ll students come to school What is the International Reading SECOND- with strengths in their home Association’s position on second- language. Ideally literacy in- language literacy instruction? LANGUAGE struction builds on those Because of the prevalence of second-language lit- strengths.A The challenge for schools oc- eracy instruction, and because the consequences of Literacy curs when students’ home language is not learning to read are significant, the International Reading Association takes the following position Instruction not the language of schooling. on second-language literacy instruction. In the United States between 1986 Literacy learning is easiest when schools pro- A Position vide initial literacy instruction in a child’s home lan- Statement of the and 1998, the number of children with guage. Such instruction is consistent with building limited English ability rose from 1.6 mil- on children’s strengths and with connecting unfa- miliar material to the familiar to maximize learning International lion to 9.9 million. By the year 2050, the efficiency. Literacy skills developed in the home Reading percentage of children in the United language can then be applied to learning to read and write in a second language, which results in Association States who arrive at school speaking a students who have become literate and gained pro- language other than English will reach ficiency in two (or perhaps more) languages. Proficiency in the dominant language is the 40% (Lindholm-Leary, 2000). Many of goal of language and literacy instruction, and bilin- these second-language speakers of gualism or multilingualism is desirable. Families have the right to decide whether initial literacy in- English will also come from back- struction is delivered in the dominant language or grounds of poverty, have parents with the home language. Where such a choice is not feasible, the right of the child to choose to be bilin- low levels of education, and attend gual, bicultural, and biliterate, or monolingual, schools in urban and rural areas that monocultural, and monoliterate must be honored and respected. are plagued by limited resources, insuf- ficient numbers of certified teachers, What are some of the considera- and poor physical structures. tions to make when determining policy on second-language Although the increasing numbers learning? of children who do not speak the lan- The accumulated wisdom of research in the field of guage of schools is a relatively recent bilingualism suggests that while initial literacy learn- phenomenon in the United States, ing in a second language can be successful, it is riskier than starting with the child’s home lan- around the world many children arrive guage—especially for those children affected by at school speaking home languages dif- poverty, low levels of parental education, or poor schooling (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). ferent from the language of schooling. However, providing excellent initial literacy in- In fact, worldwide, bilingual and multi- struction to second-language learners is more com- plex than these brief paragraphs suggest. There is lingual speakers outnumber monolin- no single or simple solution to guarantee the suc- gual speakers (Tucker, 1999). cess of second-language readers and writers. Families of second-language backgrounds may have language policy for initial education and made the United States, the role of the federal govern- differing preferences in relation to initial literacy English the sole medium of instruction at all levels ment is to provide guidance and resources, not instruction. For instance, some families may want in state schools. This was done in the name of policy and curriculum. The federal government pro- initial literacy instruction to be delivered in the racial integration and nation building. vides only 7% of schools’ funding, and the rest of home language, while others may prefer initial liter- The situation in England has generally been the money and most decisions come from the state acy instruction to be delivered in the school’s domi- characterized by a feasibility approach. A survey in or local level. This means that in Canada and the nant language. the schools of inner London in the early 1980s re- United States, many policies coexist, and there is no In addition, the possibilities for providing initial vealed that over 150 languages other than English coherent national pattern of second-language litera- literacy instruction in the child’s home language are were spoken as first language by at least one child cy instruction in either country. dependent on local, state or provincial, and (see Gorman et al., 1988, 1991, and earlier reports The thrust of education policies in many Asian national policies that determine the language of cited there). Most of these languages had very few nations is toward children becoming literate in mul- schooling. The formulation of these policies is com- speakers, and the speakers of some of those with tiple languages. Hong Kong shares this notion and plex. The relative proportions of language groups significant numbers were too widely dispersed to considers English an important second language in the populations, the political and economic sta- make home-language provision practicable (for ex- (Ng, 1999). According to Yu (1999), “English is a tus of the various language groups, and the history ample, Greek and Turkish). Some areas did and do compulsory subject in the primary and secondary of the various language groups all influence the se- have substantial concentrations of speakers of par- curriculum and proficiency in English has always lection of language for initial literacy instruction. ticular languages (these tend to be South Asian been a ladder to success.” Thousands of young chil- The following examples suggest some of the di- languages, especially Punjabi and Bengali). Home- dren are exposed to English language lessons in al- mensions of the complexity. language provision in these circumstances would most every Hong Kong preschool classroom. Kenya became independent in 1963. There is therefore introduce an element of racial segrega- Teaching English language and literacy is ap- not and never has been a majority language in the tion and could all too easily be interpreted as proached as a curriculum subject. country. There are at least 20 indigenous languages, racist. As a result, language maintenance for all but since colonization by Britain, the official lan- minorities is seen as the responsibility of the vari- guage has been and remains English. Before ous communities. What do these policy examples Kenya’s