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Chapter One Ethnicity and Politics in the Contemporary World NOTES Chapter One Ethnicity and Politics in the Contemporary World 1. Thomas Spiro, Nationalism and Ethnicity Terminologies: An Encyclopedic Dictionary and Research Guide, Volume I (Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, 1999), 207, with reference to Rodolfo Stavenhagen’s definition in Conflicts, Development, and Human Rights (Tokyo: United Nations University, 1990). 2. Rupert Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise of Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), 95–96. 3. See, especially, Connor’s landmark essay, “The Politics of Ethnonationalism,” Journal of International Affairs, 22 (1973): 1–21. The nation-state model usually carries the collateral benefits of the people also identifying with their territory as their country, entitled to their love and support (patriotism), and sharing a core political culture and hence a political consensus useful in resolving conflict over the ends and means of the state. Connor estimated in 1973 that less than a third of the states in the world fit this model; the percentage is no higher today. 4. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981. 5. See, especially, Newman’s book, Ethnoregional Conflict in Democracies: Mostly Ballots, Rarely Bullets (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996), and his article on “Nationalism in Post-Industrial Societies: Why States Still Matter,” Comparative Politics, 33 (2000): 21–41. Earlier, developed world–focused studies include: Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977); and Edward A. Tiryakian and Ronald Rogowski (eds.), New Nationalism of the Developed West (New York: Allyn and Unwin, 1985). 6. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 7. Typical of this literature would be such widely used works on the United States as Paula D. McClain and Joseph Stewart, Jr., “Can We All Get Along?” Racial and Ethnic Minorities in American Politics (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000). 8. See, for example, Paula S. Rothenberg, Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995); and Joseph F. Healey’s standard sociology text, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Class: The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Forge Press, 1995), with its suggestively cross-national title but map of the United States on its cover. 9. See Anthony D. Smith’s analyses of this approach, especially his Theories of Nationalism (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1983); and The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986). For a succinct summary of the basic approaches to the study of ethnicity, see Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, “Chapter 1—Ethnic Conflict on the World Stage,” Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 2002). 10. Spira, Nationalism and Ethnicity Terminologies, 112, relying extensively on the discussion of con- structionist and instrumentalist theory in M. Crawford Young, “The Dialectics of Cultural Pluralism: Concept and Reality,” in M. Crawford Young (ed.), The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-State at Bay? (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993). 11. Instrumental theory was widely used to explain the reawakening of ethnoterritorial movements in the developed democratic world in the 1960s and 1970s, and has recently seen much use in explaining recent ethnic conflict affecting the international system. See, for example, David A, Lake and Donald Rothchild, “Spreading Fear: The Genesis of Transnational Ethnic Conflict,” in Lake and Rothchild (eds.), The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), 5–32. 230 Notes 12. Martin O. Heisler, “Ethnicity and Ethnic Relations in the Modern West,” in Joseph V. Montville (ed.), Conflict and Peacekeeping in Multiethnic Societies (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991), 26. 13. The role of leadership in the breakup of both Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia is examined in chapters six and nine respectively, in this book. 14. See, for example: Ronald Ingelhart, Modernization and Post-Modernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997), esp. 248f.; and Michael Keating, Nations against the State: The New Politics of Nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia, and Scotland (London: Macmillan, 1996). 15. I. William Zartman “Sources and Settlements of Ethnic Conflicts,” in Andreas Wimmer et al. (eds.), Facing Ethnic Conflicts: Toward a New Realism (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 141–159, esp.146–148. 16. Milton J. Esman, “Perspectives on Ethnic Conflict in Industrial Societies,” in Milton J. Esman (ed.), Ethnic Conflict in the Western World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), 377. 17. See Saul Newman’s “Ideological Trends among Ethnoregional Parties in Post-Industrial Democracies,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 2 (1997): 28–60. 18. See, especially, Saul Newman, “Ethnoregional Parties: A Comparative Perspective,” Regional Politics and Policy, 4 (1994): 28–66. 19. On the relationship between the macro-level conditions (economic change, postindustrial attitudes, and the like) that give rise to ethnic issues, the micro-level behavior that follows (support for ethnopolitical organizations), and the impact of the policy process’ response to ethnopolitical demands on both these conditions and political behavior, see Robert J. Thompson, “The Ebb and Flow of Ethnoterritorial Politics in the Western World,” in Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr. and Robert J. Thompson, Ethnoterritorial Politics, Policy, and the Western World (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), 4–9. 20. Aristides R. Zolberg, “Culture, Territory, Class: Ethnicity Demystified,” a paper presented at the International Political Science Association Congress, Edinburgh, Scotland, August 16–21, 1976. 21. See, as an earlier application of this approach to the study of ethnopolitics, Robert J. Thompson and Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr., “Ethnic Politics and Public Policy in Western Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis,” in Dennis Thompson and Dov Ronen (eds.), Ethnicity, Politics, and Development (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1986), 25–64. 22. For more extensive discussions of these developments, see chapters three and five, in this book. 23. Cynthia H. Enloe, Ethnic Conflict and Political Development (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1973), 17–18. 24. It should also be observed that the various minorities are even more divided vis-à-vis one another. Thus, despite the efforts of U.S. politicians such as Jesse Jackson, who ran for the American presi- dency in 1988 by appealing to a “Rainbow Coalition,” an effective political coalition of the county’s ethnic minorities has yet to emerge. 25. Leaders of Jewish civil rights organizations were among the founding fathers of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples (NAACP) and continued to work with and support NAACP leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., until the late 1960s. At the same time, large numbers of Jewish Americans personally combated discrimination by pursuing careers in the professions. Consequently, by the 1960s, they held a disproportionately large share of the positions in such professions as law, higher education, and medicine. Affirmative action programs aimed at benefiting groups traditionally shut out of such areas promised to work against future Jewish American job seekers in these fields. 26. I remain indebted to Professor Wildgen for suggesting this typology long ago in reviewing a draft of my article on “Ethnic Sub-States and the Emergent Politics of Tri-Level Interaction in Western Europe,” Western Political Quarterly, 30 (1977): 537–557. 27. See Brewton Berry and Henry Tischler, Race and Ethnic Relations (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979), 375–402. Chapter Two The Setting of Politics in the Advanced Democratic World 1. See Patrick O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2003), 176–181. 2. Social scientists discuss these accomplishments in terms of the success of developed democracies in overcoming, respectively, the crises of identity, participation, legitimacy, penetration, and Notes 231 distribution—crises that must be faced by all politically developing polities. For a succinct discussion summary of the concept of political development, see Gregory S. Mahler, Comparative Politics: An Institutional and Cross-National Approach (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003 edition), 41–51. 3. O’Neil, Essentials of Comparative Politics, 149. 4. See Carl J. Friedrich’s classic study, Constitutional Government and Democracy: Theory and Practice in Europe and America (Boston: Ginn, 1946). Friedrich sees the development of constitutional government, or constitutionalism, as a multifaceted process rooted in developing a political culture which demands that government operate within established rules of the game based on the rule of law. 5. See Michael J. Sodaro, Comparative Politics: A Global Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), 165–171. In most democracies, a minimal list of these rights by century’s end came to include: (1) basic individual rights, such as freedom of speech, press, association, and religion; (2) basic political rights such as the right to vote, assemble, and hold office; (3) and such social and economic rights as education, unfettered access to jobs, and the right to own and sell property (178). 6. For
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