Journal ofmedical ethics, 1989, 15, 39-44 J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from

Moral theories Voluntarism and realism in medieval ethics

John Haldane University ofSt Andrews, Scotland

Author's abstract tradition. The reference to medieval ethics in the title, therefore, is not to a movement whose members were In contrast to other articles in this series on the history of united by their common view ofthe nature ofmorality. moral philosophy the present essay is not devoted to Rather it indicates a period in the history ofphilosophy expounding the views ofa single author, or to examining a roughly bounded by the birth of Scotus Erigena 'John particular moral theory. Instead it discusses an important the Scot' (c 800-870) and the death ofNicholas ofCusa dispute between two medieval accounts ofthe relation (1401-1464) during which a wide range of moral between theological and moral propositions. theories was developed. In addition to its historical interest this debate is Of course, there is one crucially important common important both because it connects earlier and later ethical thread running through Western medieval philosophy: thought - being influenced by Greek moral theories and the assumption of the truth of the central doctrines of influencingsubsequentEuropeanphilosophy - and because Judaeo-Christianity. The religious dimension is of it concerns issues that remain important to philosophers and general relevance when trying to understand thecopyright. to those who claim that their ethical beliefs are dictated by concerns of writers in this era and has particular religious convictions. significance for the present attempt to explain the fundamental division among moral theories of the 'The point which I should first wish to understand is period. The latter task is also helped by looking to whether the pious or holy is beloved by the gods Plato. The main point at issue among the medievals because it is holy, or holy because it is beloved of the was the relation between morality and religion; gods.' between the moral character ofa person, action or statehttp://jme.bmj.com/ Plato. Euthyphro lOa of affairs and God's attitude to these things. And the philosophical problem this raises is easily and acutely I stated in a form derived from Socrates's question to Moral philosophy is not much older than Plato and Euthyphro quoted above: Does God love and certainly the Dialogues present the first systematic command what is good because it is good, or is it good attempt to grasp the nature of moral truth. This gives because God loves and commands it?

them one kind of priority among ethical writings but Those who asserted the latter are thereby known as on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected they also enjoy primacy on two other counts. They are Voluntarists from the Latin voluntas, (inclination or philosophically great works which raise and discuss will): they claim that God's inclination and will give most ofthe fundamental problems that have concerned things their moral status. Those who argue for the subsequent thinkers, and relatedly, they have been former contrary thesis are best described as Realists more influential than other philosophical writings. since they hold that ethical propositions are true or Accordingly, when trying to make sense of unfamiliar false in virtue of how things are in reality ideas in the history of the subject it is always worth independently of what attitudes anyone has towards asking: How do these thoughts relate to Plato's them - including those of God Himself. concerns? Since often what is at issue is a problem The interest of this dispute in the present context is introduced with great clarity in one of the Dialogues. threefold. Firstly, it was important in shaping moral This is certainly the case with the topic to be philosophy in the intervening period between Classical discussed here. Unlike other essays in this series this antiquity and the Modern age and has had considerable article is not concerned with the ideas of a single influence on subsequent ethical, political, legal and thinker, nor even with those of a single philosophical theological thought. Secondly, while in general, religious belief has declined dramatically since the middle ages it is apparent that Christians are among the Key words most active and committed participants in Voluntarism; ethical realism; medieval moral philosophy; contemporary discussion ofmatters ofsocial and moral religious ethics; naturalism. concern, for example defence policy, foreign aid and 40 Moral theories: Voluntarism and realism in medical ethics J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from sexual and medical ethics and it is usual for them to in a certain manner. Inhaling solvents causes damage relate their views on these issues (and their practice) to to cells thereby impairing the proper functioning ofthe what they believe to be the will of God. Thirdly, human body with the result that the addict is unable to consideration of the Euthyphro dilemma and of realise his or her natural potential. These empirical medieval responses to it quickly leads one beyond its facts explain why glue-sniffing is a bad practice, a theological dimension to a position from which one can vicious habit, and are evidence for the normative see that what underly this issue are a set