THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIAN OLYMPIC/WORLD
CHAMPIONSHIP TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETES
Dianne Julie Huxley, BA, DipEd, M. Ed (Coach Education)
A thesis submitted to the University of Sydney
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Art and Social Sciences
School of Education and Social Work
University of Sydney
June 2018
Thesis Declaration
This is a thesis submitted to the School of Education and Social Work at The
University of Sydney Australia in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning.
I, Dianne J. Huxley, certify that the intellectual content of this thesis is my own work and all the assistance in preparing this thesis and sources have been acknowledged.
Name: Dianne J. Huxley Date: July 5, 2018
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost I would like to thank my Supervisor Professor Donna O’Connor for her tireless and ongoing support, and instilling in me the belief that I could get to the end of this very long journey. I have learnt an enormous amount from Donna and I thank her sincerely for her knowledge, expertise, support and patience, which has enabled me to complete this thesis. Words cannot really express my gratitude.
Thank you also to my associate supervisors Dr Andrew Bennie and Dr Paul Larkin for their support in assistance in their particular areas of expertise. I really appreciated their encouragement throughout this journey as it really helped through periods of self-doubt.
I also wish to acknowledge Elite Editing who edited my thesis, paying extreme attention to detail and conducting editorial intervention only in accordance with Standards D and E of the Australian Standards for Editing Practice.
Thank you also to all the athletes and coaches who gave of their time so freely and enthusiastically and made this thesis what it is. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the Ascham school over the last few years, as they have shown so much patience and understanding, which I have greatly appreciated. When I have really been struggling, being out on the coaching fields has been like a breath of fresh air, so thank you girls!
I also would not have been able to do this without the ongoing support from my team of physios and massage therapist who kept my aging body on task. Thank you, Cameron, Physio4All, Emma and Camilla for keeping me at the computer!
And last but not least thank you to my partner Peter, my children, extended family and my friends, for the ongoing support and love throughout this time…they have been my rock.
Throughout this journey I have lost both my parents, but also experienced the joy of being a grandmother to the most adorable little girl called Lucy. My parents and Lucy have been my biggest motivation and I dedicate this to my Mum and Dad - I am sad that they are not here to see me finish but I know how proud they would be.
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Abstract
Australian Olympic-level track and field (T&F) has enjoyed a high profile over several generations and many of Australia’s athletic greats are publicly revered. Since the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games (OG), government funding for T&F has increased sevenfold—the majority being channelled into Athletics Australia’s (AA) high- performance programs to improve Australia’s standing at major international championships. However, over this period Australia has dropped in the world T&F rankings and more than two thirds of athletes who represent Australia at the World junior T&F championships [WJC] never make a senior international team. AA’s funding is contingent on athletes’ performances at both the junior and senior global level, but apart from two reports by AA (2004 & 2015), very little research has been conducted in relation to the development of athletes capable of competing on the world stage. Therefore, this thesis seeks to identify and understand—from the perspective of elite Australian T&F athletes and coaches—the major factors influencing the development and trajectory of Australian athletes to the highest global level in the sport
(OG and World Track and Field Championships [WC]). The thesis consists of three separate but linked studies that examine the holistic development of elite Australian athletes. As this thesis focuses on the athletes’ development from junior sporting ranks through to the elite senior level, Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory of Human
Development provides the underpinning framework to examine the processes (e.g., training activities), personal factors (e.g., psychological strengths) and contextual factors (e.g., family, peers, coaches) acting over time to influence an athlete’s development.
Study 1 used a quantitative survey to collect data about the development and success of 73 Australian T&F athletes who competed at the OG or WC between 1956
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and 2013. Results indicated that the key influencing factors during development included later specialisation in T&F, involvement in other sports during adolescence and strong social support networks. Also instrumental in athlete development was growing up in a major city and completing tertiary studies. The analysis indicated that athletes progressed to the elite level through different pathways, with the most common being a linear pathway from junior to elite senior athlete. This study also highlighted the importance of the talent development environment (e.g., appropriate training, competition opportunities, social support and good coaching) in facilitating the successful transition of a talented junior through to elite senior levels in T&F.
In Study 2, semi-structured interviews were used to elicit a deeper understanding of the developmental experiences of 14 elite junior T&F athletes who transitioned into elite senior careers. Based on the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP), factors specific to development during the specialising (ages 12–15 yrs) and investment
(16 + yrs) stages were investigated. Results revealed training, competition, social support and personal factors as the four key dimensions of talent development during these stages. During the specialising stages, commensurate with the DMSP, athletes were able to balance T&F training with involvement in various other sports and did not focus on their main senior event or fully invest in specialised intense training until towards the end of the investment stage. Experiences at junior international competitions, support from parents and peers and coaching appropriate to their developmental stage were also instrumental in their successful development.
Study 3 also used semi-structured interviews to elicit the views of Australian
T&F coaches’ in relation to key factors instrumental in the successful development of elite Australian T&F athletes. This study involved 12 coaches who collectively coached over 100 athletes to international level (junior and senior), including several global
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medallists; thus they provided a comprehensive and unique viewpoint. Coaches perceived athlete characteristics and how talent was fostered through coaching as vital to successful development, and also highlighted several barriers facing athletes on their upward trajectory. Characteristics such as having naturally sound biomechanics and the ability to compete and cope under pressure, together with a strong work ethic and the determination to persevere through the tough times, were some important qualities coaches associated with successful athletes. Fostering talent required access to coaches who provided stage-appropriate training matched to the physical and psychological needs of the individual and facilitated strong coach–athlete relationships and a positive training environment. Conversely, coaches identified the lack of unity between the two main athletic bodies (Little Athletics [LA] [for 5–16 yrs] and Athletics Australia [AA]
[for senior athletics]) as responsible for some talent loss in the transition from the junior to senior arm of the sport. Additionally, coaches perceived that the highly competitive structure of LA encourages early specialisation, partly because of the lack of appropriate coach education at that level, as well as pressure to perform in the results- driven culture. Coaches also felt that the lack of support from the sport (e.g., financial, sport science) for talented juniors trying to transition to elite senior status meant many dropped out because it was too difficult to balance study/work with the increased commitment needed to achieve at the elite senior level.
The findings from each of the studies were integrated and analysed within
Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical framework to provide a better understanding of the key factors associated with the long-term developmental process for elite Australian T&F athletes. Combined results highlighted the importance of matching training loads and volumes to athletes’ physical, mental and emotional development, continuing to incorporate other sports and delaying specialisation until late adolescence. Access to a
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wide variety and level of competition was also very important, as was psychosocial networks (parents, coaches, peers, sporting bodies), who provided physical resources, tangible and emotional support, motivation and opportunities to develop the physical and psychological skills needed to progress to elite senior levels of T&F. These findings are intended to provide valuable information for all stakeholders (coaches, athletes, parents, administrators) to help identify, develop, retain and maximise the potential of talented young athletes in Australian T&F. In addition, it is hoped the results will provide an impetus and platform for further research, in addition to providing robust evidence upon which AA (the governing body) can base future decisions for the design, delivery and evaluation of their elite programs.
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Publications from the Thesis
Chapter 5
Huxley, D. J., O’Connor, D., & Larkin, P. (2017). The pathway to the top: Key factors
and influences in the development of Australian Olympic and World
Championship track and field athletes. International Journal of Sports Science
& Coaching, 17(2), 264–275. doi: 10.1177/1747954117694738.
Chapter 6
Huxley, D. J., O’Connor, D., & Bennie, A. (2017). Olympic and World Championship
track and field athletes’ experiences during the specialising and investment
stages of development: A qualitative study with Australian male and female
representatives. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health, 10(2), 256-
272. 10.1080/2159676X.2017.1393452
International Conference Presentation
Chapter 7
‘Expert coach perceptions of facilitators and barriers to the successful development of
Australian T&F athletes’. Paper by Dianne Huxley presented at the International
Sports Coaching Conference, University of John Moore, Liverpool, August
2017.
Components of this thesis have also been presented at:
i) Faculty of Education and Social Work, Research Students Forum, 2014 &
2016, University of Sydney, Australia.
ii) The Tasmanian Institute of Sport Target Talent Squad Training Day, Hobart,
September, 2017.
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Table of Contents
Thesis Declaration ...... ii Acknowledgements ...... iii Abstract ...... iv Publications from the Thesis ...... viii Table of Contents ...... ix List of Tables ...... xiv List of Figures ...... xv Definitions ...... xvi Additional Definitions ...... xviii Introduction ...... 1
1.1 Background ...... 1
1.2 Study Rationale/Significance ...... 3
1.3 Study Aim ...... 5
1.4 Overview of Study Design ...... 6
1.5 Thesis Overview...... 9
Literature Review ...... 10
2.1 Talent Identification and Development ...... 10
2.1.1 How is Talent Developed? ...... 12
2.1.2 Track and Field Talent Identification/Development in Australia ...... 15
2.1.3 Track and Field Athlete Development Pathway in Australia ...... 17
2.2 General Track and Field Development ...... 21
2.2.1 Transition from Elite Junior to Elite Senior Athlete ...... 22
2.2.2 Dropout Rates ...... 29
2.2.3 Injuries in Track and Field ...... 31
2.3 Key Factors Influencing Athlete Development...... 33
2.3.1 Training ...... 33
2.3.2 Competition ...... 38
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2.3.3 Psychosocial Factors ...... 40
2.4 Summary ...... 59
Theoretical Framework ...... 61
3.1 Preamble ...... 61
3.2 Bioecological Theory of Human Development ...... 61
3.2.1 Processes ...... 64
3.2.2 Persons ...... 64
3.2.3 Context ...... 66
3.2.4 Time ...... 67
3.3 Overview of Supporting Athlete Development Models...... 69
3.4 The Developmental Model of Sport Participation ...... 71
3.5 Athlete Career Transition Models ...... 78
3.6 Chapter Summary...... 81
Methodology ...... 82
4.1 Philosophical Considerations ...... 82
4.1.1 Quantitative (Positivism/Realist) ...... 83
4.1.2 Qualitative (Constructivism/Interpretivist) ...... 84
4.1.3 Pragmatism and Mixed Methodological Approaches ...... 86
4.2 Mixed Method Typologies ...... 89
4.2.1 Mixing (Partial)...... 89
4.2.2 Timing (Sequential) ...... 90
4.2.3 Weighting (Dominant Status) ...... 91
4.3 Research Design ...... 92
4.4 Integration of Results from Both Phases ...... 96
The Pathway to the Top—Key Factors and Influences in the Development of Australian and World Championship Track and Field Athletes . 99
x
5.1 Introduction ...... 99
5.2 Methods ...... 103
5.2.1 Participants...... 103
5.2.2 Measures ...... 104
5.2.3 Reliability and Validation ...... 105
5.2.4 Data Analysis ...... 105
5.3 Results ...... 106
5.3.1 Demographics and General Background ...... 107
5.3.2 Participation Milestones ...... 109
5.3.3 Athlete Pathways to Olympic Games and/or World Championships ...... 111
5.4 Discussion ...... 112
5.4.1 Demographics ...... 113
5.4.2 Milestones ...... 114
5.4.3 Pathways ...... 117
5.5 Conclusion ...... 121
Olympic and World Championship Track and Field Athletes’ Experiences During Specialising and Investment Stages of Development ...... 122
6.1 Introduction ...... 122
6.2 Methods ...... 125
6.2.1 Participants...... 125
6.2.2 Data Collection ...... 127
6.2.3 Data Analysis ...... 128
6.2.4 Quality Standards ...... 129
6.3 Results ...... 130
6.3.1 Training ...... 131
6.3.2 Competition Experiences ...... 135
6.3.3 Social Support ...... 137
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6.3.4 Personal Factors ...... 141
6.4 Discussion ...... 142
6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 148
Australian Elite Track and Field Coaches’ Perceptions of the Key Factors That Contribute to a Successful Trajectory to the Elite Level in Track and Field ...... 151
7.1 Introduction ...... 151
7.2 Method ...... 156
7.2.1 Research Strategy and Philosophy ...... 156
7.2.2 Procedure for Data Collection ...... 158
7.2.3 Data Analysis ...... 160
7.2.4 Quality Assurance/Trustworthiness ...... 161
7.3 Results ...... 162
7.3.1 Athlete Characteristics ...... 165
7.4 Developing the Talent ...... 169
7.4.1 Professional Knowledge ...... 169
7.4.2 Coach–Athlete Relationship ...... 172
7.4.3 Positive Training Environment ...... 176
7.5 Barriers to Development ...... 178
7.5.1 Fractured System ...... 178
7.5.2 Results-driven Culture ...... 180
7.5.3 Talent Development Programs ...... 182
7.6 Discussion ...... 185
Discussion of key findings, practical implications, strengths, limitations, and recommendations ...... 194
8.1 Introduction ...... 194
8.2 Process-Person-Context-Time Model Overview ...... 195
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8.3 Processes…………………………………………………………………………………197
8.4. Persons ...... 202
8.5 Context ...... 205
8.5.1 Parents (and families) ...... 206
8.5.2. Coaches ...... 208
8.5.3. Peers ...... 211
8.5.4. The Sport System ...... 212
8.6 Time ...... 214
8.7 Practical implications ...... 216
8.8 Strengths and Limitations ...... 223
8.9 Future research ...... 226
8.10. Summary ...... 228
References ...... 231 Appendices ...... 271
Appendix A: Participant Consent & Track and Field Athlete Development Questionnaire ...... …………………………………………………………………277
Appendix B: Human Ethics Approval ...... 300
Appendix C: Participant Information Sheet ...... 302
Appendix D: Sample Interview Schedule (Athletes) ...... 304
Appendix E: Sample Interview Schedule (Coaches) ...... 306
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Ratings of the Empirical Evidence in Relation to the Seven Developmental Model of Sport Participation Postulates ...... 77
Table 4.1 Summary of the Key Features (Based on Hanson et al., 2005) of Sequential Mixed Methods Research Designs ...... 91
Table 5.1 Snapshot of 73 Respondents’ Demographics and General Background ...... 108
Table 5.2 Participation Milestones of Athletes (Sample Size [n], Mean [M]and Standard Deviation [SD]) ...... 110
Table 6.1 Level of Success of Participant Athletes at Domestic and International Junior and Senior Competitions ...... 126
Table 7.1 Coaches’ Demographic Data...... 158
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Overview of data collection and analysis procedures for the study ...... 8
Figure 2.1. Little Athletics and Athletics Australia competition pathways ...... 19
Figure 3.1. Model depicting the relationship between the bioecological model and various athlete development/transition models ...... 70
Figure 3.2. DMSP developmental trajectories, activities and outcomes based on representation by Côté et al. (2003, p. 197) ...... 75
Figure 4.1 Visual model of the research (adapted from Ivankova et al., 2006) ...... 98
Figure 5.1. Athlete pathways taken to achieve participation in Olympic Games and World Track and Field Championships (or level/Representation) ...... 112
Figure 7.1. Key factors perceived by elite coaches as important in elite T&F development ...... 164
xv
Definitions
Definition/description Abbreviation
Athletics Australia—the national governing body for the sport of AA athletics in Australia, and is recognised as such by the International Association of Athletics Federations, Australian Olympic Committee, Australian Paralympic Committee, Australian Commonwealth Games Association and the Australian Sports Commission (http://www.athletics.com.au/About-Us/About-Athletics-Australia).
Australian Institute of Sport—Australia’s strategic high-performance AIS sport agency, responsible and accountable for leading the delivery of Australia’s international sporting success.
Australian Sports Commission—the Australian Government’s ASC primary national sports administration and advisory agency providing funding to the sport sector (https://www.ausport.gov.au/about/what_is_the_asc).
International Association of Athletics Federations—the governing IAAF body for athletics that conducts international track and field, cross country and road running and walking events.
Little Athletics—a uniquely Australian modified athletics program for LAs children aged 5–16 years. The emphasis is on fun, participation, performance, technique and getting involved with your family in physical and healthy activity (http://littleathletics.com.au/Home).
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Definition/description Abbreviation
Olympic Games—held every four years for multiple sports including OG the track and field disciplines of track running, jumping and throwing, race walking and road running (marathon). Over 200 nations participate in track and field at the OG (minimum eligible age is 16 yrs).
Track and field (also known as athletics) is a global sport and the T&F largest at the Olympic Games, contributing around 20% of all participants with just over 2,000 male and female athletes participating in the 2016 Rio Olympic Games.
IAAF World Championships in Track and Field—a biennial global WC competition conducted by the IAAF with the outdoor and indoor championships on alternate years.
IAAF World Junior Championships in Track and Field—a biennial WJC global competition conducted by the IAAF for competitors 19 years or younger. In Australia athletes must be turning 17, 18 or 19 in the year of the competition to be eligible for selection.
IAAF World Youth Championships in Track and Field—a biennial WYC global competition conducted by the IAAF for competitors 17 years or younger. In Australia athletes must be turning 16 or 17 in the year of the competition to be eligible for selection.
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Additional Definitions
Athletics Track and field athletics
Athlete A track and field athlete
Medallist An athlete winning a gold, silver or bronze (i.e., 1st,
2nd or 3rd place) medal in a global competition
Finalist An athlete who qualified for a final at a global
competition; normally top 8 for event run in lanes and
top 12 for other events
Global senior competitions Olympic Games, World Championships in Track and
Field (indoor & outdoor)
Global junior competitions World Youth or World Junior Championships in Track
and Field
Elite athlete An athlete competing in any of the above competitions
Senior athlete An open age athlete
Junior athlete An athlete eligible to compete in the World Junior
Championships
Youth athlete An athlete eligible to compete in the World Youth
Championships in Track and Field
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
This chapter outlines the study background, rationale and aims as well as the research methodology used to understand the key factors in the development of elite track and field (T&F) athletes in Australia.
1.1 Background
The concept of talent in a competitive sports environment is greatly influenced by the ensuing value and recognition afforded by the subculture and wider society in which it exists (Grove, Lavallee & Gordon, 1997; Trankle & Cushion, 2006).
According to Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde and Whalen (1993), talent ‘is a label of approval we place on traits that have a positive value in the particular context in which we live’ (p. 23) and this is very true in Australia where sporting talent and success is an indelible, highly valued and respected part of the culture. There is a strong connection between the Australian sense of nationalism, patriotism and our success at the international level, which has resulted in an impressive and formidable reputation worldwide (Stewart, Nicholson, Smith & Westerbeek, 2005). T&F is one of the premier
Olympic sports and almost every school in Australia has a T&F carnival, exposing most children at some stage in their life to the sport.