independence, the initial stages of educa- In Wales, the situation is different. Though the show us about second-language tion were organized on home-language lines. majority of the population (over 80%) are monolin- literacy instruction? Beyond the initial stages, the medium of instruction gual English speakers, the Welsh language has been gradually shifted over to English. Once indepen- spoken since long before the English language exist- All these international examples show that the pro- dent, the new government abolished the home- ed. For this indigenous linguistic minority, there is a vision of home-language education varies from no special provision. Welsh is an equal official language provision to a complete system parallel to the main- with English, and Welsh-medium education is avail- stream; approaches can differ between countries able for all children whose parents want it, includ- with a majority language and those with a mosaic ing monolingual English-speaking parents who want of linguistic groups; and social, political, and eco- their children to have better chances of public-sector nomic concerns are as important to these decisions jobs in Wales, most of which require some com- as the question of what patterns of instruction are mand of Welsh. Welsh-medium education is avail- most effective in producing a literate citizenry. able from preschool up to university level (though In addition, the various language policies are at the higher levels, it is not available in every sub- associated with differences in second-language ject, for practical reasons). readers’ performance. For example, the different In both the United States and Canada, education situations in England and Wales provide valuable policy is set at the state/provincial or local levels. evidence on the effects of home-language versus For example, Saskatchewan Education recently national-language education and its interaction with conducted a needs assessment that identified the socioeconomic status. A series of national surveys numbers and locations of all school-age English of the attainment of English (reading and writing) Second-Language (ESL) Speakers and English of 11- and 15-year-old children was carried out be- Second-Dialect (ESD) speakers. The needs assess- tween 1979 and 1988 (Gorman et al., 1991). In all ment identified issues related to the needs of these these surveys, average literacy attainment was cal- speakers and called for the province to establish an culated separately for first- and second-language ESL/ESD policy (Saskatchewan Education, 2000). In speakers of English, and separately for England and Wales. The results consistently showed significantly schools should offer families choices for initial lit- decide whether initial literacy instruction is deliv- higher average scores for monolingual children eracy instruction. In situations where this is not ered in the dominant language or the home over second-language children in England (where feasible—perhaps there is not a critical mass of language. To support this positon, we offer the most second-language children speak a South Asian children who speak a particular language, or such following recommendations. language), but no difference in Wales (where al- instruction could contribute to racial and ethnic most the only minority language is Welsh). Two segregation in public schools—a child’s back- Recommendations to Teachers main factors contributed to the difference between ground and linguistic heritage must be treated with • Pursue professional development in the area of the two countries: respect, and bi- or multilingualism should be pro- second-language literacy. moted as a positive value. • The provision of home-language education in • Become familiar with the language issues that In all situations, second-language learners must Welsh but not in any of the minority languages in affect students in your school. Try to gain an be treated respectfully and offered equal educational England. understanding of the range of political, social, cul- opportunities that honor basic general educational tural, and economic issues that maybe involved. • In England, second-language communities are principles: clustered disproportionately in lower socioeco- • Seek information and advice from parents, com- nomic levels, whereas in Wales, bilinguals are in- • Facilitate learning through joint productive activi- munity members, and other teachers that will help distinguishable from the monolingual majority. ty among teachers and students. you improve the instruction of particular students. • Develop competence in the language and literacy The situation in Wales, therefore, indicates that of instruction throughout all instructional activities. Recommendations to Parents initial, indeed complete, education in a mother • Contextualize teaching and curriculum in the • Become informed about the educational options tongue need not result in lower achievement in the experiences and skills of home and community. available, and express your preferences to policy national language that is different. Linguistic and makers and educators. • Challenge students toward cognitive complexity. socioeconomic factors play key roles in the literacy • Understand that through schooling, children may achievement of second-language learners. • Engage students through dialogue, especially the be able to develop strengths in both the official instructional conversation. (CREDE, 2000) language and their home language. One does not necessarily have to be sacrificed for the other. How should literacy instruction What are the recommendations be given to second-language of the International Reading Recommendations to Policy Makers learners? Association regarding second- • Understand that proficiency in the official lan- guage is an end that may be reached through The United Nations has adopted the principle that language literacy instruction? various means, and respect the judgment of edu- indigenous linguistic minorities have the right to ed- cators and parents about what these means may ucation in their home language. The International The essence of the Association’s position is be in particular situations. Reading Association supports this position and also self-determination and tolerance—tolerance of ma- supports the rights of families to determine the lan- jorities for minorities; tolerance of speakers of all • Recognize the value of initial instruction in the guage of initial literacy instruction for their children. languages for speakers of others; and especially tol- mother tongue, which may improve student’s Families have the right, when feasible, to