of problems judgement that it ought not to be engaged in. not only for religious ethics but for moral philosophy For Aquinas, therefore, the moral vocabulary and generally, chief among which is that of giving account the propositions into which it enters have their proper of the relationship between ethical judgements and the foundation in non-moral descriptions of the created various non-moral claims which are taken to support order. Of course without God there would be no them. creation and ipso facto no moral truths concerning the behaviour of parts of it. In the sense in which He is the II author of all things, therefore, God is the author of In regard to the first point of interest the three main morality. For He ordains the ends of His creatures. contributors to the voluntarism/realism dispute belong to the classical period of medieval philosophy. They 'Since all natural things have been directed by a certain are: St Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274); Duns Scotus natural inclination toward their ends by the first (1266-1308); and William of Ockham (1290-1350). mover, God, whatever is willed or intended by God is Each was a major figure who made important that to which everything is naturally inclined. But contributions to various branches of the subject and inasmuch as God's will can have no other end than who viewed philosophy as essentially systematic, with Himself, and he is essentially goodness, everything the corollaries that their views on ethics are best must be naturally inclined to good' (2). understood in the context of a study of their overall philosophies and that the differences between them Nonetheless, God does not ordain moral facts with regard to the character of morality are paralleled independently of this general creative activity. The elsewhere, for example in their theories of knowledge teleology or proper pattern of development of an copyright. and of the nature of reality in general. In the present organism is both necessary and sufficient to establish circumstance, however, it is possible to illuminate the the set of values appropriate to it independently of central elements of their moral philosophies by whatever attitude God might subsequently adopt. As following the order of their lives and taking the the quoted passage indicates, Aquinas maintains that position advanced by Aquinas as providing a starting God is Himself essentially good and that He makes point and background for the voluntarist/realist. they creatures such that in their perfected state http://jme.bmj.com/ III participate in His glory. From this St Thomas Since Aquinas' moral theory is itself the subject of concludes that it would be contrary to the nature of another essay in this series (1) I shall simply indicate God to command creatures to behave in ways harmful something of its general character as this bears upon to them (3) and thus he is able to claim that the two the issue of Divine Commands. Firstly, then, his view expressions: is naturalist, teleological and eudaimonistic. That is to say he argues for an account ofmoral value as consisting in a) 'That which is good', and the obtaining of a state ofaffairs in which one's activity b) 'That which God commands', on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected is in accord with the perfection of one's nature qua human being. The natural end of human life is are necessarily co-extensive, ie apply to all and only the participation in the life ofGod through a beatific vision same things. Where he differs from the voluntarist is in of Him but this involves the perfection of every aspect denying that a) and b) are co-intensive ie have the same of human nature: intellectual, emotional, social and meaning. God commands benevolence but its organic. Thus questions about the conduct oflife are to goodness is logically independent of this fact. Were be answered by reference to the character of human He, contrary to His own benevolent nature, to will that flourishing. Those things are good which promote our murder be done this would be wrong and His belief natural well-being and thereby lead to perfect that murder is good would be false. Thus Divine happiness. Correspondingly, evil consists in the Commands do not serve to create moral features but to impediment of life's progress - and at worst its disclose them to creatures whose ignorance oftheir own destruction. nature and of what best befits it would otherwise lead In the terms ofthe dispute Aquinas is clearly a realist them to harm themselves (4). since he takes the truth of moral propositions to be Aquinas's moral philosophy has much to commend wholly determined by the natural facts which obtain it and his response to the Euthyphro dilemma is subtle. independently of anyone's conception of them. Given Indeed this version of realism came to be widely the existence of any being with a natural constitution, adopted in the following centuries in conscious it is a determinate and wholly objective fact whether or opposition to voluntarism. There are, however, not it is good for it to be in a certain state or to behave problems facing both the general position of ethical Haldane 41 John J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from naturalism and its theological implications. These objectively fixed by nature (10). This attempt to trace difficulties are best