Australian Olympic T&F has enjoyed a high profile over many decades and
Australia’s athletic stars such as Herb Elliot, John Landy, Cathy Freeman and more recently Steve Hooker, Sally Pearson and Jared Tallent are publicly revered. At the
2000 Olympic Games (OG), Cathy Freeman was the toast of the nation, winning the
400 m event; in 2008 Steve Hooker soared to great heights in taking out the pole vault gold medal; and in 2012, Sally Pearson (100 m hurdles and then later World Champion,
2017) and Jarrod Tallent (50 km walk) emulated these feats by winning gold in their respective events. In the past, these wonderful personal and ‘national’ victories may
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have been enough to perpetuate the ‘perception’ of success at elite level but given the rigour and accountability now associated with professional sport, such victories may not be sufficient measures of the validity and effectiveness of our current talent identification and development (TID) programs and overall philosophy in T&F
(Australian Sports Commission [ASC], 2017).
For their nations be competitive on the professional world sporting stage, governments, including that of Australia, must invest substantial sums of money in national sporting organisations (NSOs), sponsors, coaches and athletes, with expectations on returns for the money, time and energy spent on achieving results
(Barker-Ruchti, Barker, Rynne & Lee, 2016; Gulbin, 2011; Sotiriadou, Gowthrop & De
Bosscher, 2014). In 2014–15 alone, the Australian Government invested $130 million in
Olympic and Paralympic Sports (ASC, 2017a). In T&F, funding increased sevenfold from approximately $3 million leading up to the Sydney Olympic Games (Athletics
Australia [AA], 2018a), to over $8.5 million for the Rio Olympic Games (ASC, 2017a).
Eighty % of this funding was channelled into AA’s junior and senior high-performance programs (HPs) for able-bodied and para-athletes (AA, 2017d). However, despite the significant increase in funding and the key objectives of the AA HP to improve
Australia's standing at major international championships (Elliot, 2004), Australia dropped from 8th in 2009 to 17th in 2017 in the world T&F rankings (International
Association of Athletics Federations [IAAF], 2018). Almost all of AA’s funding comes from the Australian Government and is linked to the ability to provide evidence-based
HPs that drive ‘outcome success’ (ASC, 2017a). Therefore, it is imperative for the future of the sport in Australia to understand more about the holistic development of athletes who have competed at the highest global level in T&F, together with the views of coaches who have developed many of these elite athletes.
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1.2 Study Rationale/Significance
The high level of professionalism and increasing performance standards at the international level of T&F competitions means it is more difficult to perform successfully on the world stage (De Bosscher, Heyndels, DeKnop, van Bottenburg &
Shibli, 2008). For some countries, qualifying to compete in major international competitions is seen as success (Stotlar & Wonders, 2006) but in Australia success is measured by the number of athletes reaching the podium (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009).
There is a much greater focus on success at international youth competitions as a pathway to senior international success (Anshel & Lidor, 2012; Li, De Bosscher, Pion,
Weissensteiner & Vertonghen, 2018), yet statistics indicate that a high percentage of talented junior athletes across a range of sports do not reach elite senior levels in their sport (Brouwers, De Bosscher & Sotiriadou, 2012; Green, 2007; Schmacher, Mroz,
Mueller, Schmid & Ruecker, 2006), including T&F (Bussmann & Alfermann, 1994;
Enoksen, 2011; Hollings & Hume, 2010, 2011; Vanden Auweele, De Martelaer,
Rzewnicki & De Knop, 2004). For example, approximately 70% of all Australian athletes who competed between 1986 and 2006 at the World Junior Championships in in Track and Field (WJC) did not go on to represent Australia at the senior international level (Hollings & Hume, 2011). A more recent study of Australian athletes revealed that only 10–15% of all athletes who had competed in the World Youth Championships in
Track and Field (WYC) (U18) and/or WJC in 2000/2001, represented Australia as a senior international athlete in 2011/12 (Bidder, 2013). Given these athletes would have been at their peak T&F athletic age by 2011/12 (Hollings, Hopkins & Hume, 2014a;
Shibli & Barrett, 2011), and the significant financial and personal resources invested in
T&F HPs in the last few decades, this is a very concerning statistic. Therefore, it is
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important to identify, retain and maximise the potential of young talent in the sport of
T&F.
In Australian T&F, the success of senior HPs rests on the Junior High
Performance Program (JHP) as a pathway to elite performance in adulthood (AA,
2018e). However, apart from one study revealing that only 25% of athletes selected in the AA U17 talent squad achieved senior national ranking six years later (Bidder, 2013), there is a scarcity of information related to our understanding of factors associated with a successful trajectory to elite-level T&F in Australia. Therefore, by investigating the talent development pathway of Australian T&F athletes who have competed at the highest senior level, this study aims to address the gap in our understanding of the current AA talent development framework.
Despite the plethora of literature examining factors influencing elite athlete development, such as genetics (Collins et al., 2004; Costa et al., 2009), training type and volume (Baker, Côté & Deakin, 2005; Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Romer, 1993), psychological characteristics (Gould, Dieffenbach & Moffett, 2002) and social support factors (Côté, 1999; Henriksen, 2010; Mills, Butt, Maynard & Harwood, 2014), there are still many contested perceptions on how best to develop elite senior talent. In
Australia, very little is known about the development of elite T&F athletes.
Consequently, governing bodies’ design, delivery and evaluation of their high- performance T&F programs tends to be based on anecdotes or ‘story lines’ authored by practitioners, rather than research evidence presented by academics or consultants
(Houlihan, Bloyce & Smith, 2009). While evidence-based research is commonly utilised in decision making and policy formation in areas such as healthcare (Dobrow,
Goel, Lemieux-Charles & Black, 2006), it is not as well accepted in sport (Bishop,
2008; Pain & Harwood, 2004). A recent study by Holt and colleagues (2017) investigating the use of empirical research by Canadian NSOs indicated there is often a
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT
disconnect between research and its practical application. For example, practitioners find it difficult to interpret theories and models or understand how ‘academic research’ is relevant and beneficial to coaches and athletes. However, some NSOs in the Holt et al. (2017) study felt research had been beneficial when justifying and implementing programs and policies because it provides credibility for what they are trying to accomplish.
By drawing on the real-life experiences and perceptions of athletes and coaches, this thesis aims to provide credible evidence related to the successful development of
Australian athletes. Towards the goal of ensuring there is a ‘connection between research and practice’, the findings in this thesis have applied implications for various stakeholders (coaches, parents, administrators, athletes). By providing both quantitative and qualitative evidence in relation to the development of Australian elite senior T&F athletes, this thesis may help facilitate the transition of more talented young athletes into successful elite senior athletes, further enhancing the success of future HPs.
1.3 Study Aim
The broad purpose of this study was to investigate the key factors that influence the development of Australian Olympic and World Championship (WC) T&F athletes.
To achieve these aims, this study sought the perspective of Australian Olympic and WC
T&F athletes and coaches. The following research questions were established to guide the study:
1. What are the key developmental influences, milestones and specific athlete
pathways of elite senior athletes who have competed for Australia at the
highest global level (Olympic Games and/or World Track and Field
Championships) between 1956 and 2013?
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT
2. What are the athlete experiences during the specialising (ages 13–15 yrs) and
investment stages (ages 16–19 yrs) that underpin the development of elite
Australian junior track and field athletes who transitioned into elite senior
careers?
3. What are elite Australian coaches’ perceptions of the key factors that
contribute to a successful trajectory towards the elite level in track and field?
By focusing on both a top down (i.e., how successful seniors performed when young) and bottom up (i.e., the pathway of elite junior athletes), this thesis makes a valuable and holistic contribution to the talent development literature as studies tend to focus on one of these aspects of talent development in isolation from the other. This study is the first of its kind in Australia, and it is hoped the results will provide the impetus and platform for further research, in addition to valid and robust evidence on which AA (sport governing body) can base future decisions for the design, delivery and evaluation of their elite programs.
1.4 Overview of Study Design
A mixed method (MM) design incorporating both quantitative and qualitative phases was used. The rationale for using a MM design was based on the belief that neither a purely quantitative nor purely qualitative study could address the nature nor complexity of the phenomenon being studied (Greene, 2007; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie &
Turner, 2007). Accordingly, the sequential MM used previously in various research in both health (Ogilvie, 2015; Wiseman, 2015) and elite sport (Hollings, 2013) was deemed the most appropriate design to best answer the research questions being addressed (Creswell & Plano-Clarke, 2011; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2006; Tashakkori
& Teddlie, 1998). This method allowed for the data collection and analysis of each stage to be done separately, and then amalgamated and synthesised in the final
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT
interpretation and discussion stage to more comprehensively address the research questions.
The quantitative phase involved participants completing an extensive questionnaire addressing the central research question. In line with previous sporting and health research, the quantitative phase was conducted first to identify key factors in athlete development which then informed the choice of interview participants for the qualitative phases (Hollings, 2013; Ogilvie, 2015; Wiseman, 2015). A key purpose of the qualitative stage was to explain in more depth and detail the results from the quantitative phase (Creswell & Plano-Clarke, 2011). The sub-questions were addressed through semi-structured interviews with purposively sampled athletes and coaches. The athlete sample included Australian representatives at both junior and senior global T&F competitions. The coaches were selected for the interviews on the basis of their extensive experience and expertise in coaching junior and senior T&F athletes at international level. Figure 1.1 provides an overview of the data and analysis procedures followed for the study.
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT
Quantitative Phase Collected descriptive statistics providing outline of key areas influencing successful development of elite athletes (e.g. demographics, development pathways, training, competition, and injury history, influence of family, coaches, peers & sporting system). Revealed correlative patterns and prevalence of responses across study sample
Identify key interview Chapter 5: Pathways to the groupings for Quant Data top: Key factors and QUALITATIVE Phase Analysis influences in the development interviews & of Australian Olympic and (Provide explanation for Results World track and field patterns observed in survey) athletes.
Chapter 6: Olympic and World track and field athletes experiences during the specialising and investment stages of development
Chapter 8: Discussion
Integrate relevant findings from quant
phase (Chapter 5) and Chapter 7: qual phase (Chapter 6 &
Elite athlete development: 7) into final discussion, High performance coaches’ conclusions and perceptions and practices recommendations
Figure 1.1. Overview of data collection and analysis procedures for the study
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1.5 Thesis Overview
This thesis incorporates seven chapters. The current chapter has provided an overview of the entire project and processes involved in identifying and understanding the key factors involved in the development of Australian elite T&F athletes from both athletes’ and high-performance coaches’ perspectives. In Chapter 2, the relevant literature associated with athlete development is examined and critically analysed, while
Chapter 3 provides an explanation and justification for the theoretical framework. The main framework underpinning the research is Bronfenbrenner’s (1999) bioecological theory of human development (Process–Person–Context–Time [PPCT] model).
However, to broaden the scope to examining elite athlete development, the
Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and Athlete Career Transition (ACT) models by Stambulova (2003) and Wyllemann and Lavellee (2004) are used to complement and support the PPCT model. Chapter 4 outlines the methodology underpinning the decisions and choices of the most appropriate methods for data collection, analysis and synthesis of the information pertaining to the development of the study cohort. Chapters 5–7 present findings from the individual studies conducted in relation to the main research question and sub- questions as outlined in Figure 1.1. In Chapter 8, the data are integrated with the main findings of the quantitative and qualitative studies and collectively discussed within the main and supporting theoretical frameworks. In addition, the final chapter considers the study limitations, implications for policy and practice and recommendations for future research in relation to the development of elite T&F both in Australia and internationally.
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Literature Review
The aim of this thesis is to examine and understand the key processes and influences on the development of Australian T&F athletes who compete at the highest levels of their sport (OG and/or WC). This literature review consists of two main sections, each further divided into subsections. An extensive systematic review was conducted for the thesis proposal using Google Scholar© and relevant data bases (SPORTdiscus and PsycINFO) and specific Track and Field websites (Athletics Australia© and International
Association of Athletics Federations©) using keywords ‘athlete development’, ‘talent development models’, elite junior development’ ’transition in sport’ and athletics (track and field) from 1970 to 2013. These were updated over the ensuing years (2014-2018) using the above databases.
The first section provides an overview of the TID and within-career transition literature; the second section examines the literature associated with the key influencing factors in the development of sporting expertise.
2.1 Talent Identification and Development
Although the terms ‘talent identification’ and ‘talent development’ may have been represented in the literature as one concept (i.e., TID), they are not synonymous.
Talent identification is defined as the process of recognising current participants
(usually prior to adulthood) with the potential to excel in a particular sport or task
(Cobley, Schorer & Baker, 2013; Williams & Reilly, 2000), while talent development pertains to the learning environment (e.g., appropriate training and resources) required to maximise this potential (Abbott & Collins, 2004; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams &
Philippaerts, 2008).
The identification and development of elite athletes is not a new process or science; rather, it dates back to the ancient Olympics (approximately 776 BCE) when
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Greek cities provided schools to develop sporting expertise (Olympic Museum, 2002).
This process has continued throughout history and in more recent times with the well- documented and researched talent identification (TID) and talent development programs
(TDPs) of the German Democratic Republic and Soviet Union. From the 1950 to 1980s, both nations employed a centrally planned system of testing, ranking and selective filtering of talented athletes from childhood (Baker & Schorer, 2010; Lidor, Côté &
Hackfort, 2009; Riordan, 1991).
While it can be argued that such systems have identified great talent in the past
(Schumacher et al., 2006; Sotiriadou, Shilbury & Quick, 2008; Ziemainz & Gulbin,
2002), basing identification on discrete one-dimensional and subjective measures of a young athlete’s current performance level (physical, psychological or behavioural) at a time normally associated with unstable development has proven ineffective in predicting future success (Abbott, Button, Pepping & Collins, 2005; Lidor et al., 2009;
Martindale, Collins & Daubney, 2005). For example, by selecting only those young athletes who fit all the specific criteria at the time of selection, many other young athletes who are not ready or able to satisfy the selection criteria—because of individual timing and rate of maturation—are often overlooked (Abbott & Collins, 2002; Abbott et al., 2005; Phillips, Davids, Renshaw & Portus, 2010). There is also substantial supporting literature highlighting the low transition rates (approximately 2%) from
TID/TDP programs to senior international success in a range of sports and nations (as cited in Güllich & Cobley, 2017, p. 81).
In response to the shortcomings of such identification programs and the increasing focus by many nations on achieving sporting success, there has been a shift in emphasis from the Eastern European approach of talent identification to a more
Western approach of talent development (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2001; Martindale et al., 2005). In the Western world, talent development is viewed as more significant in
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achieving world-class performances because it requires long-term training in an optimal environment (Abbott, Collins, Sowerby & Martindale, 2007; Gagné, 2004; Vaeyens et al., 2008). This approach has seen the establishment of several national sporting institutes, many based on the Australian system that was viewed as a leader in the field from its inception through to the Sydney Olympic Games (Green & Oakley, 2001). The
Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) was established in 1981 with the aim of developing athletes and enhancing sports performance in Australia through the provision of facilities and funding to sporting organisations and potential elite athletes (ASC, 2002).
Other countries including Canada and England followed Australia’s lead, setting up, respectively, the Canadian Sport Centre in 1994 (Association of Sports Performance
Centres, 2014) and the English Institute of Sport in 2002 (English Institute of Sport,
2017). The main focus of these programs is on athlete development via provision of top- level coaching, access to training and sporting facilities and the support of sport science
(e.g., biomechanics, nutrition, sports psychology) and medical services.
However, despite athletes having access to elite performance centres, TDPs and athlete services, Australia has dropped in the T&F world rankings (as per placing tables at the World Track and Field Championships [WC]) from 8th in 2011 to 17th in 2017
(IAAF, 2018). By examining the development of successful senior elite T&F athletes, including the pathways they followed to the top, this thesis hopes to provide some empirical evidence beneficial to policy planning for future TID programs in Australia.
2.1.1 How is Talent Developed?
Within the literature there is general consensus that talent is a combination of innate or genetic characteristics together with specific and deliberate learning/practice in an environment conducive to maximising potential (Abbott & Collins, 2004; Abbott et al., 2007; Bailey & Morley, 2006; Baker & Horton, 2004; MacNamara, Button, &
Collins, 2010a, 2010b; Tucker & Collins, 2012). However, there is less agreement in
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relation to the contribution of each, or the optimum pathway for maximising an individual’s talent potential (Lidor et al., 2009). This is reflected aptly by the view that talent across all domains ‘is not a possession acquired by an individual, nor a fixed property of a performer, but rather a dynamically varying relationship captured by the constraints imposed by the environment and the resources of a performer’ (Arujo &
Davids, 2011 p. 24). In relation to sport and as an outcome of his studies on the development of elite Scandinavian athletes in T&F, sailing and kayaking, Henriksen
(2010) defined the development of athletic talent as:
A process of transformation of the innate potential of an athlete into the
qualities, abilities, skills and performance excellence that are required in his/her
sport over years of practice and competition and through interaction with both
sporting and non-sporting environments. (p. 28)
A range of studies have examined individual aspects of talent development processes including dynamic influences such as the type and volume of sport-specific training (Baker et al., 2005; Ericsson et al., 1993; Gulbin, Weissensteiner, Oldenziel, &
Gagné, 2013b; Ward, Hodges, Starkes & Williams, 2007), coaching techniques and strategies (Gilbert, Gilbert & Trudel, 2001a, 2001b; Gould, Collins, Lauer & Chung,
2007) and the influence of inherited physiological traits on performance (Rees et al.,
2016 ). For example, inherited talent has been linked to specific genetic factors associated with athlete performance, such as sprinting, power and strength abilities
(Costa et al., 2009; Guilherme, Silva, Burtuzzi, & Lancha Junior, 2018; Yang et al.,
2003) and endurance (Ma et al., 2013; Myerson et al., 1999; Niemi & Majamma, 2005;
Yang et al., 2003) There is also strong support for genetic links in sustaining sporting injuries, with studies revealing Achilles tendon (Collins, Posthumus & Schwellnus,
2010; September, Schwellnus & Collins, 2007), rotator cuff (Harvie et al., 2004) and ligament injuries (Flynn et al., 2005; Guth & Roth, 2013) have a potential genetic
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component associated with their occurrence It is important for sporting bodies to understand the nuances in these contributing factors in talent development to ensure the best programs addressing individual needs are put in place. For example, by recognising the differing physiological or biomechanical strengths of athletes, coaches are better able to plan appropriate training loads, strength or flexibility programs to ensure the best athlete outcomes.
