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Gradniki in Tehnologije V Sistemih Vodenja Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Alesˇ Belicˇ Gradniki in tehnologije v sistemih vodenja Ljubljana 22. januar 2012 2 3 Predgovor Obravnava snovi pri predmetih Gradniki v sistemih vodenja na Univerzitetnem studijskemˇ programu in Gradniki v tehnologiji vodenja na visokosolskemˇ strokovnem studijskemˇ pro- gramu Fakultete za elektrotehniko Univerze v Ljubljani je nekoliko drugacnaˇ kot pri ostalih predmetih na smeri Avtomatika. Cepravˇ sta to dva od osnovnih predmetov na smereh, pa se vendarle ne navezujeta cistoˇ neposredno na ostale predmete na studijskihˇ programih Avto- matike. Ucbenikˇ obravnava prakticneˇ in izvedbene vidike sistemov vodenja, ki ostanejo pri poglobljeni obravnavi algoritmov vodenja mnogokrat v ozadju. Izbira ustreznih merilnih sistemov, krmilnikov ali regulatorjev ter izvrsnihˇ sistemov, ki pokrijejo potrebe po mociˇ in preciznosti vodenja, je kljucnaˇ za kvalitetno izvedbo vodenja. Ne glede na dobro nacrtanoˇ shemo vodenja, je na koncu vse odvisno od izvedbe. V praksi je delezˇ vlozenegaˇ dela v resnici mocnoˇ na strani izvedbenih problemov sistema vodenja, medtem ko se algoritmom vodenja posvetimo seleˇ proti koncu izvedbe, ko je obicajnoˇ premalo casa,ˇ da bi algoritem in njegove parametre optimalno nastavili. Pomen snovi tega predmeta za izvedbo sistemov vodenja je torej nesporen. Po drugi strani pa je to predmet, ki zahteva precej ucenjaˇ na pa- met, saj je potrebno sirokoˇ poznavanje moznihˇ podsistemov in principov delovanja. Snov, ki je zbrana v tej knjigi je plod lastnih izkusenjˇ avtorja na tem podrocjuˇ s pomembnimi pri- spevki prof. dr. Riharda Karbe, prof. dr. Jusaˇ Kocijana, prof. dr. Maje Atanasijevic-Kunc,´ doc. dr. Gregorja Klancarjaˇ in dr. Janka Petrovciˇ ca,ˇ ki zeˇ dolga leta sodelujejo na temah, ki jih predmet obravnava. Na vsebino in obliko prikaza snovi v ucbenikuˇ pa so vplivali tudi vsi ostali sodelavci Laboratorija za modeliranje, simulacijo in vodenje ter Laboratorija za av- tonomne mobilne sisteme, posebej pa Milan Simciˇ cˇ pri oblikovanju graficnihˇ prikazov. Glede na nacinˇ razmisljanjaˇ in dela studentovˇ v danasnjemˇ casuˇ so klasicneˇ knjige neko- liko neustrezen medij za studij.ˇ Da premostimo ta razkorak so glavni deli navedene litera- ture internetne strani proste enciklopedije Wikipedija in strani proizvajalcev opreme. Tako je studentomˇ omogocenoˇ enostavno iskanje po prosto dostopnih virih, ki obravnavano snov seˇ dodatno osvetljujejo. Studentiˇ in diplomanti so danes pod vedno vecjimˇ pritiskom, da prikazejoˇ svoje sposob- nosti za resevanjeˇ problemov in si s tem zagotovijo ustrezno zaposlitev in vir zanesljivega prezivetja.ˇ Cepravˇ je podrocjeˇ avtomatizacije kadrovsko podhranjeno, pa prostora za slabe inzenirjeˇ ni veliko, saj so naloge, ki jih morajo opravljati, zahtevne. Upam, da jim bo ta knjiga pri tem v pomoc.ˇ Ljubljana, 2012 4 Kazalo 1 Uvod 9 2 Kratek pregled osnovnih pojmov s podroˇcjavodenja sistemov 13 2.1 Standardne strukture vodenja sistemov . 13 2.1.1 Krmiljenje . 14 2.1.2 Krmiljenje z upostevanjemˇ motnje . 14 2.1.3 Povratnozancnaˇ regulacija . 15 2.1.4 Povratnozancnaˇ regulacija z upostevanjemˇ motnje . 16 2.1.5 Kaskadna regulacija . 16 2.1.6 Regulacija razmerja . 17 2.2 Standardni algoritmi vodenja sistemov . 18 2.2.1 Dvopolozajnoˇ vodenje . 19 2.2.2 Proporcionalno-integrirno-diferencirno vodenje . 19 2.3 Parametri kvalitete vodenja . 21 2.4 Prehod iz blocneˇ sheme vodenja do sheme z gradniki . 22 3 Pomembnejˇseoznake gradnikov in naprav 25 3.1 Oznake gradnikov v tehnoloskihˇ shemah . 25 3.1.1 Graficniˇ simboli v tehnoloskihˇ shemah . 25 3.1.2 Alfanumericneˇ oznake v tehnoloskihˇ shemah . 27 3.2 Stopnje zasˇcitˇ elektricnihˇ naprav IP . 