approached by turning to the work a via media is perhaps ultimately incoherent and of Scotus who knew and was partly critical of St collapses into one or other of the opposing positions Thomas's moral theory. but it introduces some interesting and important ideas. Firstly, Scotus points out that ethical naturalism IV may explain why actions, character traits, etc, are good Like Aquinas, Scotus argues that the natural or bad, virtuous or vicious but it seems unable to account constitution of things establishes a range of values for for such features of morality as requirements, them and that while God could act to eliminate the prohibitions and duties. By studying human teleology goodness ofintellectual endeavour or friendship, say - one may derive reasons in favour or against a particular for he has absolute power (potentia absoluta), this could action but this kind of thinking seems to belong to the only be done by destroying the actual natural order in province of prudence and to concern what is naturally virtue of which these features are good. This good (naturaliter bonus) rather than to be strictly moral suggestion goes some way to meeting the theological deliberation, the proper object of which is obligation. claim, which is the principle support of voluntarism, The gap between natural value and duty is bridged in that by His will God can achieve all things. However, Scotus's theory by the Divine Will: if and only if God it is neither adequate nor appropriate as an explanation commands it does an action which it would in any case of those episodes related in Judaeo-Christian Scripture be good to perform become obligatory (likewise God's in which God is presented as dispensing with the command is necessary and sufficient to render a bad natural moral law (lex naturalis) and commanding action prohibited). actions apparently at odds with it. The two cases most This thought is both clever and philosophically frequently discussed by medieval authors are God's fruitful. It makes good a deficiency in Aquinas's ethical command to Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac (5) and naturalism by providing an explanation of duty. It His order to the Israelites to despoil the Egyptians (6), remains fundamentally realist in claiming that while in which it seems He prescribes murder and theft. the deontological form and binding force of moral In discussion ofthe second example Aquinas appeals requirements derive from God's will yet their content to the notion ofmutatio materiae (7). Ethical naturalism is provided by the objective good for man. It shows thecopyright. proposes that values are properties of properties, that necessity of revelation, as reason alone can only is: they are features which supervene, or are determine the value ofactions and not whether they are consequent upon natural characteristics ofthings. This commanded. And finally, it allows the possibility of supervenience thesis implies that if two things are alike Divine dispensations, since God can choose on some in all their natural properties they are alike also in their occasions not to command a good action or prohibit a moral qualities, and that if something ceases to exhibit bad one and thereby deprive them of their customary a moral feature it also has changed with regard to its obligatory status. http://jme.bmj.com/ natural characteristics. The possibility mentioned Notwithstanding its merits, however, this qualified above of God's making false some particular claim, for naturalism is no better placed than Aquinas's appeal to example about the value of friendship, by destroying mutatio materiae to explain cases in which God is the world is a dramatic and limiting case of the latter presented as entirely transforming the moral character implication of the supervenience thesis. Clearly, of an action; not merely ceasing to command the good though it is not appropriate to invoke this possibility in but apparently commanding the bad. It is in order to explanation of how God was able, in the cases quoted,

account for these episodes that Scotus introduces a on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected to dispose with the natural law precepts against murder second important (though less plausible) idea which and theft. However, a logically similar move can be involves a further move in the direction ofvoluntarism. made by means of mutatio materiae; the proposal Scotus assumes that the basic principles of the natural being that while the prohibition against stealing law which are ascertainable by reason and are also another's property still obtains, God has the power to given (with added deontological force) through change the circumstances of an action so that what revelation are necessary truths. Thus he concludes that would otherwise have been theft is rendered in all possible worlds it is wrong to commit murder and permissible - though it retains the appearance of not even God can dispense with this fact. robbery. In the particular case of the Israelites despoiling the Egyptians the usual suggestion is that the mutatio involved the transfer by God of property '[The primary precepts of the law of nature] are either which is truly His from one group to the other (8). necessary principles [ethical axioms] known through Ingenious as this response may be, Scotus perceives understanding their terms, or conclusions following its implausibility as an explanation of all the problem from them by [logical] necessity. But in one way or cases presented by Scripture (9) where the material another they possess necessary truth. Therefore, God character ofwhat God wills is no different from actions cannot make them to be false. Therefore, He cannot which reason judges are naturally bad. Accordingly he make what they command to be done to be good, and tries to show how God has the power to dispense with what they prohibit, not to be evil; and consequently, certain moral requirements while retaining the basic He cannot make such forbidden cases to be permitted' assumption of ethical realism, viz, that values are (11). 