Another major body of research has focused on the importance of psychological skills training and psycho-behavioural characteristics in talent development (Abbott &
Collins, 2004; Gould et al., 2002a; Mallet & Hanrahan, 2004). Research has highlighted the importance of psychological skills in differentiating between elite senior athletes where physical abilities, skills and training are much the same (Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, & Petersen, 1999). Psychological predictors have also been used at the junior elite level in terms of forecasting those more likely to succeed (Toering, Elferink-Gemser, Jordet & Visscher, 2009). While some psychological characteristics and traits, such as determination and the ability to cope with pressure, may differ between athletes at a young age (MacNamara et al., 2010a), research highlights that psychological skills can and should be taught as part of athlete development (Abbott & Collins, 2004; Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Collins, MacNamara,
& McCarthy, 2016).
The psychological aspects of athlete development are recognised as being crucial in the development of sporting expertise and are discussed in more detail in
Section 2.3.3.
Static factors such as sporting systems (Sotiriadou et al., 2008), the relative age effect (RAE) (Brazo-Sayavera, Martínez-Valencia, Müller, Andronikos & Martindale,
2016; Hollings, Hume & Hopkins, 2012) and the birthplace of athletes (Baker, Schorer,
Cobley, Schimmer & Wattie, 2009; MacDonald, Cheung, Côté & Abernethy 2009;
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Pennell, Cassidy & Gilbert 2017) have also been found to affect the development of sporting expertise. Another important body of literature has examined elite athlete talent development holistically, investigating the effect on elite athlete development of the mutual relationship between the individual and their environment (Henriksen,
Stambulova & Roessler, 2010a, 2010b, 2011; Macphail & Kirk, 2006; Martindale et al.,
2005; Martindale, Collins & Abraham, 2007; Mills et al., 2014; Strachan, Côté &
Deakin, 2011). These areas are discussed further in the various relevant subsections of this review as well as in the associated individual Chapters 5, 6 and 7.
2.1.2 Track and Field Talent Identification/Development in Australia
In the lead-up to the Sydney Olympic Games (2000), the ASC implemented the
Talent Search Program, a national initiative introduced and conducted from 1994 to
2000. The program targeted sports such as rowing and cycling as well as T&F, and to date has been the only formalised TID conducted in T&F. The program targeted adolescents aged 14–16 years, with selection based on the results achieved in anthropometric and sport-specific field tests. The program in general was quite successful in identifying talent but it could not be sustained because of lack of finances and human resources (ASC, 2017b). In 1999, AA established a funded national camps program providing development opportunities for aspiring OG and WJC competitors, and their personal coaches (AA, 2018c); however, no formal TID program was instigated until 2006/07. In 2006, as part of the National Junior High Performance
Program, the National Youth Development Program was initiated and has continued to grow and evolve into its current form, the Target Talent Program (TTP), which aimed
‘to support Australian athletes achieving world-class performances at a young age. We are supporting the individual needs of the athletes to develop Australia’s junior talent pool into athletes in the senior ranks’ (AA, 2018a). The current national program now also incorporates member state-based Local Target Talent Programs, all under AA’s
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‘high performance’ umbrella, providing TDPs for U17 and U19 athletes. However, based on consultation with various stakeholders (e.g., national and state coaches, personal coaches, athletes), AA will introduce some changes to the TDPs and pathways later in 2018 (AA, 2018e). The current U17 program will be replaced with a Future
Potential squad for U17 and U18 athletes, and the U19 squad will be replaced by the
Emerging Program. The Emerging Program differs from the existing U19 program in that it will have a greater focus on providing support over a longer period for athletes
(and their personal coaches) to help bridge the gap between WJC and making senior benchmark teams (OG/WC).
The selection criteria for the new programs remain the same, with national junior coaches (NJCs) selecting athletes into these squads based solely on competition performances (Australian Championships and WJC), achievement of nominal selection standards and the perceived potential to achieve international success as a senior athlete
(AA, 2018e). Scientific testing such as anthropometrics, field testing and psychological profiling will not be used to identify and develop athletes. However, the squad members, together with their personal coaches, will attend several camps each year for a concurrent coach and athlete education program in a variety of areas including psychology, injury prevention and management, nutrition, high-performance life skills, supplements education, strength and conditioning and recovery. Coaches will also have ongoing access to NJC for advice throughout the year (AA, 2018e). While early detection of talent may provide access to resources in coaching expertise, equipment, facilities and practice time it does not ensure later success (Anshell & Lidor, 2012).
Although no empirical studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of these
Australian T&F TID/TDP programs, an analysis of 140 athletes involved in U17 talent squads revealed that only 22% of the young athletes were still in the sport six years later
(Bidder, 2013). This is consistent with research conducted over 15 years in Germany
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that revealed early detection does not guarantee athletes will achieve at elite senior levels. Several studies reported only 19–24% of elite junior athletes involved in a TDP were still in an elite program five years later (Güllich 2014b). In addition, a longitudinal quantitative study of 244 German athletes from seven Olympic sports revealed that the older the athlete (19+ yrs) when they entered a talent squad, the more success they had at the senior elite level (Güllich & Emrich, 2012).
In light of these studies and the current lack of research in relation to the effectiveness of Australian T&F TDPs, understanding more about the development pathways of the successful senior athlete participants in this thesis may provide valuable evidence to support the new programs being piloted by AA in 2018.
2.1.3 Track and Field Athlete Development Pathway in Australia
The most common starting place for Australian T&F athletes is at school, with every child from approximately 5 years of age having the opportunity to participate in their school’s athletic carnival. For younger children who enjoy and show some talent in the sport during their primary education years (aged 5–11 yrs), the next step is usually joining a Little Athletics (LAs) club. LA is the uniquely Australian brand of modified athletics that was instigated in 1964 in response to a failing by the national body to provide the opportunity for children (U12) to participate in sport (LAA, 2017). The original Little Athletics Australia [LAA] format was aimed at children aged under 12 years; however, in the ensuing years the maximum age limit was increased to 14 years and the most current format caters for 5–16-year-olds. The alternative for young athletes not already participating in LAA is to join a club through AA’s nationwide program, more often commenced during their secondary school education (aged 13–18 yrs).
However as both AA and LAA support each other’s programs with dual registrations, many young athletes compete concurrently in the two separate pathways conducted during the T&F season (September–March). There is also a third participation pathway
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conducted by state and national school sporting bodies in the form of regional and state- based competitions for primary and secondary State Government, Independent and
Catholic schools (New South Wales [NSW] Combined Independent Schools Sports
Council, 2018; School Sport, Australia, 2018). These competitions are independent of both LAA and AA; however, state and national All Schools Track and Field and Cross
Country Championships are run by AA and the member states in conjunction with
School Sport Australia (AA, 2018b; Athletics NSW 2018; Schools Sport Australia,
2018b, 2018c). Within each pathway, athletes can progress through various levels of competition at regional, state, national and international level depending on their ability and results. Thus, children in Australia can participate in LA from as young as 5 years of age and from 8 years can train and participate in most of the same (modified) events as senior athletes. From the age of 8 years, young athletes, if good enough, can participate in their first State Championships and by 10 years in their first National
Championships (School Sport Australia) and international championships (Pacific
School Games). From the age of 15 years they can advance to the world stage through the IAAF WYC (U18), Commonwealth Youth Championships (U18), Youth Olympics
(U18) and IAAF WJC (U20). Figure 2.1 diagrammatically represents both the LA and
AA competition pathways; however, as the school pathway is interwoven with both it is not depicted separately.
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Little Athletics Pathway Athletics Australia Pathway Club Competition (5-16 years) Club Competition (12+ years)
Best Club athletes All athletes (12- 19yrs) eligible for state championships
Zone Championships (6-16 years)
Qualified athletes State Championships (13-19 only years)
Regional Championships Achieve (7-16years) qualifying standards or selected by State Qualified athletes only
National Junior (13-19 years) and senior (20+ years) State Championships Championships (8-16years)
Top placings at national Best championships athletes in plus achieving U13-U15 selection age groups criteria
National Championships (12- 14 years) Junior Senior International International Competition competition
Figure 2.1. Little Athletics and Athletics Australia competition pathways
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From a positive perspective it is clear there are multiple opportunities for
Australian children to be involved in the sport of T&F. However, given the potential negative physical and psychological affects, frequent exposure to increasing levels of competition from a very young age may be less conducive to long-term athlete development. From the physical perspective, previous studies have linked injuries in youth T&F athletes to excessive training loads and higher levels and intensity of competition during the adolescent growth periods (Dalton, 1992; Knowles et al., 2006;
Watson & DiMartino, 1987). In general, younger athletes have less coping skills (Holt,
Hoar & Fraser, 2005; Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010), so too much exposure to competition can increase performance anxiety and contribute to a loss of motivation, enjoyment level and self-confidence (Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; Coakley,
1992; Gould et al., 1999; Mountjoy et al., 2008).
Interestingly, two independent reviews of AA conducted in 2004 (Elliot, 2004) and 2015 (AA, 2015), made specific reference to the problems associated with LAA being conducted independently of AA, the sport’s governing body. The 2004 review acknowledged the difficulties in successfully transitioning young athletes from LA to senior athletics and recommended the two bodies work together to resolve the issues:
A significant issue for AA in the transition process for juniors in athletics from
LA is the change in cultures experienced between AA and LAA. The review
recognises that the delivery of LA is defined by different ages in each State. AA
should therefore encourage each MA [member association] to enter into
discussions with its State LA counterpart to agree on an appropriate transition
plan for athletes between little and senior athletics, including competition age
group categories, calendar co-ordination and introduction/orientation programs.
(Elliot, 2004, p. 11)
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It appears, however, that this recommendation was not taken up by AA and as outlined in the later review in 2015, poor transition rates between the two bodies remains a major problem in the sport:
There are a number of issues stemming from the AA–LAA split structure. The
most significant plays out in the transition of athletes between Little Athletics
and senior athletics … the disharmony between the two organisations has left
athletics with the lowest performing retention rates in Australia. (AA review,
2017, p. 20)
Given acknowledgement at the governing level of the sport, and the recognition in other sports and countries of the difficulties associated with the junior to senior transition, the next section provides an overview of the literature related to T&F development with a specific focus on ‘junior to senior’ transition literature.
2.2 General Track and Field Development
Studies specific to the development of T&F athletes have investigated individual aspects of development such as training experiences, dropout, injury profiles and the psychological challenges of T&F (Alonso et al., 2012; Bennell & Crossley, 1996;
Bussmann & Alfermann, 1994; Macphail, Gorely & Kirk, 2003; MacPhail & Kirk,
2006; Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004; Vernacchia, McGuire, Reardon, & Templin, 2000;
Young & Salmela, 2002). Since the inception of the WJC (1986) and WYC (1999) various studies have examined archival data from a statistical analysis perspective in relation to elite junior attrition rates and the senior performance of elite juniors (Grund
& Ritzdorf, 2006; Hollings & Hume, 2010, 2011; Vernacchia et al., 2000; Zelichenok,
2005). However, these studies did not consider the motives, reasons or attitudes behind these occurrences. In more recent years, qualitative T&F studies have examined more closely, from a holistic and environmental perspective, some of the influencing factors
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and difficulties associated with the transition and progression of elite junior athletes to elite senior level (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Henriksen et al., 2010b; Hollings, Mallet
& Hume, 2014; Shibli & Barrett, 2011). To understand more about the development of successful senior T&F athletes the literature examining elite junior to elite senior transition, dropout rand injury rates is examined next.
2.2.1 Transition from Elite Junior to Elite Senior Athlete
Talent development is a long-term process often likened to a miniature lifespan that begins in childhood and continues throughout an athlete’s career (Alfermann &
Stambulova, 2007). For continuity and success in this developmental process an athlete must progress through a series of developmental stages from their early years of participation until the maintenance of an elite senior sporting career. Green (2005) likened such transitions to experiencing culture shock as the young athlete must learn to relate and interact with a new reference group and adapt to new training loads and techniques, while also being required to perform at a higher level (Stambulova, 1994;
Stambulova, Franck, & Weibull, 2012). In addition to the physical demands, athletes must manage psychological, psychosocial and academic/vocational transitions often occurring at the same time (Bennie & O’Connor 2006; MacNamara et al., 2010b;
Wyllemann et al., 2004).
The transition from junior to senior levels of sport is recognised as the most challenging and stressful from both the sport (Stambulova, 1994, 2003) and non-sport perspective (Stambulova et al., 2012; Vanden Auweele et al., 2004; Wylleman &
Lavelle, 2004). This often results in very high attrition rates at the junior level, as reported by several studies conducted in tennis (Brouwers et al., 2012), cycling
(Schumacher et al., 2006) and a range of sports including volleyball, swimming and judo (Barreiros, Côté & Fonseca, 2014). Henriksen (2010) examined the talent development environment (TDE) of three successful Scandinavian sports clubs with
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athletes aged between 15–21 years, in T&F, kayaking and sailing. Henriksen identified quality coaching, good facilities, positive training environment and a long-term development focus as common factors contributing to the successful transition of talented juniors to elite senior levels in all sports. He concluded that the TDEs created by these clubs helped young athletes build the resources to overcome the career demands associated with this key sporting transition. In the next two sections, studies specific to the transition of elite junior T&F athletes are reviewed.
2.2.1.1 Quantitative Studies (Track and Field)
The WJC (U20) commenced in 1986 and since the mid-1990s various quantitative studies have been conducted in relation to the statistical progression of the participants. These studies have revealed two main factors. First, there are high attrition rates from elite junior ranks, with many nations reporting that less than 30% of their elite juniors transition to elite senior levels in T&F (Boccia at al., 2017; Enoksen, 2011;
Hollings & Hume, 2010, 2011; Kearny & Hayes, 2018; Shibli & Barrett, 2011; Vanden
Auweele et al., 2004). Second, junior athletes who medal or make a final at the elite junior world level have a greater chance of producing a similar result at senior elite- level competitions such as the OG and WC. Although Otte’s (2002) study of 835 WJC participants (1986–1996) reported 64% made improvements as senior athletes and 26% reached finals at WC/OG, Zelichenok (2005) found that 60–70% of medallists from the
WJC (1986–2004) did not go on to achieve any real success at elite senior level. More recent and extensive studies on transition rates from WJC to global senior competition level conducted by Hollings and Hume (2010, 2011) confirmed both the high attrition rates from elite junior ranks and that successful elite juniors were more likely to be successful as elite seniors. However, the authors acknowledged elite junior success was not a prerequisite for success at the elite senior level. This is supported by similar
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studies that have revealed senior athletes could medal at major championships without having achieved success or even competing in the WJC (Dick, 2013; Zelichenok, 2005).
In Hollings and Humes’s (2010) study, a retrospective analysis was conducted in relation to the 339 athletes who were a world senior champion, Olympic champion and/or medallist at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and had also competed at an IAAF
WJC (1989–2006). The results showed that 80% of the senior global champions or medallists had also been finalists at WJC level. However, in the same study, when viewed prospectively, over half the junior medallists did not achieve senior success and only 34% became finalists at the senior elite level. In a subsequent study investigating the progression of Australian (n = 406) and New Zealand (NZ) (n = 130) athletes who participated in the WJC from 1986 to 2009, Hollings and Hume (2011) found approximately 72% of all athletes did not go on to represent their country at the senior international level. Bidder’s (2013) study of Australian athletes who participated in the
WJC from 2000 to 2008 revealed even lower transition rates, with only 19% of the athletes making a senior team by 2012. Hollings and Hume (2011) reported that the average time for an Australian WJC medallist to medal in a senior global competition was 6.8 ± 4.6 years and for Swedish athletes in a range of sports, the transition from junior to senior levels took around 1–3 years (Stambulova et al., 2012, p. 82). Based on these results, it is reasonable to assume that some of the athletes who participated in the
WJC in 2006 and/or 2008 would not have transitioned by 2012. Additionally, the figures may reflect the higher standards and number of countries competing at senior international competitions and the more difficult selection standards to make a team.
Several studies have also tracked the progression of elite youth athletes (U17) who participated in the WYC since the inaugural championships in 1999. Grund and
Ritzdorf (2006) considered that the 21% of finalists (n = 266) from the 1999 WYC who also participated in subsequent OG (2000 and 2004) represented a respectable transition
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rate and confirmed the value of the competition. However, the study did not track the progress of the much greater number of talented young participants or provide a benchmark for what is a good transition rate. Two more recent studies of Australian athletes who participated in the WYC from 1999 to 2003 and 2001 to 2007 revealed low transition rates with only 21% (Probst, 2012) and 14.5% (Bidder, 2013), respectively, of these athletes representing Australia in major senior international competitions by 2012.
Given the athletes would be at their peak athletic age of 22–28 years (Hollings et al.,
2014; Shibli & Barrett, 2011) by 2011–12, and even accounting for differing transitional timeframes required by individual athletes, very few athletes had transitioned to international senior levels, which questions the value of an international competition for athletes at ages 15–17 years.
While quantitative studies report the number of athletes who transition, they reveal little about why some athletes make the transition and others fail to achieve elite senior status. Given the need by sporting nations around the world to maximise their investment in talent development, increasing numbers of qualitative studies examining the factors associated with successful junior to senior transitions have been conducted in the past decade.
2.2.1.2 Qualitative Studies
The career transition literature acknowledges the transition from junior to senior ranks is challenging both from the sport (Stambulova, 1994, 2003) and non-sport perspective (Stambulova, Pehrson, Olsson, 2017; Vanden Auweele et al., 2004;
Wylleman & Lavelle, 2004). As suggested by quantitative studies, attrition rates are very high in the sport of T&F, yet only a few studies have examined some of the underlying reasons. In this section the qualitative studies related to ‘within-career’ transitions in T&F are critiqued to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and reasons behind why some talented junior athletes transition successfully and others do
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not. In addition, because of the scarcity of studies relating to the junior to senior transition in T&F, studies in other sports are also reviewed to provide a greater breadth of understanding.