27 3.3 Stopnje mehanskih zasˇcitˇ elektricnihˇ naprav IK . 29 3.4 Eksplozijska zasˇcitaˇ gradnikov . 30 4 Tehnologije prenosa informacij med gradniki 33 4.1 Analogni elektricniˇ prenos informacije . 33 4.1.1 Nivoji signalov v analognem prenosu informacije . 34 4.1.2 Pretvorba v digitalne signale . 34 4.2 Digitalni prenos informacije . 35 4.2.1 Sistemi digitalnega prenosa podatkov . 35 5 Merilni sistemi 45 5.1 Lastnosti merilnih sistemov . 46 5.2 Merjenje pozicije in orientacije . 48 5.3 Merjenje oddaljenosti . 51 5.4 Merjenje linearnega pomika . 52 5.4.1 Uporovni merilniki pomika . 52 5 6 KAZALO 5.4.2 Kapacitivni merilniki pomika . 54 5.4.3 Induktivni merilniki pomika . 56 5.4.4 Opticniˇ merilniki pomika . 59 5.4.5 Merilniki blizineˇ . 61 5.5 Merjenje zasuka . 63 5.5.1 Uporovni merilniki zasuka . 64 5.5.2 Kapacitivni merilniki zasuka . 64 5.5.3 Induktivni merilniki zasuka . 65 5.5.4 Opticniˇ merilniki zasuka . 67 5.6 Merjenje nivoja kapljevin . 69 5.6.1 Neposredne meritve . 69 5.6.2 Pretvorba v maso . 70 5.6.3 Pretvorba nivoja v tlak . 71 5.6.4 Vzgonske metode . 73 5.6.5 Radioaktivne metode . 75 5.6.6 Pretvorba nivoja v elektricneˇ velicineˇ . 75 5.6.7 Vpliv nivoja na prevajanje zvoka . 79 5.6.8 Opticneˇ metode . 79 5.7 Merjenje nivoja sipkih materialov . 80 5.8 Merjenje debeline . 81 5.9 Merjenje linearne hitrosti . 81 5.10 Merjenje hitrosti vrtenja . 83 5.11 Merjenje pretoka tekocinˇ . 86 5.11.1 Volumetricniˇ merilniki ali merilniki s pozitivnim pomikom . 87 5.11.2 Pretvorba pretoka v silo ali tlak . 89 5.11.3 Pretvorba pretoka v elektricneˇ velicineˇ . 96 5.11.4 Pretvorba pretoka v vrtince . 96 5.11.5 Vpliv pretoka na prevajanje zvoka . 97 5.11.6 Vpliv pretoka na prevajanje vibracij po cevovodu . 99 5.11.7 Pretvorba pretoka v vrtenje . 100 5.11.8 Pretvorba pretoka v toplotne izgube grelnih teles . 101 5.12 Merjenje pretoka sipkih materialov . 102 5.13 Merjenje linearnega pospeskaˇ . 102 5.14 Merjenje rotacijskega pospeskaˇ . 103 5.15 Merjenje mase . 103 5.16 Merjenje sile . 104 5.17 Merjenje navora . 105 5.18 Merjenje tlaka . 107 5.18.1 Merjenje srednjih tlakov . 107 5.18.2 Merjenje visokih tlakov . 112 5.18.3 Merjenje nizkih tlakov (srednjega vakuuma) . 112 5.18.4 Merjenje ultra nizkih tlakov (visokega in ultra visokega vakuuma) . 113 5.19 Merjenje temperature . 114 5.19.1 Kontaktne metode merjenja . 115 5.19.2 Brezkontaktne metode merjenja . 124 5.20 Merjenje gostote . 126 5.20.1 Merjenje gostote kapljevin . 126 KAZALO 7 5.20.2 Merjenje gostote plinov . 128 5.20.3 Merjenje gostote trdnih snovi . 129 5.21 Merjenje viskoznosti . 129 5.21.1 Viskoznost kapljevin . 130 5.21.2 Viskoznost plinov . 132 5.22 Toplotna prevodnost . 133 5.22.1 Toplotna prevodnost tekocinˇ . 133 5.22.2 Toplotna prevodnost izolacijskih trdnih snovi . 134 5.22.3 Toplotna prevodnost prevodnih trdnih snovi . 135 5.23 Merjenje vlage . 136 5.23.1 Vlaznostˇ plinov . 136 5.23.2 Mokrost trdne snovi . 139 5.24 Merjenje bioelektricnihˇ signalov . 140 5.25 Neinvazivno merjenje notranje zgradbe predmetov . 141 5.26 Merjenje elektricneˇ prevodnosti, faktorja pH in redoks potenciala kapljevin . 142 5.27 Merjenje molekularne sestave snovi . 143 5.27.1 Kromatografija . 145 5.27.2 Masna spektrometrija . 147 5.27.3 Metode za dolocanjeˇ izrazaveˇ genov in genskega zapisa . 148 6 Regulatorji in krmilniki 151 6.1 Industrijski regulatorji . 151 6.2 Programirljivi logicniˇ krmilniki . 153 6.2.1 Izvedbe krmilnikov . 154 6.2.2 Vezave stopenjskih merilnih in izvrsnihˇ sistemov na PLK . 155 6.2.3 Programiranje krmilnikov . 155 6.3 Osebni racunalnikiˇ v kombinaciji z vmesniskimiˇ karticami za zajem podatkov 156 6.4 Mikrokrmilniki . 156 6.5 Sistemi za varovanje krmilnikov ... 157 6.6 Operaterski paneli . ..
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