42 Moral theories: Voluntarism and realism in medical ethics J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from

The argument can be presented simply as follows: much the highest rule of righteousness that whatever He wills by the very fact that He wills it, must be 1) God cannot perform a logically impossible feat. considered righteous' (13). No writer other than 2) It is logically impossible to make a contradiction Ockham, however, has produced such powerful true. theological and philosophical arguments for 3) The negation of an ethical axiom, for example voluntarism and anyone disposed to reject it must take murder is wrong (thus: it is not the case that murder is account of these. wrong), is a contradiction. The central assumption of Ockham's case against 4) Therefore, God cannot dispense with, ie negate, ethical realism is that God is omnipotent and free to ethical axioms. will (and thereby bring about) whatever He chooses. Certainly God cannot do what is logically contradictory Ockham solves the problem presented by the Biblical but this is not a limitation on His part. Any statement cases by denying this conclusion but as we shall see this purporting to be a description of God's performing a involves an unacceptable cost. Scotus meanwhile logically impossible feat is itself a contradiction and, accepts premises 1) -3) and the conclusion they entail, therefore, not possibly true. For example, to say that it but suggests that there is a broader conception of the is logically impossible that 2 + 2 = 5 is to say that there natural law in which it includes, as well as axioms and is no possible world in which 2 + 2 = 5. If God could their logical consequences, a number of secondary do the logically impossible then the following precepts which while being 'consonant' (sic) with the statement could be true: God made a world in which 2 + former are logically distinct from them and are not 2 = 5 and there is no possible world in which 2 + 2 = 5. themselves necessary truths (11). However, this statement is contradictory and hence Consequently no contradiction is involved in could never be true; consequently it is simply negating one of these and ipso facto it is within God's incoherent to suppose that anyone, even God, could power to do so if He chooses. Scotus discusses the achieve the logically impossible. example of private ownership and suggests that while For Ockham, then, God can do anything that is not this may be good in some circumstances it is not contradictory. Moral propositions he contends are not absolutely so and hence God may require that someone necessary, ie unlike Aquinas and Scotus he argues that copyright. be deprived oftheir property. Thereby an action which there is no incoherence in supposing that murder would otherwise have been bad is made good. should be done - the concepts involved in this thought It is important to recognise that the distinction are not contradictory. One may be mistaken in Scotus appeals to is unconnected with the Thomist believing it but not in the way one would be wrong in mutatio materia solution. Scotus is not claiming that a believing that a bachelor is married. Accordingly, it is to will murder be done or that precept remains true but that God changes the within God's power that http://jme.bmj.com/ circumstances so that it no longer applies in the it not be done. To propose that His choice must be particular case. Rather his proposal is that any member constrained by the moral facts and, therefore, that He of the class of secondary moral precepts can be could not bring it about that murder is obligatory is in dispensed with by God in a circumstance which is in all Ockham's view to impose a non-logical limit on God's other respects identical to situations in which the same power. In short, it is to suggest that He is not precept applies. Put in this way it is clear that Scotus omnipotent, which in turn is to imply that the being in has departed from the position of ethical naturalism. question is not God. For, what he proposes directly conflicts with the Starting from the assumption of Divine on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected supervenience thesis stated above to which realism is omnipotence the conclusion is reached that it cannot be committed. More precisely his moral theory straddles the case that God commands something because it is two positions and seeks to retain the strengths of each (independently) good but that something is good while avoiding their weaknesses. For all that his because and only because God commands it (14). In the thought is philosophically creative, however, the final terminology employed