A recent study by Hollings and colleagues (2014) examined the experiences and reasons associated with the capacity of elite junior NZ athletes to transition to elite senior ranks. Interviews were conducted with 11 athletes who had participated in the
WJC in the period 1992–2006, five of whom medalled or made a final at the senior global level (OG or WC) and six who remained in the sport another 6–10 years but failed to represent at the elite senior level. Athletes who succeeded, achieved early success as senior athletes, confirming their ability and further enhancing their confidence to continue, a finding confirmed by a study of elite Australian T&F athletes
(Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In addition, the strong athlete identity and self-belief in becoming an Olympian meant they were prepared to sacrifice, in the short term, their academic/work careers. This was in contrast to the athletes who were not prepared to make a total commitment and compromise other areas of their life, and did not reach senior global levels in the sport. While a strong athlete identity can fuel an athlete’s commitment and focus to achieve athletic goals and promote positive psychological outcomes (Horton & Mack, 2000), having a more holistic and healthy personal identity can protect against the athlete’s self-worth being totally dependent on athletic performances (Cecić Erpič, Wylleman & Zupančič, 2004; Gustafsson, Hassmén, Kenttä
& Johansson, 2008). Various studies support the view that elite sporting success is more likely when athletes have balance in their lives. For example, studies of international athletes from a range of sports found balancing sport with study/work, social life and family provided a ‘buffer’ against challenges and difficulties such as coach–athlete conflict and serious injury (Debois et al., 2015; Poczwardowski, Diehl, O’Neil, Côté &
Haberl, 2014; Pummel et al., 2008).
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In theory there are many benefits of maintaining a balanced lifestyle, such as positive socialisation and better employability after an athletic career (Cecić Erpič,
Wylleman, & Zupančič 2005; Tshube & Feltz, 2015); however, in reality this is not always possible. For example, studying and working while trying to train and compete at the elite level can result in overload, increasing risk of injury and burnout and premature dropout from either sport or education (Stambulova, Engström, Franck,
Linnér & Lindahl, 2015). Injury and difficulty in balancing competing demands in their social and academic/work careers were reasons cited by elite NZ athletes (Hollings et al., 2014) for failing to make a successful transition to elite senior levels. Bennie and
O’Connor’s (2006) study of 13 elite Australian T&F athletes aged 18–24 years, six of whom had given up T&F, reported similar barriers to their NZ counterparts. However, successful athletes in both studies achieved success in their early transition years and were driven by definitive goals to achieve more in their sport. In addition, access to good social support (parents and peers), quality coaching and a positive training environment were instrumental in the transition of NZ and Australian athletes (Bennie
& O’Connor, 2006; Hollings et al., 2014). Successful athletes in the Australian study were able to balance sport with other areas of their life by making sacrifices such as deferring studies or taking longer to do their degree. Supporting this finding was a study involving 10 Canadian Olympic/world champions, the majority of whom highlighted that having financial security and combining work and/or study throughout their elite senior careers was important in their success. The athletes participated in a range of team and individual sports including athletics, but also acknowledged the importance of reducing or in some cases deferring studies in the lead-up to the OG (Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002).
An interesting comparison with the NZ and Australian studies is provided by some transitional studies from North America and Britain of similar-aged athletes in a
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range of sports including T&F (Brown et al., 2015; Giacobbi et al., 2004; Kim, Bloom,
& Bennie 2016; MacNamara & Collins, 2010; Tracey & Corlett 1995). These studies focused specifically on the normative sporting transition (junior to senior) coinciding with the academic, psychological and psychosocial changes and challenges associated with moving from secondary school to university/college. Associated with this transition are many non-normative transitions such as changing coaches, moving away from home and facing higher training and performance expectations (Bruner et al.,
2008; Finn & McKenna, 2010; Stambulova et al., 2012), as well as new personal and academic responsibilities (Lowe & Cook, 2003; MacNamara & Collins, 2010). For example, interviews with 16 first year United States (US) collegiate T&F athletes during their first six months of college revealed athletes felt both physically and mentally overwhelmed as well as isolated, and were struggling with the freedom and responsibility associated with their increased independence (Tracey & Corlett, 1995).
Similarly, based on interviews with six British junior international track athletes during their transition from secondary school to university/college, all athletes struggled with the increased physical demands of training and higher performance expectations
(MacNamara & Collins, 2010). Supporting these studies, British athletes (n = 9) in a range of sports (e.g., rugby union, cricket, T&F) experienced similar difficulties with increased training demands and expectations as well as injuries and poor performance
(Brown et al., 2015). All studies reported athletes struggled with balancing academic demands and, from the psychosocial perspective, dealing with changes in coaches, team mates, living away from home and reduced parental support.
In contrast to the studies of NZ and Australian athletes, where transitional challenges were identified, these North American and British studies aimed to also understand how athletes coped with such challenges and negotiated a successful transition. The student athletes reported using a variety of both internal and external
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resources to cope with the transitional demands. For example, personal characteristics such as dedication, self-discipline, a strong work ethic and high intrinsic motivation were important internal coping resources (Brown et al., 2015), and indicative of a readiness to invest and be fully committed to the transition process (Stambulova et al.,
2017). Strong time management and organisational skills were also important in coping with the transitional demands (Tracey & Corlett, 1995). A key external source assisting athletes’ transition identified by athletes as crucial to their successful transition was good social support from parents, coaches and team mates, university administrators, and especially older role models (Brown et al., 2015; Giacobbi et al., 2004; Kim et al.,
2016; Stambulova et al., 2017; Tracey & Corlett, 1995). This view was also supported by a study of the Swedish Välxjö T&F club, which looked at the successful transition of junior athletes as a product of the talent development environment provided by the club
(Henriksen et al., 2010). Henriksen and colleagues’ study revealed social support, senior role models (e.g., Olympic Champions training alongside younger athletes), good coaches, as well as a strong connection with other stakeholders involved in the sport
(e.g., schools, community, and the sport’s governing body), as contributing to the success of athletes. These studies highlight the importance of both social support and the collaboration between various levels of the support network (e.g., parents, coaches and administrators) in helping elite junior athletes transition to senior levels of sport.
2.2.2 Dropout Rates
One common feature of all sports related to athlete development is high dropout rates during mid to late adolescence. Studies specific to T&F have revealed dropout rates of talented young athletes are very high in Scandinavian (Enoksen, 2002; Jarver,
1979), Australasia (Bidder, 2013; Hollings & Hollings 2011; Probst, 2012) and other
European nations (Boccia et al., 2017; Kearney & Hayes, 2018; Shibli & Barrett, 2011).
Various studies of promising Swedish junior T&F athletes reveal that five years after
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commencing the sport, more than 80% of athletes dropout (Ek, 1977, as cited in
Enoksen, 2011, p. 22). In addition, Enoksen’s (2011) longitudinal MM study involving
320 Swedish national standard junior athletes (16 ± 2 yrs), reported similarly high dropout rates, with the highest rates occurring at age 17 years. A study of T&F participation in Russian special sports schools reported half the beginners group (9–11 yrs) had dropped out by age 15 years, and by 17 years only 1% remained in the elite training system (Suslov, 2008). An analysis by Bussman and Alfermann, (1994, p. 93) of several West German studies of dropout in male and female T&F athletes (1973–84), revealed a loss of 55–65% of athletes in the transition between adolescence and adulthood. Additionally, high dropout rates were reported in the candidate’s study of 51 elite junior female athletes (aged 16–18 yrs), with only 10% remaining at the elite national senior level four years later and 70–80% having left the sport (Bussman &
Alfermann, 1994). Similarly, in Belgium only 30% of junior age champions (aged 14–
18 yrs) went on to senior levels; 17% of these achieved elite senior success (Vanden
Auweele et al., 2004). Many talented junior athletes in England also fail to continue in the sport: a report by Shibli and Barratt (2011) disclosed that 52% of the top 20 15-year- old athletes (n = 513) had left the sport and only 12% were still in the top 20, five years later. A more recent quantitative study analysing the trajectory of British T&F athletes
(n = 134,313) revealed less than 30% of top 20 U13 athletes were also in the top 20 U20
(Kearney & Hayes, 2018). In Australia, dropout rates are also very high with various studies revealing less than 30% of juniors (club and/or elite) go on to senior levels (AA,
Annual Report, 2011–2012; Hollings et al., 2011; Tarbotton, 2001). Numerous reasons for youth dropout in T&F were cited by these studies, including burnout, lack of support and/or pressure from families, conflict with coaches, motivation and competing interests such as study and friends; however, injury was one of the main reasons (Bussman &
Alfermann, 1994; Enoksen, 2011).
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Given that injury is a major reason for dropout and the inability for some elite juniors to transition to senior levels (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Enoksen, 2011;
Hollings et al., 2014), understanding more about injuries in elite athletes may help plan strategies and prophylactic measures to reduce the loss of young talent. Accordingly, a brief examination of the literature in relation to injury in T&F studies is included.
2.2.3 Injuries in Track and Field
There have been numerous studies related to injuries specific to T&F athletes and the general consensus is that T&F is a sport associated with high injury rates across all participant contexts (Alonso et al., 2012 Bennell & Crossley, 1996; Jacobsson,
Bergin, Timpka, Nyce, & Dahlström, 2018).
Studies investigating injuries among young T&F athletes (12–17 yrs) in Sweden,
Finland and Britain reveal that 54–61% of athletes sustain an injury preventing training for at least 1 week and up to several months (D’Souza, 1994; Jacobsson et al., 2012,
2013; Orava & Puranen, 1978; Orava & Saarela, 1978). An Australian study revealed even higher rates of injury (76%) among similar-aged athletes in an elite youth program, with an average loss of 15 weeks training because of injury (Huxley, O’Connor, &
Healey, 2014). In contrast, studies of North American high school athletes report much lower injury rates, from as low as 6.8% and up to 38% in both T&F (Knowles et al.,
2006 Requa & Garrick, 1981; Watson & Dimartino, 1987) and cross country running
(Rauh, Margherita, Rice, Koepsell & Rivara, 2000; 2005). Possible reasons for the differences in these injury rates include the level of competition (high school v. national and international standard) and the study period.
As would be expected with the greater volume and intensity of training and competition at the senior elite T&F level, higher rates of injury have been reported.
Figures for injury rates range from as low as 42.8% in a Swedish study (Jacobsson et al., 2012) to 100% of all Chinese international-level T&F athletes (Yao, 2007). Bennell
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and Crossley (1976) reported 76% of elite Australian senior athletes in a one-year period sustained an injury resulting in time away from training, with a higher rate of
96% reported among British athletes (D’Souza, 1994).
These studies highlight some important areas in relation to understanding more about injuries in T&F and possible implications for successful elite athlete development. Several studies identified increased injury risks were associated with high training loads as measured by a combination of hours and training intensity and higher competition levels (D’Souza, 1994; Huxley et al., 2014; Jacobsen et al., 2013; Watson
& Di Martino, 1978). In addition, prior injuries were associated with increased injury risk in both US high school and Swedish elite youth and senior athletes (Jacobsson et al., 2013; Knowles et al., 2006; Raul et al., 2000). While some studies have reported no association between gender and injury rates (Bennell & Crossley, 1996; Coulon,
Lackey, Mok & Nile, 2001; D’Souza, 1994; Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987; Requa &
Garrick, 1981) others have reported higher rates in either males (Ahuja & Ghosh, 1982;
Jacobssen et al., 2013; Watson & Di Martino, 1987) or females (Raul, 2000, 2005).
Several studies also investigated possible links between coach experience and higher injury rates. Although no study has directly attributed injury to poor coaching, several studies reported coach-related issues such as lack of coach supervision, scientific training, training errors and poor technique as contributing factors (D’Souza, 1994;
Lysholm & Wiklander, 1987; Orava & Puranen, 1978; Watson & Di Martino, 1987;
Yao, 2007).
Despite the many differences among studies in methodology, injury definition, level and age of athlete, timeframe and limitations such as recall bias, the literature does highlight the prevalence and likelihood of T&F athletes sustaining injuries that impede their development. In turn, it emphasises the importance of all stakeholders in the sport being aware of the increased risk of injury as athletes move from their early
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development years to the more intense training regimes required for elite junior and senior athletes.
2.3 Key Factors Influencing Athlete Development
Research in relation to achieving elite sporting performance has indicated that this requires the interaction between a myriad of factors including individual characteristics (physical and psychological), training and competition, the environment
(e.g., sporting system, geographical location) and social factors (Collins & McNamara,
2012; Côté, 1999; Henriksen, 2010; Tucker & Collins, 2012; Williams & Reilly, 2000).
While the sum of all these factors contributes to optimal athlete development, without a significant commitment to training and the opportunity to experience appropriate competition, achieving at the elite level is difficult (Baker & Côté, 2006; Starkes, 2000).
These factors are discussed in the following two subsections.
2.3.1 Training
Lagrange (1889) defined training as a series of practices with the aim of preparing a human or an animal, as quickly as possible, for optimal performance in a given pursuit (McNarry & Jones, 2014). Optimal performance requires the integration of the physiological elements of training (e.g., strength, speed, power, endurance), together with the psychological, technical, tactical and recovery components (Caldwell,
2010; Kenny, Whitmore & Costill, 2015; Smith, 2003). The physical training process involves repetition of exercises designed to stimulate motor skill automation and enhance physiological functioning (Kenney 2015, Whitmore, & Costill, 2015; Smith,
2003), while psychological training involves systematic and consistent practice of skills such as goal setting, imagery, self-talk and relaxation (Vealey, 2007; Weinburg &
Gould, 2015).
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With respect to physical training, a major area of research and ongoing debate in relation to the optimal pathway for achieving sporting expertise is the opposed concepts of specialisation and diversification during childhood and early adolescence (Baker &
Young, 2014; Baker, Côté, & Abernethy, 2003; Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009; Ford,
Ward, Hodges & Williams, 2009; Helsen, Starkes & Hodges, 1998; Tucker & Collins,
2012; Ward, Hodges, Williams & Starkes, 2007; Wiersma, 2000). Ericsson and colleagues (1993) posited that expertise in any domain, sport, music or art comes from early childhood specialisation and ‘deliberate practice’ in a single domain. Under
Ericsson and colleagues’ ‘deliberate practice’ model, training activities under coach supervision were very structured, designed specifically to improve performance and inherently lacked enjoyment. In addition, Ericsson et al. (1993) believed athletes who began deliberate practice at an older age would always lag behind those who started earlier. Ericsson et al.’s study implied expertise takes a minimum of 10 years or 10,000 hours to achieve, often referred to as the ‘10-year rule’ (Simon & Chase, 1973). In view of the fact that no measures of variance were provided, it is unclear whether the rule applies to all individuals; further, many studies since Ericsson’s seminal study have reported that far less time is required to achieve expertise. For example, studies of
German Olympic hockey (Güllich, 2014a) and national football players (Hornig,
Friedhelm & Güllich, 2016) have revealed these athletes invest less than 5,000 hours of deliberate practice in their specific sports to achieve elite status. This supports earlier studies of Australian national netball, basketball and hockey players who completed on average 4,000 hours of deliberate practice to make their first national team (Baker et al.,
2003), and US swimmers who also invested less than 10,000 hours to reach Olympic level (Johnson, Tenenbaum & Edmonds, 2006). However, in defence of Ericsson’s claims, the 10,000-hour rule has often been misquoted (Brenner, 2016) and in response to related criticisms, Ericsson (2013) stated that the 10,000 hours was never intended as
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a ‘panacea’ for achieving expertise. Rather, he believed it was the quality rather than the number of hours of the deliberate practice that was more critical in the development of expertise.
Supporters of early specialisation involving significant hours of deliberate practice believe this method of development separates future experts from non-experts, as verified by research in a range of individual and team sports (Ford & Williams, 2012;
Helsen et al., 1998; Hendry & Hodges, 2018; Hodges & Starkes, 1996; Hodges, Kerr,
Starkes, Weir & Nananidou, 2004; Ward et al., 2007). In addition, it is recognised that early specialisation in sports such as gymnastics and figure skating, which rely on peak performance before full maturation, is necessary for success (Law, Côté & Ericsson,
2007). These are sports requiring a high level of skill and, in accordance with the theory of deliberate practice, an earlier starting age is required to master the required skills
(Ericsson at el., 1973). In contrast, a recent meta-analysis of 28 studies examining deliberate practice and sporting performance found that the more skilful athletes did not start their sport earlier than less accomplished athletes (MacNamara, Moreau &
Hambrick, 2016). In addition, this review revealed deliberate practice only accounted on average, for a small percentage of performance variation across all ages and levels
(18%), and a ‘statistically nonsignificant 1% of variance in studies involving elite athletes’ (MacNamara et al., 2016, p. 343).
Further, there is a strong body of evidence suggesting that early specialisation may contribute to overuse injuries and burnout (Brenner, 2007, 2016; Carlson, 1988;
Côté et al., 2009; Difori et al., 2014; Jayanthi, Pinkham, Dugas, Patrick & LaBella,
2013; Law et al., 2007; Wall & Côté, 2007). While not discounting the important contribution of deliberate practice, it is just one of many factors (e.g., genetics, environment, psychological characteristics) and pathways to achieving elite sporting success.
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An alternative pathway to elite sporting performance is via a diversified approach in which a range of sports are ‘sampled’ during childhood and early adolescence, before beginning to specialise in mid to late adolescence (Baker, 2003;
Baker et al., 2005; Soberlak & Côté, 2003; Wiersma, 2000). This pathway encourages
‘deliberate play’, the play activities in which children participate essentially for fun and are independent of adult input; for example, street cricket and soccer (Baker et al., 2003;
Berry, Abernethy, Côté, 2008; Côté & Erickson, 2015). Research indicates delaying specialisation and allowing young athletes to experience a wide range of sports and activities, where they engage in ‘deliberate play,’ is conducive to long-term sporting participation and lays the foundations for potential elite performance (Bailey & Morley,
2006; Côté & Erickson, 2015; Côté & Viermaa, 2014; Côté et al., 2009; Güllich &
Emrich, 2006). For example, taking part in different sporting activities can help to develop a range of transferable and adaptive performance skills, as well as intrinsic motivation (Arujo et al., 2010; Baker, 2003; Baker & Côté, 2006; Soberlak & Côté,
2003).