have their erance on the part of monolingual speakers of the chances for eventual high achievement in the children taught to read in their home language. They world’s politically dominant languages for multilin- dominant language. also have the right to have their children’s initial liter- gualism. Efforts to deny students access to initial • Fund cross-national research efforts in second- acy instruction delivered in the official language of literacy instruction in their home language, often language literacy learning and instruction. instruction of their country of residence. launched in the supposed interest of furthering na- As the examples here indicate, whether it is tional unity, are frequently the result of intolerance. Recommendations to Researchers feasible to provide initial literacy instruction in a Mandating that second-language speakers receive • Pursue collaborative research agendas cross- child’s home language depends on many factors. It initial reading instruction in their home language nationally so that the effects of various language is the Association’s position that the choice made may also reflect intolerance. distribution patterns, as well as social, economic, by families and students must be honored, whether To summarize, the position of the International political, and instructional variables on second- that choice involves initial literacy instruction in the Reading Association is that proficiency in the domi- language literacy learning can be understood and home language or in a second language. When nant language is the goal of language and literacy used to inform strong policy initiatives. there are sufficient numbers of children who speak instruction; bilingualism or multilingualism is desir- a language other than the language of instruction, able; and where possible, families have the right to Adopted by the Board of Directors, References Related Resources From IRA January 2001 Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Books Board of Directors at Time of Adoption Excellence (CREDE). (2000). The sociocultural context Collaboration for Diverse Learners: Viewpoints of Hawaiian language revival and learning [Online]. and Practices Carmelita K. Williams, President Available at http://crede.ucsc.edu/reports/1.6doc1.html Victoria J. Risko & Karen Bromley, 2001 Donna M. Ogle, President-Elect Jerry L. Johns, Vice President Gorman, T.P., White, J., Brooks, G., MacLure, M., & Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for Alan E. Farstrup, Executive Director Kispal, A. (1988). Language performance in schools: A ESL Students review of APU language monitoring, 1979–83. London: Karen Spangenberg-Urbschat & Robert Pritchard, 1994 Kathryn H. Au Department for Education and Science. Language Instructional Issues in Asian Classrooms Patricia A. Edwards Gorman, T.P., White, J., Brooks, G., & English, F. Cheah Yin Mee & Ng Seok Moi, Editors, 1999 Timothy Shanahan Gregg M. Kurek (1991). Language for learning: A summary report on Literacy Instruction for Culturally and Linguistically Jeanne R. Paratore the 1988 APU surveys of language performance Diverse Students: A Collection of Articles and Lori L. Rog (Assessment matters: No. 4). London: School Commentaries Susan B. Neuman Examinations and Assessment Council. Michael F. Opitz, Editor, 1998 Rebecca L. Olness Lindholm-Leary, K. (2000). Biliteracy for a global soci- Journal Articles Doris Walker-Dalhouse ety: An idea book on dual language education. Anderson, J., & Gunderson, L. (February 2001). “You Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual don’t read a science book, you study it”: An explo- This brochure may be purchased from the International Education. ration of cultural concepts of reading [Online]. Reading Reading Association in quantities of 10, prepaid only; Ng, S.M. (1999). Learning English in Hong Kong pre- Online. Available at http://www.readingonline.org please contact the Association for pricing information. school centres: A research project. In C.Y. Mee & /electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=/electronic/ander Single copies are free upon request by sending a self- N.S. Moi (Eds.), Language instructional issues in Asian son/index.html addressed, stamped envelope. Requests from outside the classrooms. Newark, DE: International Reading Barillas, R. (2000). Literacy at home: Honoring parent United States should include an envelope, but postage is Association. voices through writing. The Reading Teacher, 54(3), not required. Saskatchewan Education, Social Sciences Unit. (2000). 302–308. English as a second language, English as a second di- Fitzgerald, J., Garcia, G.E., Jimenez, R.T., Barrera, R. ©2001 International Reading Association alect in Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan, Canada: Author. (2000). How will bilingual/ESP programs in literacy Cover photo by Rebecca James Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). change in the next millennium? Reading Research Inside photos by Robert Finken Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Quarterly, 35(4), 520–523. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Gunderson, L. (2000). Voices of the teenage diasporas. Tucker, G.R. (1999). A global perspective on bilingual- Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43(8), 692–706. ism and bilingual education [Online]. Available at Matthews, M.S. (May 2000). Electronic literacy and the http://www.cal.org/ERICCLL/digest/digestglobal.html limited english proficient student [Online]. Reading Yu, V.W.S. (1999). Promoting second language devel- Online. Available at http://www.readingonline.org/ opment and reading habits through an extensive read- electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=matthews/index.html ing scheme. In C.Y. Mee & N.S. Moi (Eds.), Language O’Byrne, B. (2001). Needed: A compass to navigate the instructional issues in Asian classrooms. Newark, DE: multilingual English classroom. Journal of Adolescent & International Reading Association. Adult Literacy, 44(5), 440–449. NTERNATIONAL Schon, I. (2000). Spanish renditions of well-known sto- I ries and novels. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Reading ® 43(7), 670–674. Association Yaden, D.B., Jr., Tam, A., Madrigal, P., Brassell, D., 800 Barksdale Road Massa, J., Altmirano, L.S., & Armendariz, J. (2000). PO Box 8139 Early literacy for inner-city children: The effects of Newark, Delaware 19714-8139, USA reading and writing interventions in English and Spanish during the preschool years. The Reading Phone: 302-731-1600 Teacher, 54(2), 186–189. Fax: 302-731-1057 Web site: www.reading.org 1046 3/01