earlier, Ockham's view is that product is irrevocably flawed. It attempts to bind the expressions 'is good' and 'is commanded by God' together opposing elements and only failure can result. are co-extensive - true of all and only the same things, One must choose between realism and voluntarism and because they are co-intensive - have the same meaning, cannot have them both. ie are synonymous. The strength of this position is further revealed by V considering a familiar argument against it. If The most forthright statement of the latter position is voluntarism were true then ifGod commanded murder that provided by Ockham according to whom 'Evil [in and theft, etc, these would be good; but this is absurd respect of action] is nothing other than doing for they are clearly evil and could never be otherwise; something when one is under an obligation to do the consequently either God can do evil or voluntarism opposite' (12). That is to say, the moral is simply must be false. Ockham's reply is that this argument is constituted by God's will. Some later writers, simply question-begging. He allows that we believe particularly in the tradition of Protestant Christianity, such actions to be wrong and contrary to the law ofGod have been drawn towards the voluntarist position. and explains these facts by pointing to Scripture and John Calvin, for example, claims that 'God's will is so indicating where God forbids them. The latter event is John Haldane 43 J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from the complete explanation of their evil since Divine freedom of God yield the view that 'is good' and 'is prohibition constitutes moral badness. It also shows commanded by God' have one and the same meaning - why ifGod were by His absolute power and freedom to so that whatsoever God might command would be command them, murder, theft and even misotheism good. However, this thesis faces two problems. (hatred of God) would be virtuous. Firstly, even ifvoluntarism is true it remains the case that we make moral judgements independently of 'For as was said, deformity in an act of commission is knowing (or even considering) whether they only the very act itself elicited against the divine correspond to God's will. The moral values and command and expresses nothing else at all. And ifyou principles appealed to in such judgements constitute say that God would then sin in causing such a deformed our ethical world view and it is in large part by act, just as the created will sins when it causes such an comparison with it that we assess the claim ofsomeone act, I reply that God is under obligation to no one; and or something to be a source of moral insight. The hence He is neither bound to cause that act, nor the criterial status of this world view has the consequence opposite act, nor not to cause it' (15). that were it claimed by X that God now commands murder, torture and rape we should rightly discount This reply also provides a solution to the Problem of X's testimony. Thus, even if God's commands Evil, ie the argument that the occurrence ofnatural and constitute the moral facts our naturally formed beliefs moral evil is incompatible with the existence of an are our only guide to them. omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent Creator. If Secondly, it is not at all clear what it means to claim God's will is necessary and sufficient for the goodness that God's approval creates the moral order in the of whatever it brings about then whatever God has manner required by voluntarism. Earlier it was seen made is good. Thus God cannot be charged with that Aquinas regards moral features as characteristics causing or permitting the occurrence ofevil. of natural properties of things. This accords with our It should be clear that Ockham's espousal of strict practice ofgiving reasons for our moral judgements by voluntarism is not unsupported piety. He takes it to be appealing to other features of the items in question. logically implied by Christian theology - to be Voluntarism by contrast supposes that everything can derivable from the Divine attributes - and to show remain exactly the same yet the moral facts altercopyright. the necessity of Revelation as the only means by which through a change in God's attitude to the world. This we could be apprised of God's Will. implies that God's view of how things should be is unconstrained by how they actually are and in turn VI suggests an account ofHim as irrational and capricious During and after the Reformation the dispute between - taking attitudes to the world regardless of its character. realism and voluntarism came to be aligned with more http://jme.bmj.com/ general theological and philosophical disagreements Ockham was drawn to voluntarism out ofrespect for between Catholic and Protestant Christianity. The the Divine attributes but the price of unrestricted reasons for this are complex but relate to their different moral omnipotence is the ascription to God of conceptions of reason, will, human nature and the irrational, ethical subjectivism. If this is to be avoided relationship between God and man. Outside of the God must be viewed as issuing commands related to Christian religion the problem of the logical the actual character of the world He has created: relationship between the Law of God and moral commanding the good because it is good. Whatever