Although early specialisation and early diversification/sampling pathways to sporting expertise are well supported in the literature, several studies investigating the developmental pathways of elite athletes in a range of sports suggest there can be variation within these pathways. For example, studies involving young soccer players
(6-12 years) reported players engaged in deliberate practice while ‘sampling’ different sport-specific settings, such as free play, club activities and beach/park soccer (Ford et al., 2009; Sieghartsleitner, Zuber, Zibung, & Conzelmann, 2018). Another developmental pathway experienced by elite Norwegian Kayakers involved incorporating deliberate practice in another sport to enhance their primary sport performance (Henriksen et al., 2011). Results from a study on the specialisation pathways of elite Danish athletes revealed that between the ages 14 and 17 years, some
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athletes concurrently sampled several sports involving deliberate practice, while others specialised in their main sport from childhood with training described as ‘playful’ rather than deliberate (Storm, Henriksen, & Christensen, 2012). Playful training was defined as activities structured by adults involving scheduled training at specialised facilities, undertaken to achieve a goal (characteristic of deliberate practice), but in an enjoyable social environment where young athletes had fun. These findings suggest there are variations in pathways to expertise outside the ‘early specialisation’ or ‘early diversification’ models, which are governed by individual athlete and/or cultural dynamics.
Although no studies have examined the training practices of elite T&F athletes separately, studies in Denmark and Germany have included T&F athletes. Results from these studies reveal that athletes who specialise later (from 14 yrs) and train more intensely during late adolescence in their chosen sport reach higher levels of elite sport than athletes specialising earlier (Güllich & Emrich, 2014; Moesch, Elbe, Hauge &
Wikman, 2011). At the highly elite level, a study investigating the participation patterns of German international medallists compared with their non-medallist counterparts, revealed similar results. Medallists commenced training in their main sport at a later age than non-medallists and participated in more sports prior to focusing on their main sport
(Güllich, 2016).
There is no debate or dispute about the need for many hours of high-quality deliberate practice to achieve expertise, and a plethora of literature supports both pathways (Baker & Young, 2014; Baker et al., 2005; Davids & Baker, 2007). However, as referred to earlier, there are contrasting and variable views in relation to early specialisation and diversification as pathways to expertise. Accordingly, and given the individualistic nature of expertise development, both approaches have proven to be
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successful under optimal conditions (Johnson, Tenenbaum, Edmonds, & Castillo,
2008).
2.3.2 Competition
There is sparse academic evidence in relation to the role of competition in the development of expertise; however, the increased focus and frequency of high-level competition for developing athletes warrants further discussion. One early T&F study reported talented young athletes (up to age 15 yrs) could not sustain high competition loads, with many giving up the sport after a couple of seasons of exhaustive racing loads (Loktyevin & Makarova, 1993). In support of an earlier study in relation to the optimum age of specialising in T&F (Markus, 1976), Loktyevin & Makarova recommended the emphasis of competition at a young age should be on enjoyment and skill development, rather than on rigorous effort and a focus on winning. In the past 10–
15 years the number and standard of international competitions for young athletes (14–
19 yrs), and associated pressure, has increased considerably (Kristiansen, MacIntosh,
Parent & Houlinhan, 2017).
Research has indicated that youth athletes (aged 14–18 yrs) participating internationally in the Youth Olympic Games experience the same organisational and competition stresses as senior athletes (Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010; Wong, 2011).
Nonetheless, competition experience is recognised as being important for elite athlete development as it provides unique and important performance demands that cannot be acquired or replicated through training alone (Young & Salmela, 2002; Van de Pol &
Kavussanu, 2011). In particular, participating at youth (U18) and junior (U20) international competitions can be a significant motivating factor and stepping stone towards excelling as a senior athlete (Baker & Young, 2014; Gould et al., 2002;
Hollings et al., 2014; Kristiansen, MacIntosh, Parent & Houlihan, 2018; Peters &
Schnitzer, 2015). In addition, as younger athletes normally have less coping skills than
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older athletes (Bebetos, Antoniou, 2003; Goyen & Anshel, 1998), being exposed to stressful competition experiences at a younger age can provide opportunities to learn and practice skills needed at higher levels of sport (Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010;
Kristiansen et al., 2018; Nicholls, Holt, Polman & James, 2005).
As purported by various studies in relation to developing psychological skills, by providing opportunities to test and refine these skills against real-life challenges, young athletes build up their repertoire of coping mechanisms (e.g., self-belief, focus, intrinsic motivation) instrumental in dealing with greater challenges later in their careers
(Collins et al.,2016; Connaughton, Hanton & Jones, 2010; MacNamara et al., 2010b;
Mallet & Hanrahan, 2004; Savage, Collins & Cruickshank, 2017; Van Yperen, 2009).
This is supported by a recent study of elite junior Swiss and British orienteers, in which several coaches acknowledged that developing coping skills and mechanisms in response to mistakes made under competition stress at the elite junior level likely enhanced and facilitated success in the future (Newton & Holmes, 2017).
However, given that research into youth competitions indicates there is no single model or formula because of the varying demands of different sports, as well as a countries’ social, political and economic climate, as Wein (cited in Capranica &
Millard-Stafford, 2011, p. 576) suggests, ‘like their shoes, (training/competition) should fit perfectly and feel comfortable’. Interestingly and in line with this view, the world governing body for the sport of T&F does not view elite competition for athletes under
18 years as beneficial for their development. In light of this, the IAAF (international governing body for athletics) has removed the WYC from the international calendar from 2018 because, ‘it’s not the best pathway for those athletes at that stage of their career’ (Lord Sebastian Coe, IAAF Council, 2016).
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2.3.3 Psychosocial Factors
The above debate extends beyond the physical training and competition context with much research now focused on understanding, from an ecological viewpoint, the changing influence and importance of the environment (psychosocial factors) on athlete development (Duffy, Lyons, Moran, Warrington & McManus, 2006; Macphail & Kirk
2006; Henriksen et al., 2010a, 2010b, 2011; Strachan et al., 2011). Psychosocial aspects of development involve the interaction between an individual’s psychological traits and their surrounding social environment (Côté, 1999; Gould et al 2002a; MacNamara et al.,
2010b).
Innate abilities, training and specialisation, whether early or later, in a competitive environment have been recognised as crucial to success (Baker et al., 2003;
Gulbin et al., 2013b; Tucker & Collins, 2012; Ward et al., 2007). However, many studies reveal training alone is not enough to achieve elite sporting performance
(Collins et al., 2016). Taking a more holistic perspective, the original ‘talent development environment’, which encompassed ‘all aspects of the coaching situation’
(Martindale et al., 2005, p. 354), was later extended to include all key stakeholders including parents, peers, significant others and sports administrators, effecting athlete development (Henriksen, 2010; Larsen, Alfermann, & Christensen, 2012; Martindale et al., 2007; Mills et al., 2014; Strachan, Côté & Deakin, 2009). To provide and foster this conducive environment for athlete development, athletes require ‘stage-specific’ challenges and balanced social support interactions from key role models such as parents, coaches, peers and sports administrators who share similar aims and philosophies (Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 1996a, b; Martindale et al., 2010).
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2.3.3.1 Coaches
Coaches are extremely influential in an athlete’s career and must balance developing the sporting talent of a young person both physically and psychologically.
This includes meticulous planning, conducting and reviewing of training and competitions, as well as supporting athletes’ psychosocial development, both inside and outside sport (Becker, 2009; Côté, Young, North & Duffy, 2007; Jowett & Cockerill,
2003; Vallée & Bloom, 2005). In particular, coaches can significantly influence an athlete’s enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, beliefs about their ability and the development of psychological skills conducive to performing at the elite level (Côté & Fraser-
Thomas, 2007; Connaughton et al., 2010; Gould et al., 2007; Martindale et al., 2007;
Stuntz & Weiss, 2009).
Coaches require stage-specific knowledge as it is essential to match the skill and competency to the age and development level of the athletes (Dick, 2013). This is especially important with young athletes given the large age difference between early and late developers, which influences the rate of improvement of certain physical performance factors (Sanderson, 2003; Schiffer, 2013). Coaches must adapt training and create a positive and challenging training environment that is matched to an athlete’s individual needs (Côté et al., 2007; Johnson, et al, 2008a; Kim et al., 2016; Morgan &
Giacobbi, 2006; Tracey & Elcombe, 2015; Wang & Straub, 2012). For example, this may entail the coach operating along a ‘coaching continuum’ from a more direct and instructive approach with young and inexperienced athletes to a more democratic and consultative approach as athletes mature and gain more experience (Hansen &
Anderson, 2014).
The ability of the coach to create the appropriate training environment can strongly influence athlete motivation, satisfaction, self-esteem and sporting outcomes
(Vazou, Ntoumanis & Duda, 2006; Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). For example, some
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coaches working with elite-level netball players and individual athletes found creating a positive motivational climate led to a more productive use of training time by minimising rivalry and promoting more cooperation in training squads (Jones, Armour
& Potrac, 2004; Kidman, 2005).
A coach creates and conveys a motivational climate, either task or ego oriented, through the way they design training, group their athletes and provide feedback. A task- oriented environment is one that promotes the development of competence and self- belief by focusing on individual improvement, effort and affiliation with team mates, rather than on winning (Ames, 1992; McArdle & Duda, 2002; Smoll & Smith, 2006). In this climate the coach creates an autonomy-supportive environment that limits the use of controlling behaviours and helps empower athletes to take responsibility for their learning and actions (Kidman, 2005), voice their opinions and take on leadership roles within a group (Hodge, Henry & Smith, 2014), thus promoting self-determined or intrinsic forms of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In contrast, an ego-oriented environment aims to develop athlete competence and confidence through performance outcomes and normative ranking and comparisons (Ames, 1992; Newton, Duda & Yin,
2000). Studies involving 134 Spanish elite junior athletes in T&F and tennis (Cervellό,
Escartí & Guzmàn, 2007), seven Norwegian Winter Olympians (Pensgaard & Roberts,
2002) and four elite senior British T&F athletes have revealed that perceived competence and self-belief improve when the coach creates a task/mastery-oriented environment. In contrast, an ego-oriented environment has been associated with lower enjoyment and intrinsic motivation (Chi, 2004; Seifriz, Duda & Chi, 1992; Treasure, &
Roberts,1998) and can lead to emotional and physical exhaustion, negative affect, anxiety and neurotic perfectionism (Smith, Smoll & Cumming, 2007).
Coaches need to understand the contextual differences between coaching at the recreational, developmental and elite level (Lyle, 2002). For example, coaches should
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provide skill-based training with plenty of enjoyment, challenges, praise and encouragement for developmental athletes between the ages of 13 and 15 years (Bloom,
1985; Côté & Hay, 2002; MacPhail & Kirk, 2006). It is important that coaches provide a welcoming and fun environment at this stage, as this can help develop persistence and intrinsic motivation important for managing greater training commitments later in a sporting career (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004; Mallet, 2005). When athletes are ready to commit to intense training and higher levels of competition (from around 16–19 yrs), the coach needs advanced technical knowledge and expertise while encouraging input from the athlete (Baker et al., 2003; Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2006). Performance coaching of senior elite athletes requires yet another shift in focus; studies involving
Olympic and professional-level coaches have revealed that the coach more often takes a consultative approach as the athlete becomes more experienced and successful (Côté &
Segwick, 2003; Hansen & Anderson, 2014).
The coach–athlete relationship, characterised by mutual interrelated beliefs, mindset and behaviours between coach and athlete, is integral to athlete development
(Jowett & Spray, 2013; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett, Paull & Pensgaard, Hoegmo,
& Riise, 2005). The ability of the coach to develop a strong affinity with athletes by engendering an environment of mutual respect and open, honest communication, is conducive to athlete development. This view has been supported by many studies involving coaches and athletes in a range of sports (swimming, tennis, Australian Rules football, soccer and rowing) both at junior and senior level (Côté & Segwick, 2003;
Finn & McKenna, 2010; Guicciardi, Gordon, Dimmock & Mallet, 2009; Jowett &
Cockerill, 2003; Johnson et al., 2008a; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). At the elite senior level, several studies have highlighted the pivotal nature of the coach–athlete relationship, which goes beyond teaching and instructing skills, techniques and tactics, and incorporates a strong element of care (Bloom, Durand-Bush, Schinke & Salmela,
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1998; Fisher et al., 2017; Jowlett & Cockerill, 2003; Poczwardowski, Barott &
Henschen, 2002). These relationships are often stronger and more interdependent in individual sports than in team sports (Jowett et al., 2005). This is illustrated by an earlier study involving OG and WC gold medallists Glynis Nunn (Australia) and Steve
Cram (United Kingdom [UK]), who described the closeness and strong bond between coach and athlete as similar to a parent–son/daughter relationship (Hemery, 1986).
While the ‘care factor’ on the part of the coach can cultivate a very close emotional relationship, an effective coach–athlete relationship entails one in which athlete and coach share knowledge and common goals but have clear defined roles (Jowett &
Cockerill, 2003).
Conversely poor coach–athlete relationships have been identified as a source of stress and a potential barrier to athlete success, at both the elite junior and senior level.
For example, at the junior elite level, a study eliciting the views of UK Youth Academy soccer coaches identified poor coaching relationships as resulting in difficulties for adolescent athletes when transitioning to senior teams. In some cases, where coaches abused players and allowed no development time, it resulted in players leaving the sport
(Finn & McKenna, 2010). At the elite senior level, two studies involving Atlanta and
Nagano US Olympians revealed that poor coach–athlete relationships and conflict affected some athletes’ preparation and outcomes. Athletes cited coaches’ inability to communicate effectively and understand individual athletes, as well as the lack of knowledge needed at the Olympic level, as some of the main issues negatively affecting performance (Gould et al., 1999; Greenleaf, Gould & Diffenbach, 2001). A study of coach–athlete relationships from the perspective of 16 British female T&F athletes training with high-performance male and female coaches identified several areas resulting in poor coach–athlete relationships (Norman & French, 2013). Negative and infrequent communication from the coach, lack of attention or favouritism towards
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some athletes and the coach being dominant and over-bearing in the lives of high- performance women athletes were examples of less positive coach–athlete relationships.
Further, the inability of the coach to understand junior athletes’ holistic development and lives outside sport were viewed as negative experiences (Henriksen, 2010;
Martindale et al., 2007; Mills et al., 2014; Strahan, Côté, & Deakin, 2011).
Coaches face several challenges in developing athletes, including access to relevant and appropriate knowledge. Coaches learn from a wide range of sources, both formal and informal (Abraham et al., 2006; Mallett, Trudel, Lyle & Rynne, 2009).
Formal learning can occur through university degrees and under other structured settings, such as coach education/accreditation programs conducted by certified instructors (Cushion et al., 2003; Erickson, Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007; Koh, Ho &
Koh, 2017; Werthner & Trudel, 2009). However, research has shown formal coach education is viewed ambivalently in relation to its value, contribution or applicability to the actual process of coaching at all levels (Côté, 2006; Erickson et al., 2007; Koh,
Bloom, Fairhurst, Paiement, & Kee, 2014; Lyle, 2007; Lynch & Mallet, 2006; Mallet et al., 2009; Trudel & Gilbert, 2006). In particular, the formal coach education system can often overload a novice coach with a great amount of knowledge in a very small space of time (Côté, Baker & Abernethy, 2003; Vargas-Tongas, 2007). In the Australian context this is illustrated by the current formal coach accreditation system in which a novice coach is taught the theoretical and practical aspects required as a Level 1
Community Coach, working with beginner athletes, in eight hours. Over this timeframe novice coaches learn the general principles of coaching including communication, group management, safety, organisation and instruction, long-term athlete participation and session planning. The one-day course also provides practical coaching strategies to develop the fundamental skills of running, jumping and throwing in a fun and safe environment (AA, 2018f).
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Alternatively, many studies have highlighted informal learning opportunities such as working with and/or being mentored by more experienced coaches as being highly valuable to the education of coaches at all levels (Culver & Trudel, 2008;
Macphail & Kirk, 2006; Trudel & Gilbert, 2004). Studies involving high-performance coaches from many nations including Australia, China, Germany, Canada, Portugal and
Singapore have confirmed the importance of learning through interaction (or mentoring) with other experienced coaches as being instrumental in their development and their coaching success (Bloom et al., 1998; Lara-Bercial & Mallet, 2016; Koh et al., 2017;
Mesquita, Isidro, & Rosado, 2010; Rynne, Mallett & Tinning, 2006). Coaches identified benefits such as the acquisition of valuable domain-specific knowledge and sport skills, enhancing their confidence and developing the ability to collaborate and communicate better with others (Bloom et al., 1998; Koh et al., 2014). However, a poor match between mentor and mentee (Koh et al., 2014), or the unwillingness of coaches to share knowledge in such a competitive environment for fear of losing an edge over their opponents and/or job security, makes the mentoring process more difficult (Koh, Mallet
& Wang, 2011; Rynne & Mallet, 2012; Trudel & Gilbert, 2006). Mallet and colleagues
(2016) revealed that this competitive and precarious environment, especially at the high- performance level can lead to a reluctance by a coach to seek knowledge when problems arise, potentially stalling an athlete’s development.
Another way in which coaches acquire their knowledge is through personal experience as an athlete; however, this is not a necessary prerequisite for high- performance coaching (Erickson et al., 2007; Salmela, 1994). Nonetheless, studies involving elite coaches in a range of sports (basketball, volleyball, fencing and water polo) and levels (high school, college, national and Olympic) have identified previous playing experience as important in development as a coach (Gilbert, Côté & Mallett,
2006; Gilbert, Lichtenwaldt, Gilbert, Zelezny & Côté, 2009; Koh et al., 2011; Lara-
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Bercial & Mallet, 2016). These studies revealed experience as a national/international athlete had helped coaches and benefited the development of their athletes because they were able to put themselves in the ‘athlete’s shoes’ and understand the training and competition demands at the elite level.
