Konrad Adenauer accessed April 4, 2019, https:// Stiftung, 2014), 33. online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_ 31 Ibid., 35. id=31661446#pos=3;-156. 32 Douglas W. Blum, The Social 22 Ibid, https://online. Process of Globalization: Return zakon.kz/document/?doc_ Migration and Cultural Change in id=31661446#pos=62;-45. Kazakhstan (Cambridge: Cambridge 23 Ibid. University Press, 2015). 24 Prime Minister of the Republic 33 Adele Del Sordi, “Sponsoring of Kazakhstan, “Dorozhnaia karta Student Mobility for Development po provedeniiu goda molodezhi,” and Authoritarian Stability: March 26, 2019, accessed April 1, Kazakhstan’s Bolashak Programme,” 2019, https://primeminister.kz/ Globalizations 15, no. 2 (2017): 215- ru/news/infographics/dorozhnaya- 31. doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.140 karta-po-provedeniu-goda- 3780.

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