goodness is a main theme of Jewish and Muslim may be the correct version of it, ethical realism on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected philosophy from the middle ages onwards (16). presents itself as the only credible option. This The decline ofreligious beliefmay have removed the conclusion should be welcome for it implies that issue from the centre of current moral philosophy but religious believers and others can engage in rational it has not yet been resolved and remains an important discussion in agreement that, so far as concerns the topic for enquiry. The foregoing sections show good at least, (17) the final authority is simply that of something of the philosophical wealth of medieval the facts. discussions and of why current neglect of them is unfortunate. As well as their general interest they are J7ohn Haldane BA BA PhD, is Lecturer in theDepartment of valuable for the way in which they articulate a clear Moral Philosophy and Director of the Centre for conceptual structure within which thought about Philosophy andPublicAffairs, University ofStAndrews, religious ethics may proceed. This said it is appropriate Fife, Scotland, KY16 9AL. to conclude with some briefremarks about the relative merits of realism and voluntarism. References Ockham derives from Scotus the insight that or the (1) McInerney R. Aquinas' moral theory. Journal ofmedical morality is not simply concerned with value, ethics 1987; 13:31-33. good, but also with obligation, or the right, and in (2) Aquinas, De veritate, Q 22, al. addition takes from him the idea that duty is only (3) Aquinas, Summa contra gentiles, I, c 95. explicable by reference to a person. These thoughts (4) Aquinas, Summa theologiae, Ia, q 1, a 1. together with his concern for the omnipotence and (5) Genesis 22. 44 Moral theories: Voluntarism and realism in medical ethics J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.15.1.39 on 1 March 1989. Downloaded from

(6) Exodus I1v 12. Later Medieval Philosophy (eds) Kretzman, Kenny and (7) Aquinas, Summa theologiae, Ia, IIae, q 100. Pinborg (Cambridge: University Press 1982), though its (8) See reference (7): q 100, a 8. contents reflect the fact that most of the contemporary (9) There are several episodes, especially in the Old interest in the middle ages is concerned with its logic and Testament, in which God is apparently portrayed as metaphysics. either enjoining, or Himselfperforming actions contrary Fashion also explains the dearth of studies of medieval to precepts of the Law. In addition to the Genesis and moral philosophy. Of those available three deserve mention: Exodus examples see: Joshua 6:21 and Ezekiel 16 (for D J O'Connor, Aquinas and Natural Law (London: cases of mass murder) Job 1 (for the seemingly Macmillan, 1967), R McInerney, Ethica Thomistica gratuitous infliction of suffering) and Hosea 1 (for (Washington DC: the Catholic University of America Press, prostitution and adultery). 1982), and A S McGrade, The Political Thought ofWilliam of (10) Scotus, Opus oxoniense, III, and Questiones quodlibetales Ockham (Cambridge: University Press, 1969). Readers q 18, a 1: 'The source of moral goodness and badness'. wanting a further brief introduction to moral philosophy (11) Scotus, Opus oxoniense, III, d 37. during this period might consult Haldane J. Medieval and (12) Ockham, Reportatio, II, q 5. Renaissance Ethics, in P. Singer (ed) A Companion to Ethics (13) Calvin, Institutes ofthe Christian Religion, 3, 23, 2. (Oxford: Blackwell, forthcoming). (14) Ockham, Reportatio, IV, q 9. As regards primary sources apart from writings of Aquinas (15) Ockham, Reportatio, III, q 12. translations ofmedieval texts are rare and not easily available. (16) Leaman 0. An introduction to medieval Islamic philosophy The Summa Theologiae ofSt Thomas has been published in 60 Cambridge: University Press, 1985: Ch 4. volumes (London: Blackfriars and Eyre & Spottiswoode, (17) As regards moral obligation the view developed by 1963-75) and his Summa Contra Gentiles in 4 volumes (ed) Scotus discussed in Section IV has much to commend it A G Pegis et al (Notre Dame University Press, 1975). The though I cannot explore it further here. Quodlibetal Questions of Scotus are translated by Alluntis & Wolter as God and Creatures (Princeton: University Press, 1975). Relevant material is contained in Ockham: Philosophical Writings (ed) Boehner (Indianapolis: Bobbs Select bibliography Merrill, 1964). Finally, short extracts from the work ofScotus Unfortunately there are few good introductions to medieval and Ockham are included in Hyman & Walsh (eds) philosophy. Among the best is F C Copleston, A History of Philosophy in the Middle Ages (Indianapolis, Hackett, 1973). Medieval Philosophy (London: Methuen, 1972) and for more On the general issue of religious ethics and the Euthyphro copyright. detailed accounts of the work of the authors discussed above problem see the collection of essays Divine Commands and see the relevant chapters of his History ofPhilosophy, Vols II Morality (ed) Helm, (Oxford: University Press, 1981) and for and III (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1950 and 52). additional relevant literature consult the bibliography A further useful source ofmaterial is The Cambridge History of contained in this volume. http://jme.bmj.com/ on September 28, 2021 by guest. Protected