While having the opportunity to access quality coach education is one challenging issue coaches face in developing athletes, the pressure and expectations placed on many coaches, especially with the increased competitive demands at the junior level, makes it difficult for coaches to balance athlete development and ‘winning’
(Gilbert & Trudel, 2004; Strean & Holt, 2000). This pressure can come from the coaches themselves (Didymus, 2017; Olusoga, Butt, Hays, & Maynard, 2009) or from external bodies such as parents, national and state sporting associations or other governing bodies (Fisher, Bejar, Larsen, Fynes & Gearity, 2017; Santos, Corte-Real,
Regueiras, Dias & Fonseca, 2016). Given the current focus on elite youth and junior sporting success, it is unrealistic to think that winning is not important, especially for talented young athletes, because this is an important aspect of keeping them motivated and interested (Chi, 2004). However, it is important that coaches find a balance between developing the young athlete physically and psychologically in a positive and ‘fun’ environment and winning as a consequence of appropriate development, rather than pushing an athlete (Bengoechea et al., 2004; Cummings et al., 2007).
2.3.3.2 Parents/families
Research confirms that parents help young athletes achieve elite status by providing tangible (e.g., financial support and transportation) and emotional support
(e.g., encouragement and empathy when dealing with setbacks) (Baker et al., 2003;
Côté, 1999; Gulbin, Oldenziel, Weissensteiner & Gagné, 2010; Holt & Dunn, 2004;
Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). It has also been reported that the more physically active parents are, the more likely their children will participate in physical activity (Baxter-
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Jones & Maffulli, 2003; Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999; Kay, 2000; MacNamara et al.,
2010a, b; Wuerth, Lee & Alfermann, 2004). As for coaches, parents’ roles vary and change as athletes move from childhood to adolescence. For younger athletes this may involve parents selecting a range of appropriate sporting activities and opportunities
(Côté & Hay, 2002; Côté et al., 2007; Soberlak & Côté, 2003) and later, during specialisation and investment stages, facilitating coaching opportunities or practically freeing up more time to focus on training by providing transport (Knight, Little,
Harwood & Goodger, 2016).
Parents can also strongly influence and promote good values and behaviours
(e.g., commitment, work ethic), as well as creating a motivational climate recognised as enhancing confidence, self-esteem and independence in the developing athlete (Bloom,
1985; Côté, 1999, Côté & Hay, 2002; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004; MacNamara et al.,
2010a, b). However, studies in elite junior tennis revealed parents can also have a negative effect on athlete development by applying undue pressure, interfering with coaching and placing unrealistic expectations on young athletes (Gould, Lauer, Rolo,
Jannes & Pennisi, 2006, 2008; Knight, Neely & Holt, 2011). This concurs with earlier studies that showed parental expectations can lead to pressure and stress detrimentally affecting enjoyment, motivation and participation (Brustad, 1988; Scanlan, Stein &
Ravizza, 1991; Weiss, Weise & Klint, 1989). More recent research indicates providing praise and encouragement while avoiding ‘coaching’ or negative responses to poor performance are some of the parental behaviours and emotional support young elite athletes prefer (Harwood & Knight, 2015; Knight & Holt, 2014, Holt, Tamminen,
Black, Sehr & Wall, 2008; Wuerth et al., 2004).
Parents are instrumental in supporting young athletes emotionally. Studies involving junior tennis players and swimmers have revealed that parents who provide high levels of support when athletes experience setbacks and disappointments help the
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athletes develop coping skills to deal with various stressors (Knight et al., 2011;
Lafferty & Dorrell, 2006). For example, encouraging their child/adolescent athlete to share their experiences and to help them put it in perspective, as well as having the ability to recognise when to initiate a gradual shifting of responsibility to the athlete, are ways parents demonstrate positive emotional support that helps athletes learn to deal with setbacks (Neely, McHugh, Dunn & Holt, 2017; Tamminen & Holt, 2012).
Research has revealed that siblings of elite athletes can have both positive and negative effects on their development. Recent studies examining the effects of sibling interaction on the talent development of elite senior (Olympic and professional level) and youth athletes have found that siblings also involved in sport understand each other, subsequently fostering strong emotional and instructional support (Nelson & Strachan,
2017; Taylor, Collins & Carson, 2017). Other studies of successful athletes revealed an older sibling can be a positive role model providing encouragement as well as instilling important values and skills, such as leadership and a high work ethic (Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Côté, 1999; Côté & Hay, 2002; Fraser-Thomas, Côté & Deakin, 2008b;
Kay, 2000). Competition between siblings may be beneficial to their elite development in terms of developing some early psycho-behavioural skills (e.g., resilience, coping strategies when dealing with pressure situations) and the motivation to train harder
(Davis & Meyer, 2008; MacNamara, 2011; Taylor et al., 2017). Conversely, rivalry or comparisons instigated by parents can lead to tensions and jealousy, especially when one sibling is the ‘star’, and this may negatively affect participation for all siblings
(Nelson & Strachan, 2017; Trussell, 2014).
2.3.3.3 Peers
Peers become increasingly important as athletes move from childhood to adolescence, with research revealing peers can have a much greater influence than parents and significant others, such as coaches and teachers (Chan, Lonsdale & Fung,
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2011; Harter, 1990). This influence can be especially strong as elite athletes often spend extended periods with their peers at training and competition, as well as travelling and rooming together on teams (Keegan, Harwood, Spray & Lavellee, 2014). Peers and training groups that provide emotional support and role modelling from older athletes can be instrumental in the development of elite athletes. For example, having team/squad mates to warm up with and seek advice from was important to young equestrian riders when transitioning to higher levels of competition (Pummell,
Harwood, & Lavellee, 2008). Research involving athletes in several Swedish sports
(T&F and ice hockey) has acknowledged the significance of older role models in the development of younger athletes in these sports. Leading by example, setting standards and reinforcing common goals and values, such as responsibility and commitment were important roles played by these senior athletes (Henriksen et al., 2010b; Stambulova et al., 2012; Stambulova et al., 2017). In addition, having friends within the sport assisted adolescent athletes to counterbalance the social sacrifices required at the elite level; that is, having less time for social activities outside sport (Pummell et al., 2008). Studies of student athletes in the North American collegiate system have also highlighted the importance of emotional support from team mates in dealing with the stress of moving away from home and the increased demands of training and study (Fisher et al., 2017;
Giacobbi et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2016).
The influence of peers can also have a negative effect on sport participation during adolescence (Brustad, Babkes & Smith, 2001). For example, maintaining social interaction with friends can become more difficult for talented young athletes as they need to commit more time to training and competition. The lack of sufficient time for socialising with friends may lead to less commitment to training, and in some cases to dropping out of elite level sport (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Patrick et al., 1999).
However, strong friendships with sporting peers can help motivate athletes to commit to
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the increased demands of training and competition as well as enhancing enjoyment and providing a sense of ‘group membership’ and belonging (Allen, 2003; Vazou et al.,
2006; Weiss & Smith, 2002). More of a concern, however, is the negative effect of the elite sporting environment on the female body image. Mosewich, Vangool, Kowalski and McHugh (2009) found that the female athletes in their study believed they were being constantly compared and evaluated by their peers (and coaches) based on performance and body shape, which was both perpetuating and contagious, and may lead to negative consequences such as eating disorders (Kato, Jevas & Culpepper,
2011).
2.3.3.4 Personal Factors (Psychological Characteristics and Traits)
Research has shown that certain psychological traits and skills are common to those who achieve sporting excellence (Baker & Horton, 2004; Côté, 1999; Durand-
Bush & Salmela, 2002; MacNamara et al., 2010a, b; Vernacchia et al., 2000). In addition, psychological traits can differentiate between more or less successful athletes at both the elite junior and senior level. For example, at the senior level where physical abilities, skills and training are much the same, individual psychological traits can determine final performance outcomes (Boes, Harung, Travis & Pensgaard, 2014;
Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 1999). From a talent development perspective, at the junior elite level it can mean the difference between merely showing potential and actually achieving capabilities as a senior athlete (MacNamara, 2011;
Toering et al., 2009). However, the qualities needed to develop excellence in a junior athlete differ from those needed by an elite senior athlete (Holt & Dunn, 2004; Larsen et al., 2012). MacNamara and colleagues (2010a, b) referred to the qualities needed as a junior as the ‘psychological characteristics of developmental expertise’ (PCDEs) and as a senior, the ‘psychological characteristics of excellence’ (PCEs). Similar to biological maturation, the development of psychological traits occurs systematically over time and
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varies among individuals (Anshel & Lidor, 2012; Malina, Rogol, Cumming, Coelho e
Silva & Figueredo, 2015). For example, common psychological traits displayed by elite junior soccer players from Canada, Britain (Holt & Dunn, 2004) and Denmark (Larsen et al., 2012) include commitment to work hard and succeed, self-discipline, confidence and coping with pressure. However, over time, elite athletes have been shown to develop additional psychological traits such as a positive personality (e.g., optimistic and enjoying their sport and challenges), sport intelligence (e.g., ability to keep things in perspective) and the ability to focus and block out distractions (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012;
Gould et al., 2002; Kreiner-Phillips & Orlick, 1993).
While certain psychological or personality characteristics conducive to sporting success may be innate (Williams & Reilly, 2000), it is well accepted that the athlete’s environment is instrumental in providing opportunities to develop these skills
(MacNamara et al., 2010a, b; Van Ypren, 2009). Additionally, as research has highlighted that older athletes are better able to handle stress, it is important for adolescent athletes to be taught a variety of psychological skills and coping strategies to help accelerate their coping effectiveness (MacNamara & Collins, 2010; MacNamara et al., 2010a; Nicholls & Polman, 2007).
Studies reveal young athletes who develop a self-identity based solely on their athletic successes may struggle to deal with the greater demands and expectations of a high-performance environment (Coakley, 1992; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004).
However, if parents and coaches of developing athletes encourage autonomy and responsibility over early success, traits associated with successful transitioning to elite senior levels, such as the ability to self-reflect and self-regulate, are more likely to be developed (Holt & Dunn, 2004; Holt & Mitchell, 2006; Jonker et al., 2010; Martindale et al., 2005; Mills, Butt, Maynard, Harwood, 2012; Toering et al., 2009). It has also been reported that facing setbacks and adversity, both in life and sport, helps senior elite
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athletes develop psychological coping skills beneficial to their sporting careers
(Howells & Fletcher, 2015; Sarkar, Fletcher & Brown, 2015). Further, it has been proposed that experiencing some distress or trauma in the sporting domain is necessary for talent development (Collins et al., 2016; Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012). It has been suggested that critically reflecting on and learning from a distressing experience can help an athlete develop mental skills (e.g., relaxation, visualisation) and psychological characteristics (e.g., resilience) beneficial for dealing with subsequent challenges
(Collins & McNamara, 2012; Martindale et al., 2005) This is in line with career transition studies (Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler, & Côté, 2009) showing that potential turning points or pivotal experiences in an athlete’s career can lead to distress and failure to cope, or to personal growth, depending on an athlete’s psychological skill set and available support resources (e.g., parent, coaches and peers). For example, in a study examining adversity-related experiences of 10 Olympic gold medallists, major setbacks such as non-selection, serious injury and family tragedies helped the athletes develop or tap into unknown psychological strengths, which motivated and drove them on to superior performance despite their experiences (Sarkar, Fletcher & Brown, 2015).
In addition, the external support resources and networks available to athletes are essential factors in their ability to cope with setbacks in their careers. Several studies involving US collegiate athletes have described how support from families, friends, team mates and coaches was invaluable in dealing with various stressors (Galli & Reel,
2012; Galli & Vealey, 2008). Irrespective of whether psychological coping skills and characteristics are inherent or a result of experiencing adversity (Collins & MacNamara,
2012; Sarkar et al., 2015), several studies have recommended exposing young athletes to challenges and stressors within a supportive environment to help prepare them to deal with potentially greater setbacks associated with senior elite sport (Henriksen &
Mortensen, 2014; MacNamara at al., 2010b; Sarkar et al., 2015).
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2.3.3.5 Psychological Aspects of Development (Track and Field)
Several studies involving North American Olympic and WC T&F athletes have highlighted the importance of learning and developing mental skills such as visualisation, relaxation and positive self-talk skills in enhancing goal setting and skill execution. These skills help athletes improve focus and confidence enabling them to perform optimally in the most stressful competitive setting (Durand-Bush & Salmela,
2002; Gould et al., 2002; Vernacchia et al., 2000). Additionally, experiencing adversity
(e.g., losing an event and injuries) was reported by some T&F Olympic champions
(Gould et al., 2002a) as important in developing the mental strengths and coping strategies needed to excel at the highest level, in agreement with Sarkar and colleagues’
(2014) study suggesting adversity helps develop mental strengths.
Intrinsic motivation and a strong self-belief have also been identified as important psychological factors in the success of elite senior T&F athletes. Studies involving Australian and NZ athletes have found experiencing success at an early age enhanced their feelings of competence and self-belief, hence increasing motivation to train harder to achieve their personal goals (Hollings et al., 2014; Mallet & Hanrahan,
2004). Although Mallett and Hanrahan’s (2004) study highlighted that athletes were motivated by ego-oriented goals (e.g., wanting to win), a more powerful motivating force was their drive to achieve personal task-oriented goals (e.g., perfecting skill, improving performance). Accordingly, it is important for coaches to understand that athlete motivation changes with time and to provide the appropriate motivational training and competition environment. Supporting this view, a study involving five
British senior international athletes highlighted the importance of the coaching creating an appropriate supportive and challenging environment, which enabled the athletes to set and achieve realistic goals, thus facilitating the development of athlete self-belief
(Jowett & Spray, 2013).
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McKay, Niven, Lavallee and White (2008) investigated sources of stress experienced by elite senior T&F athletes (n = 12) who had represented Britain at both junior and senior international global level. Many of the stresses, such as pressure to perform and self-doubts were similar to those identified in other studies of elite athletes in a range of Olympic and WC sports such as ice skating, rowing, hockey and swimming (Gould, Jackson & Finch, 1993, Hanton, Fletcher & Coughlan, 2005; Neil,
Hanton, Mellalieu & Fletcher, 2011). However, an additional stress unique to the T&F athletes in McKay and colleagues’ (2008) study was in relation to social evaluation and self-presentation. Athletes expressed concern about how others may judge them and a fear of public humiliation, which the authors felt was associated with the individual nature of the sport and the potential to be evaluated and judged. A later study involving female T&F athletes being coached by high-performance coaches in various UK clubs supported the view that some athletes experience feelings of insecurity when coaches constantly compare and judge their performance against that of others rather than their personal goals (Norman & French, 2013). Mosewich et al. (2009) explored four adult and four adolescent US female T&F athletes’ meanings of muscularity, supporting the view that many athletes feel uncomfortable in relation to physical comparisons. The study revealed a strong culture of physique-related comparison by parents, coaches, the general public and athletes themselves, with the many opportunities for evaluations and judgements being a source of potential distress for some athletes. However, in another
British study by Mellalieu and colleagues (2009), only three of the six elite athletes viewed being evaluated by spectators and significant others, based on their physique, as a performance-related stress. Given the small sample sizes involved in both studies, the generalisability of these results is limited. However, social evaluation as a potential stress for some elite athletes is another factor to be considered in athlete development.
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2.3.3.6 Miscellaneous Situations (Milieu) Factors
A review of the TDE literature by Li and colleagues (2014) identified various other environmental or ‘milieu’ factors such as socioeconomic status, education and birthplace, which influence athlete development. Where a family lives can determine the school attended, which may influence the availability of sporting opportunities and/or flexibility around study and thus a talented young athlete’s development (Côté,
Macdonald, Baker, & Abernethy et al., 2006; Houlihan, 2000). Additionally, the family’s socioeconomic status can restrict or limit sporting and recreational participation in pursuits such as golf and skiing (Bailey et al., 2010; Elling &
Claringbould, 2005; Kay, 2000). From a broader perspective, a nation’s sports culture and policies—especially the level of support offered to elite athletes by sporting governing bodies—can also affect athlete development. Elite athletes from various nations (US, Ireland, Australia) and a range of Olympic and professional sports have reported that financial support and sport science services (physiotherapy, sports nutrition and psychology) provided by sporting institutes or programs were instrumental in their development and success (Duffy, Lyons, Moran, Warrington & McManus,
2001; Gibbons, McConnel, Forster, Riewald & Peterson, 2003; Greenleaf, Gould &
Dieffenbach, 2001; Rees & Hardy, 2000; Sotiriadou et al., 2014). In particular, as highlighted by Güllich and Emrich’s (2006) extensive study of 1,558 German national squad athletes in all Olympic sports (2000–08), this support was more beneficial when provided to senior athletes (19+ yrs) rather than elite juniors (10–18 yrs).
Two other well-recognised ‘milieu’ factors are the place of birth (or early developmental years) and time of year an individual is born. A substantial body of literature supports the ‘birthplace effect’; that is, where an athlete was born or grew up during their developmental years may influence development (Baker & Logan, 2007;
Côté et al., 2006; Lidor, Côté, Arnon, Zeev & Cohen-Maoz, 2010; MacDonald et al.,
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2009a). The general consensus is the size of a town or city (optimal population size
250,000–1 million) in which an athlete grows up can affect their chances of reaching elite sporting levels (Baker et al., 2009). While some research indicates that growing up in a large city may enable greater access to better facilities, equipment and coaching opportunities (Baker et al., 2009; Schorer, Baker, Lotz & Büsch, 2010), other studies found being raised in a smaller town may offer a safer and more nurturing psychosocial environment that is beneficial to the development of sporting expertise (MacDonald,
King, Côté & Abernethy, 2009b: Pennell et al., 2017). However, in a comparison of the distribution of Olympians from several countries (Canada, US, UK and Germany), the optimal population size varied (Baker et al., 2009), supporting later research indicating both small and large cities are equally effective in producing elite athletes (Schorer et al., 2010). Several other studies revealed no birthplace effect in countries such as
Finland and Sweden (Baker et al., 2009; Bruner, MacDonald, Pickett & Côté, 2011).
While some earlier studies in relation to birthplace indicate distinct ‘athlete development’ advantages or disadvantages depending on where they grew up, the contextual nature of these studies limits their global applicability and acceptance. For example, most studies have been based on male team sports (Baker & Logan, 2007;
Côté et al., 2006) in North America with less research in individual and female sports
(Lidor et al., 2010; Lidor, Arnon, Maayan, Gershon & Côté, 2014). As this thesis focuses on a culturally specific (Australia) individual male and female sport of T&F, there is scope to contribute to the understanding of how sociocultural aspects such as birthplace can influence development of sporting expertise.
Another environmental factor shown to influence development is the RAE, a phenomenon in which athletes born earlier in the year or closer to age group cut-off dates have a performance advantage over those born later in the year (Barnsley,
Thompson & Barnsley, 1985; Musch & Grondin, 2001; Wattie, Cobley & Baker, 2008).
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While studies of predominantly junior male team sports such as ice hockey (Baker &
Logan, 2007), rugby league (Till et al., 2010) and soccer (Auguste & Lames, 2011) have confirmed the phenomenon exists, less is known about the RAE in individual and female sports (Cobley et al., 2009). Very few studies have examined the RAE in T&F; however, two recent studies conducted with Spanish athletes confirmed the RAE effect does exist in the sport (Brazo-Sayavera et al., 2016; Saavedra-Garcia, Gutiérrez-
Aguilar, Sa-Marques & Fernández-Romero, 2016). The first study involved a retrospective longitudinal study investigating how RAE may have influenced the development of 3,013 of the best junior and senior elite and sub-elite athletes competing between 1940 and 2013 (Saavedra-Garcia et al., 2016). The second study sought to understand how the RAE affects the selection of elite junior athletes into Spanish
National Athletics Federation training camps (Brazo-Sayavera et al., 2016). Both studies indicated that the RAE effect was age and gender based with RAE having a stronger effect in males, especially for boys under 15 years where more boys earlier in the year were selected for national camp participation (Brazo-Sayavera et al., 2016).
The RAE effect was less prevalent for female athletes in both studies and overall, the higher the level of athlete, the less RAE effect reported (Saavedra-Garcia et al., 2016).
Hollings and colleagues’ (2012) earlier study examining the RAE in relation to athlete performance outcomes at the WYC and WJC also found the effect was stronger among younger males. This was mainly attributed to the two-year age category for the championships, which could result in a 16–17-year-old competing against an 18–19- year-old athlete, where the latter (more physically mature) athlete would have a significant advantage in a strength-based event. While these T&F studies do highlight that RAE exists, the effect diminishes with age and perhaps strengthens the argument that T&F is a late specialisation sport and that TID in the sport should be left until late adolescence.
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2.4 Summary
This chapter has provided a detailed review of the current state of knowledge in relation to the development of sporting expertise across a range of sports but with a strong focus on specific T&F literature. Successful talent development is a long and complex process and involves far more than identifying and selecting talented young athletes into training programs involving multiple hours of deliberate practice. Being born with some natural talents in the right city or town, with parents who can provide the tangible support needed to access facilities, training, competition and high-quality coaching, all contribute to the successful development of an elite athlete. Significant others (families, coaches, and peers) also provide motivation and the emotional support to help deal with the various setbacks and challenges athletes are exposed to throughout their careers. The sport system must also provide the structure and opportunities for athletes to develop and test their skills (physical and psychological) through varying levels of competition. However, these factors must all interact in a positive and multidimensional manner over a long period of time, as independently they cannot guarantee success. There is a substantial body of literature from both the individual
(e.g., genetic traits, deliberate practice vs diversification) and holistic talent development environment perspective in relation to factors instrumental in the development of sporting expertise. While there have been several studies conducted in
T&F (as outlined in this review), only a few have been conducted in the Australian context. These Australian studies have contributed to our understanding of injuries (elite youth, club and elite seniors), motivation (in elite athletes) and the transition rates of elite junior to elite senior levels. This thesis will provide the first analysis from a holistic perspective, of the key influential factors in the development of Australian
Olympic and World Championship T&F athletes, from their beginnings in the sport to
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the elite senior level. As such it will provide a unique understanding of the development of elite T&F athletes from the Australian perspective, but also contribute to the literature and research related to the development of sporting expertise in general. The next chapter examines the theoretical framework and various athlete development and career transition models which provide the scope to explore and understand the complex phenomenon of athlete talent development.
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Theoretical Framework
3.1 Preamble
This chapter describes the theoretical framework used to guide this research, which seeks to identify and understand the key influences in the development of elite
Australian T&F athletes. Talent development is a long-term, complex and multifaceted process that many models and theories have been proposed as frameworks to help understand (Arujo et al., 2010; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2001; Renshaw, Davids,
Phillips & Kerherve, 2011; Walker, Nordin-Bates & Redding, 2010). Thus, this chapter examines the literature related to models of athlete talent development, the bioecological theory of human development and various athlete career transition models.
3.2 Bioecological Theory of Human Development
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of human development (Bronfenbrenner,
2005; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) has evolved over many years from his original ecological systems approach, which emanated from studies in child development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In recent years, it has proven to be an appropriate framework to examine the development of sporting talent. This is because of its systematic approach, which provides the scope to guide and inform, as well as organise, understand and analyse the human processes and interactions influencing the holistic development of sports talent (Araújo et al., 2010; Bengoechea, 2001; Krebs, 2009). Several studies on the development of sporting talent have used the ecological framework to successfully examine the influence of the environment (Henriksen et al, 2010a, 2010b, 2011;
Strachan, 2008), the effect of psychological characteristics (Woodcock, Holland, Duda
& Cumming, 2011), athlete dropout and support systems (Fiorese-Vieira, 1999) as well as the whole sports career (Stambulova, Stephan & Jäphag 2007). Accordingly, the
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bioecological theory of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), in particular the
PPCT model (Bronfenbrenner, 1999), is an appropriate framework to investigate research questions and understand the interactions and multidirectional influences in the development of both current and past (over the last 25–30 yrs) elite Australian T&F athletes.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) originally described these PPCT interactions through a nested system of layers defined as:
micro-system—the inner most layer consisting of the individual and those
factors most directly influencing development (i.e., training
activities/environment and participants such as athlete–coach and athlete–parent
systems)
meso-system—involves interactions and relationships between two or more
micro-systems (e.g., athlete–parent interaction can influence athlete–coach
interaction, and/or school and club interactions)
exo-system—linkages and processes between two or more settings that influence
the developing person (e.g., sporting organisation structure, size of the
town/city)
macro-system—the most remote level from the individual, involving the broader
sociocultural or subcultural contexts that affect the developing person (e.g., sport
policy and governance, societal laws).
The coordination, cooperation and communication between the various individuals, groups and organisations at the same level, as well as those above and below, determines the ‘power’ of these nested influences (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
2006). For example, while an athlete’s parents and coach are key influencing factors in
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development, the ‘power’ of this influence may be diminished if there is poor or little cooperation and communication between parents and the coach.
Bronfenbrenner (1999) later consolidated these ideas into the PPCT model, a chain of developmental outcomes involving the individual child, their environment and experiences over time. The PPCT model is best explained by two main propositions that provide an operational framework for research design in the field of human development (Araújo & Davids, 2009; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Proposition one hypothesises that human development throughout the lifespan, particularly early childhood and adolescence, is a result of a series of progressively more complex, reciprocal, regular and long-lasting interactions between the active evolving person
(both physically and psychologically) and the people, objects and symbols in the immediate environment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). These enduring forms of interaction are referred to as proximal processes (e.g., learning new skills, acquiring new knowledge) and are considered the primary engine of development because they are instrumental in developing motivation and skills to engage in activities, both independently and with others (Bronfenbrenner, 1995; Gottlieb, Wahlsten & Lickliter,
2006). Proposition two refers to the degree to which the proximal processes affect the level of development of the individual. They are a joint function of the characteristics and traits of the developing person and the environment (immediate and remote) in which the processes occur. The context of the developmental outcomes being considered and the period of time (both chronologically and historically) in which they occur also influences the processes. For example, the era in which an athlete develops may affect their development in terms of facilities and support available as well as the level of competition. The next section provides a more detailed examination of the four components of the PPCT model.
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3.2.1 Processes
Bronfenbrenner stated that proximal processes constitute the core of the bioecological theory of human development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Using
Krebs’s (2009) adapted version of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of sports talent development, the proximal processes in the context of this thesis are the developmental experiences of the elite athletes. For example, as the first experiences of play/physical activities usually start with the parents at home it is very often the parents’ decisions and expectations in relation to sport that will determine the proximal processes of sport motivation in the future (Krebs, 2009). As a child matures and becomes more competent, the proximal processes can extend to the quality and type of practice or training undertaken (Araújo et al., 2010; Bengoechea & Johnson, 2001).
They also involve the evolving interpersonal relationships between an athlete and significant others such as parents and coaches, as an athlete progresses through childhood, adolescence and finally adulthood (Côté, 1999; Côté, Bruner, Erickson,
Strachan & Fraser-Thomas, 2010; Côté & Hay, 2002; Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007;
Stambulova et al., 2009). These proximal processes permeate and influence all other components of the PPCT; the ‘power’ or extent of this influence depends on the joint function of the developing person and their environment over time (Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 2006).
3.2.2 Persons
This component of the PPCT model relates to the characteristics of the person that influence development (Bronfenbrenner, 2001, 2005). While Bronfenbrenner acknowledged the influence on development of an individual’s genetic traits
(Bronfenbrenner, 2001, 2005), it was the personal characteristics he termed ‘force’,
‘demand’ and ‘resource’ that were perceived to be most instrumental to development.
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According to Bronfenbrenner (1989, 1995), ‘force’ characteristics are the most powerful because they involve ‘an active orientation toward an interaction and a view of self as an active agent in a responsive world’ (as cited in Bengoechea & Johnson, 2001, p. 25).
In the sporting context this pertains to an athlete’s motivation and persistence, which can initiate, sustain or interfere with the proximal processes in relation to interactions with the coach. For example, the training environment a coach creates for young athletes can affect either positively or negatively an athlete’s self-determination (Ames,
1992). An environment where a young athlete feels valued, with a sense of belonging, and that is focused on improvement can promote the development of intrinsic motivation and the persistence required to stay in the sport (Allen & Hodge, 2006; Duda
& Hall, 2001). Alternatively, if the young athlete experiences unrealistic expectations and a ‘win at all costs’ attitude by the coach (and/or parents), decreased motivation and eventual dropout are more likely (Gould, Tuffey, Udry & Loehr 1996a, b; Smoll &
Smith, 2002).
‘Demand’ characteristics, which in a sporting setting can refer to the biological or genetic attributes of a person (e.g., gender, skin colour, physical attributes), can influence initial interactions between a coach and developing athlete (Tudge, Mokrova,
Hatfield & Karnik, 2009). For example, the coach of an early maturing athlete may have an expectation that the young athlete has the ability to compete in senior competitions, based on a ‘demand’ characteristic such as physical strength. This could then influence the proximal processes between coach and athlete with possible negative consequences such as increased competition anxiety because psychologically, the young athlete may not be ready. Such a lack of understanding by the coach regarding the young athlete’s psychological readiness may lead to unrealistic expectations, a loss of confidence and
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self-esteem and the eventual withdrawal from the sport (Coakley, 1992; Gould et al.,
1996a, b).
The third personal characteristic, ‘resource’, relates to both psychological resources that may have been developed from past experiences (e.g., dealing with setbacks, learning valuable coping skills) and physical resources such as access to good training facilities, parental support (e.g., good housing and food) and educational opportunities (Tudge et al., 2009). In support of this component of the model, many sporting studies have revealed how psychological and physical resources are both key factors in differentiating between elite and sub-elite athletes (Gould et al., 2002a;
MacNamara et al., 2010a, b). For example, Gould and colleagues’ (2002a) study of psychological characteristics of US Olympic champions revealed that the ability to focus, and cope with and control anxiety, had been instrumental in their success. From the physical perspective, costs associated with sporting membership, training, transport and equipment have been shown to be prohibitive to participation for members of low- income families (Bailey et al., 2010; Elling & Claringbould, 2005).
3.2.3 Context
According to Bronfenbrenner (1979, 2005), context refers to the social and physical environments that influence the proximal processes both directly and indirectly. The context varies throughout the stages of development and in line with the nested layers of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) theory version. At the micro-level, the parameters of the context include the athlete’s home, school, club and peers. At the meso-level, various influences can act concurrently on development. In T&F, for example, young athletes may be training and competing in three separate domains: school, LA and senior athletics (AA, 2018). Unless these interdependent meso-systems
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work collaboratively they may not provide an appropriate context for long-term development outcomes (Keegan, Spray, Harwood & Lavellee, 2010).
The next two levels, exo and meso, have less direct relevance for talent development but can still exert considerable influence. At the exo-level, national sporting bodies’ policies can also directly affect elite athlete development, such as in
Sweden, where funding is provided to assist athletes with combining study and sport
(Stambulova et al., 2007). The final macro-level, pertains to the influence that the sporting culture both nationally and/or at the local club and regional level, can exert in the development of sporting talent (Baker & Horton, 2004; Henriksen et al., 2011). For example, sports such as ice hockey in Canada and table tennis in China have become indelible components of the national identity (Li, Wang & Young, 2014). In the case of
China, table tennis athletes have been influenced by a cultural philosophy honouring those with a ‘tough and aggressive character’ (Si, Duan, Li & Jiang, 2011). This is similar in Australia, where a vertical individualist culture, one that encourages and values competition between individuals (Stambulova et al., 2009), results in high expectations and sporting heroes being revered.
3.2.4 Time
Time plays an important role in the bioecological theory and refers to the constancy and change that can operate from over very short timeframes through to longer ‘historical time’ periods as a continuous process in human development
(Bengoechea, 2001; Tudge et al., 2009). For example, in sport, ‘micro-time’ can simply refer to what is happening during a single training activity or session; and ‘meso-time’, to training that occurs over weeks, months and years (Tudge et al., 2009). It is these processes (training activities) and interactions that occur on a regular and ongoing long- term basis that are instrumental in athlete development (Bengoechea & Johnson, 2001).
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Time can also be viewed from the perspective of how long it takes for a young athlete to develop physically, psychologically and emotionally and will vary according to an individual’s maturation and experiences (Arujo et al., 2009; Côté et al., 2009; Krebs
2009). According to Hollings and colleagues (2011), the time needed to develop from elite junior to elite senior status in T&F athletes can vary from 2 to 10 years. Time also refers to the historical era, in which athletes participate because the proximal processes
(people, objects and environment) influencing and providing opportunities for development can vary (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). In Australia, for example, athletes were competing in the 1950s–70s with little or no access to support for their development and preparation. However, athletes participating after 1980 had access to government funding as well as state-of-the-art training facilities, sport science and coaches, at the newly formed AIS (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009).
In summary, the PPCT model views human development within a social context whereby mutual interactive influences from significant others at the four ‘nested’ levels—over various chronological periods—influence development. The bioecological framework allows for a systematic examination of the development of the elite
Australian T&F athletes in this thesis from the perspective of both the person and the contextual factors influencing and affecting the process at different stages of their athletic career.
However, it should be noted that there are a number of limitations in relation to the PPCT model and its applicability to sports studies. For example, the complexity of the theory makes it difficult to incorporate all aspects of the theory in one study (Tudge et al., 2009) and rather than a theory pertaining to sport expertise, it is viewed by some as more an organisational framework for knowledge (Arujo et al., 2010). Accordingly, via the use of the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and athlete career transition
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models (Stambulova, 2003; Wylleman, & Lavallee, 2003), a broader and more comprehensive theoretical framework helped guide this study. Each of these models and their relevance to this thesis is discussed in the following sections.
3.3 Overview of Supporting Athlete Development Models
The choice of models used to support the PPCT framework was based on the recommendation that a more holistic understanding of athlete development could be achieved by assimilating knowledge from theoretical subgroups (talent development and career transitions) that have traditionally been viewed as separate concepts (Bruner,
Erikson, Wilson & Côté, 2010; Coutinho, Mesquita & Fonseca, 2016). The talent development model chosen to support the PPCT model in this thesis is Côté and Fraser-
Thomas’s (2007) modified version of the original DMSP (Côté, 1999; Côté & Hay,
2002; Côté et al., 2003). To strengthen and complement these models in understanding the career development of Australian T&F athletes, two career transition models are used: Stambulova’s (1994, 2003) Athlete Career Transition Model and Wylleman and
Lavelle’s (2004) Developmental Model of Transitions. The relationships between the
PPCT model and supporting models are depicted in Figure 3.1.
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Figure 3.1. Model depicting the relationship between the bioecological model and various athlete development/transition models
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3.4 The Developmental Model of Sport Participation
Various athlete development models were considered before deciding on the
DMSP. While several stages of Balyi and Hamilton’s (2004) Long Term Athlete
Development Model (LTAD, and Gulbin and colleagues (2013a) more recent
Foundations, Talent, Elite, Mastery framework (FTEM) encapsulate some aspects of athlete development, both models have limitations in relation to the scope of this thesis.
The LTAD model claims to be based on scientific principles that prescribe balanced training and competition loads congruent with six key developmental stages from childhood to adolescence. However, this model has been criticised in academic fields because it lacks empirical evidence, is too generic and one-dimensional (physiology based) and fails to specify appropriate training loads at each developmental stage
(Bailey et al., 2010; Ford et al., 2011; Lloyd et al., 2015).
FTEM is a strategic framework developed over several decades and based on the insights and experiences of high performance personnel from a wide range of sports in
Australia (Gulbin, Crosser, Morley, & Weissensteiner, 2013a). The framework provides sporting organisations and stakeholders with a flexible and more seamless transition for participants from foundational sporting experiences into active sporting and lifestyle participation pathways or in the case of talented athletes, along a sporting excellence pathway. While it is culturally specific to this study and incorporates pathways for both recreational and elite sporting participants, it has also been criticised for being too prescriptive and unable to address the often individual and dynamic nature of talent development (MacNamara & Collins, 2014). A further limitation of model relates to the greater focus on skill and performance development rather than some other important mechanisms of talent development, such as, the interplay between the individual’s psycho-behaviour (Abbott & Collins ,2004; MacNamara et al., 2010a, 2010b) and the
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environment (Martindale et al., 2005). Several models integrating the impact of psychosocial behaviour (the psychological characteristics of excellence), and the micro and macro environment (athletic talent development environment) on talent development, were also considered (Abbot et al., 2005; Henriksen, 2010). However, these have also be criticised over the singular emphasis on psychological skills & characteristics or the lack of interaction between the environment and athletic factors
(Gulbin et al., 2013a).
The DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007), based on theoretical and empirical data and regarded as the foremost conceptualised model, was viewed as the most appropriate athlete development model to complement the PPCT model. This is because it provides clear indications of the pathways, processes and outcomes for each age- related stage, consistent with theories of child and adolescent development (Bruner et al., 2010; Côté, Murphy-Mills & Abernethy, 2012; Côté & Vierimaa, 2014).
In addition, there is a natural synergy with Bronfenbrenner’s (1999) bioecological theory of human development because the model integrates alternative sporting outcomes (i.e., elite performance and/or participation) with the developing person and their environment through key proximal processes (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014).
Specifically relevant to this study are the proximal processes which enable young athletes to progress from deliberate play to deliberate practice as they move through the various developmental stages depicted by the DMSP. Additionally, the proximal processes facilitating and providing opportunities to sample a variety of sports, also a key component of the DMSP, further illustrate the complementarity with the PPCT model.
The DMSP has evolved from Bloom’s (1985) generalised developmental model and Côté’s (1999) sport-specific model. Both depict development occurring in three
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chronological stages over 15–20 years, labelled by Bloom (1985) as initiation, developmental and mastery and by Côté (1999) as sampling, specialising and investment. However, these models have been criticised for being too theoretical and simplistic (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014; Coutinho et al., 2016; Suppiah et al., 2015). For example, they are unable to account for individual differences and the complex and non- linear trajectories (e.g., late bloomers, talent transfer) often associated with the development of sporting excellence (Bergeron et al., 2015; Gulbin et al., 2013a; Gulbin et al., 2010; Suppiah et al., 2015). In addition, as they do not provide testable concepts, they have been criticised because they cannot quantify variables such as psychosocial behaviours of athletes (Abbott & Collins, 2004; Bailey & Morley, 2006; Côté et al.,
2012).
To overcome some of these shortcomings and gain a better understanding of the sporting development process, Côté and colleagues further expanded and modified over several years their original three-stage model into the current format of the DMSP
(Côté, 1999; Côté, Baker & Abernethy, 2007). Recognising that not all individuals will follow the same developmental pathway, Côté and Fraser-Thomas’s (2007) version of the DMSP proposed three separate pathways: two related to the development of sporting expertise (early specialisation/deliberate practice or early diversification/sampling) and one in relation to recreational level. Deliberate practice refers to highly structured practice or training with the sole aim of improving performance and is essential in achieving expertise in any domain (Ericsson et al.,
1993). According to Ericsson and colleagues (1993) an extensive period (approximately
10,000 hours) is required to achieve expertise, and thus practice should commence in childhood. In line with this principle, the early specialisation pathway to sporting expertise involves the focus on a single sport from childhood with a deliberate focus on
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structured training and competition in that sport (Ford, Coughlan, Hodges & Williams,
2016; Wiersma, 2000). The converse view of how to achieve sporting expertise involves the early diversification pathway. Following this pathway to expertise involves sampling a range of sports and activities during childhood and early adolescence before specialising later. It also promotes and encourages ‘deliberate play’, a term coined by
Côté (1999), as activities that are play-like, less structured, inherently enjoyable, driven by children rather than adults and that encourage the development of intrinsic motivation (Côté et al., 2007, 2012).
The two pathways leading to sporting expertise are relevant to this thesis because they accommodate the two clear schools of thought (early specialisation/diversification) in relation to the development of elite athletes.
Accordingly, the DMSP provides a framework for research questions in relation to training activities and social support at specific periods of development in athletes’ careers. The early diversification pathway of the DMSP is represented by the same stages of Côtés’ (1999) original three-stage model; however, the DMSP offers an alternative recreational pathway for participants after the sampling phase. The other avenue to elite sporting performance outlined by the model is the early specialisation/deliberate practice pathway. Figure 3.2 summarises the main components and outcomes of the three possible sporting developmental pathways according to the
DMSP (as adapted from Côté et al., 2003, p. 197).
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Likely Developmental Outcomes
Pathway 1 Pathway 2 Pathway 3 Recreational participation Elite performance Elite performance Enhanced health & Positive physical and Reduced physical enjoyment psychosocial benefits health & enjoyment - Higher attrition rates
Recreational Years Investment Years (13-adulthood) (16-19 yrs) Participation and activities Participation and activities involve: involve Early Specialisation (from High amount of High amount of deliberate childhood) deliberate play practice Participation and activities Low amounts of Low amounts of deliberate involve: deliberate practice play High involvement in Flexibility to cater for Focus on principal sport deliberate practice from individuals early age Focus on health and Usually no sampling Specialising Years (13-15 years) fitness stage Participation and activities Low amounts of involve deliberate play Balance between deliberate Focus solely on principal play and practice sport Focus on fewer sports adult led
Sampling Years (6-12 years) Participation and activities involve:
High amount of deliberate play – child led Low amounts of deliberate practice Variety of sports Entry point for sport & physical activity (elite Entry point for Entry point for early specialisation) sport/physical activity sport/physical activity (recreational) (elite sampling)
Figure 3.2. Developmental Model of Sport Participation developmental trajectories, activities and outcomes based on representation by Côté et al. 2003, p. 197
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The DMSP has been developed and refined over many years and while not all outcomes and pathways have been directly tested (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007), seven postulates were proposed by Côté and colleagues (2009) to support and substantiate the different pathways of the DMSP. In the ongoing process of refining the model, Côté and
Vierimaa (2014) recently reviewed and evaluated the evidence supporting the postulates or tenets proposed by Côté and colleagues (2009). They used a modified version of the
GRADE approach (Rees et al., 2013) to rate the quality of the evidence in relation to the study design, quality, consistency and directness. The results based on the following
GRADE definitions are presented in Table 3.1 (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014).
‘High’ means further research is unlikely to change our confidence in the
postulate
‘Moderate’ means further research is likely to have an important effect on our
confidence and may change the postulate
‘Low’ means further research is very likely to have an important effect on our
confidence and is likely to change the postulate
‘Very low’ means the postulate is uncertain.
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Table 3.1
Ratings of the Empirical Evidence in Relation to the Seven Developmental Model of
Sport Participation Postulates
DMSP postulates (as defined by Côté & Vierimaa, 2014) Overall rating
1. Early diversification does not hinder elite sport participation in High sports where peak performance occurs after maturation
2. Early diversification is linked to a longer sport career and has Moderate positive implications for long-term sport involvement
3. Early diversification allows participation in a range of contexts that Moderate most favourably affects positive youth development
4. High amounts of deliberate play during the sampling years Moderate promotes development of a range of motor and cognitive development beneficial to the eventual principal sport
5. High amounts of deliberate play during the sampling years builds a Moderate solid foundation of intrinsic motivation
6. Children (13+ yrs) should have the choice and opportunity to High specialise in a sport or to continue at a recreational level
7. Adolescents (by 16 yrs) have developed the physical, cognitive, Low social, emotional and motor skills required for investment in specialised sport training
In summary, based on a recent citation analysis of 75 peer reviewed journal articles investigating athlete development, the DMSP was found to be the most prominent and influential conceptualisation of athlete development in the literature
(Bruner et al., 2010).
However, based on the above systematic grading of the empirical evidence supporting the seven postulates proposed by Côté and colleagues (2009), further research is needed to strengthen and verify the postulates graded low to moderate. This thesis uses the DMSP as a supporting theoretical framework to examine and understand
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the development of Australian T&F athletes. As such there is potential to address a gap in the literature by providing additional empirical evidence that may support and further strengthen some of the postulates, especially postulates two, three and seven, which are particularly relevant to the athletes in this study.
3.5 Athlete Career Transition Models
The inclusion of career transition models as part of the theoretical framework was also based on the complementarity of these models with certain elements of
Bronfenbrenner’s PPCT framework and stages of the DMSP. For instance, athlete career transition models also complement the bioecological theory of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 2005) because they demonstrate the importance of the micro- and macro-social influences in helping athletes cope with the varying external and internal challenges throughout their sporting careers (Stambulova et al., 2007).
There is further alignment with Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory (1999) because an athlete’s ability to transition from junior to elite senior levels may depend on ‘exo- and macro-’ level influences such as the selection and funding policies of national sport systems and/or particular sport cultures (Poczwardowski et al., 2014; Stambulova,
1994). Finally, because transition models emphasise the whole athletic career, which for some can span 20–25 years, they encompass both the chronological and historical aspects of time as outlined in the PPCT model (Bronfenbrenner, 1999).
In relation to athlete career transition models, Stambulova’s (1994) original analytical model of career transitions was based on empirical studies with 213 world- class Russian athletes from a range of sports. The findings led to the development of a six-stage model that outlined ‘critical points’ or career transitions facing developing athletes. The stages included the beginning sport specialisation; transition to more intense training in chosen sport; transition from junior to senior/high-performance sport;
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progressing from amateur to professional status; peak to final stage; and finally, retirement (Stambulova et al., 2009). Similar to other stage models (Bloom, 1985; Côté,
1999), the phases describe changes in the athletes and their social environment at each stage (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007).
The first three transitions outlined in Stambulova’s (1994, 2000) model are the most relevant to athletes in this thesis. Specifically, the specialising (ages 13–15 yrs) and investment (16–19 yrs) stages of the DMSP for athletes in this study closely align with the transitions from junior to senior (Stambulova, 1994, 2003) and development to mastery stages (Wylleman, Alfermann & Lavallee, 2004) in the respective career transition models (Stambulova et al., 2012). As the focus of this thesis is the development rather than the maintenance of elite athletes’ careers, the junior to senior/high-performance transition was seen as very important, with the final two transitions (early senior to peak career, retirement) being less relevant.
In line with the view that career transition is a process not a single event
(Wylleman et al., 1999), Stambulova (2003) and Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) created the explanatory ACT model and the DMT (respectively) to further understand the process. These models focus on the specific demands and challenges at each stage and the processes and factors influencing an athlete’s ability to cope with such demands.
These transitional demands could be either predictable (termed normative), such as moving from junior to senior, or less predictable (non-normative), such as injury or coach conflict. In line with Schlossberg’s (1981) model of Human Adaptation to
Transition, athletes either cope or fail to negotiate the demands based on their ability to mobilise and manage the dynamic balance between both internal (e.g., athlete knowledge and competencies) and external resources (e.g., social support) and the specific barriers they confront. For example, having certain personal characteristics such
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as the ability to goal set and persevere (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al.,
2002a; McNamara et al., 2010a, b), together with greater social support from both parents are resources commonly associated with successful senior and junior sporting elite athletes (Alfermann, Lee & Wuerth, 2005; Côté, 1999; Vanden Auweele et al.,
2004; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). Alternatively, as athletes move into the investment year’s training and competition, commitments increase, often coinciding with other important academic/work and psychosocial changes in athlete’s lives (Bennie &
O’Connor, 2006; Stambulova et al., 2015; Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee, 2004). In sum, these models have been used in previous sporting studies to understand how athletes manage the dynamic balance between other aspects of their lives with career transitions throughout their athletic lifespan.
As with athlete development models, career transition models also have limitations. The models describe and outline the concurrent changes and associated challenges faced by athletes at the different transitional stages, as well as reasons for why some athletes cope and others do not. However, they provide little understanding of athletes’ experiences in relation to specific challenges, evolving situations, contextual factors or skills needed at each transitional stage (Bruner et al., 2008; Stambulova et al.,
2012). Much of the research has centred on European countries (Stambulova & Ryba,
2014) and the recent focus in transition research has moved towards understanding the process in specific sports and specific cultures (Stambulova, 2016). As this thesis seeks to understand more about the experiences of elite Australian T&F who have successfully negotiated various within-career transitions, it will contribute to the understanding of this process from a specific sporting and cultural perspective and potentially overcome some of the limitations of career transition models.
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3.6 Chapter Summary
This chapter has discussed the main theoretical framework and supporting models, together with the rationale for incorporating each of these as the theoretical foundation for the study. Bronfenbrenner’s (2005) bioecological theory of human development provides a broad scope for examining the proximal process (e.g., training, competition), the interpersonal interactions among key persons (e.g., parents, coaches, peers) and the environment (e.g., where they grew up) over time. Supplementing this framework with the DMSP, which outlines athletes’ progression and sporting outcomes
(participation, performance and personal development) through specific stages of development enables a deep examination of the processes and interactions that were instrumental in athletes’ success. Finally, incorporating aspects of the career transition models provides a framework for understanding some of the challenges and setbacks encountered by athletes during their development and how they cope by tapping into available internal (e.g., personality traits) and external resources (e.g., parents, training squads).
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Methodology
This chapter describes the key methodological features of the study including the researcher’s philosophical stance or ‘worldview’, the approach to inquiry
(methodology) and methods used to address the research questions (Creswell, 2009;
Crotty 1998). Also included is an outline of the methodological approach underpinning the thesis and the justification for adopting a MM research design. A full explanation of the methods in relation to ethical processes, recruitment, data collection, data analysis and quality standards can be found in the individual studies described in Chapters 5, 6 and 7.
4.1 Philosophical Considerations
The philosophical stance or ‘worldview’ is the general orientation a researcher has about the world and nature of research. This influences the choice of research method (Creswell, 2009; Sparkes & Smith, 2014; Whaley & Krane, 2011). Worldviews have various meanings and have been described as universally recognised scientific principles (Kuhn, 1970), or sets of beliefs held by a community of researchers that guide their actions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). These beliefs are associated with various interlaced, yet distinct, philosophical branches including epistemology, ontology, methodology and axiology—each of which influence the study process (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Sandelowski, 2000).
Epistemology refers to the theory of knowledge and how it is acquired (Crotty,
1998; Letherby, 2003) and forms the foundations of the questions, assumptions and beliefs a researcher brings to a study (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Ontology is the study of ‘being’ and is concerned with how a person perceives a reality (Crotty, 1998;
Scotland, 2012), while axiology refers to the role of values in the research as well as the
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researcher’s view or value judgements (Wayhuni, 2012). In turn, these beliefs or paradigms provide the cognitive context that guide a researcher’s worldview and approach to researching a specific topic (Guba & Lincoln, 2005). From this, a researcher chooses a methodology that helps translate the ontological and epistemological perspectives into conceptual frameworks (Riazi & Candlin, 2014).
Underpinning the methodology is the research method, which includes the practical, step-by-step application of various tools and techniques of data collection and analysis when conducting research (Giddings, 2006; Wahyuni, 2012). Overall, these concepts often feed into three broad research paradigms: quantitative, qualitative and MM— which involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches (Bryman, 2006; Creswell,
2014; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). These concepts are explored in greater detail below.
4.1.1 Quantitative (Positivism/Realist)
Pure quantitative researchers typically adopt a positivist/post-positivist
(Creswell, 2014) or realist viewpoint (Neuman, 2011) in understanding a phenomenon
(Brannan, 2005; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Positivists/post-positivists believe that different researchers observing the same factual problem will generate a similar result via the careful use of statistical tests and application of a similar scientific research process in investigating a large sample (Creswell, 2014). The ontological perspective of positivism is one of realism, whereby the nature of reality is objective, thus a single truth ‘exists’ independent of the participants’ perceptions (Guba &
Lincoln, 2005; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Acceptable knowledge (i.e., epistemology) is based on observable phenomena to establish a causal relationship between variables in a value-free (axiology) framework (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Wahyuni, 2012).
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Quantitative studies typically use standardised methods such as tests or surveys to collect and statistically analyse data. Common key objectives include testing hypotheses deductively, establishing cause and effect or making predictions that lead to general inferences about the characteristics of the study cohort (Creswell, 2014;
Harwell, 2011). However, because the researcher decides what to study, what tests and instruments to include and how to interpret results, there is a level of subjectivity; hence it is difficult for the process to be completely value free (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004). The positivist/post-positivist stance typical of the quantitative paradigm was adopted her in the first study (Chapter 5), in which a survey was used to investigate a myriad of potential factors that may have influenced the development of Australian
Olympic/WC T&F athletes. The aim was to explore patterns and the prevalence of responses in relation to important aspects of the development of elite athletes. Such participants were identified to take part in the interview phase, which aimed for a deeper exploration of the proposed research.
4.1.2 Qualitative (Constructivism/Interpretivist)
In qualitative methodology, the researcher typically adopts a constructivist or interpretivist viewpoint, but can also hold realist assumptions (Brannan, 2005; Johnson
& Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Interpretivists believe that reality (ontology) is constructed by social actors and people’s perceptions of it and because human perspectives and experiences are subjective, social reality can have multiple perspectives (Hennink,
Hutter & Bailey, 2011). Accordingly, acceptable knowledge (epistemology) is acquired inductively through personal meanings and social phenomena (e.g., situational details and motivating factors behind these), where a researcher may derive theories or hypotheses, explanations and conceptualisations from participant ideas (Harwell, 2011).
Typically, data are generated from in-depth interviews and extensive field observations
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with an emphasis on collecting worlds and pictures rather than numbers and statistics
(Guba & Lincoln, 1988). Adopting the interpretive methodology here for both qualitative studies (see Chapters 6 & 7) provided the scope to explore and understand meaningful realities of the same phenomenon (i.e., elite athlete development) from athlete and coach perspectives as well as through the interaction between me as the researcher and the study participants (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
In this method, the axiology of the researcher is emic (value bound) because the researcher is part of what is being researched and as such is interactively linked to the participants. Here, the previous experiences and interpretations of all parties jointly influencing the research process and interpretations (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Secker,
Wimbush, Watson, & Milburn, 1995; Wahyuni, 2012). Given this connection, it is important that sincerity is demonstrated by declaring any values or biases the researcher may have because of previous knowledge or experience and by ensuring these do not unduly influence the process or outcome (Tracey, 2010).
I, as the principal researcher in this project have had over 20 years’ experience in Australian high-performance T&F as both a coach and manager of Australian teams.
This extensive experience, coupled with my personal sporting (national and international T&F athlete) and academic (Masters in Coaching) background, was advantageous in understanding the subject matter, opening up channels of communication and building rapport and an empathetic understanding of participants
(MacPhail, 2004; Yardley, 2015). However, my background and set of assumptions about the nature of reality in relation to the development of elite athletes had the potential to influence the type of questions asked or avoided, as well as to whom
(Hesse-Biber, 2015; Macphail, 2004). Being conscious of my standpoint, I incorporated some measures that included academic course work involving qualitative research
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methods, the use of a reflexive journal and external auditors (e.g., PhD committee members) who provided ongoing peer review and debriefing. These processes helped to ensure a critical consideration of the analysis of data and maintain a neutral and open- minded stance (Creswell, 1998; Holt et al., 2017; Neuman, 2011; Walker, Read &
Priest, 2013). Ultimately, these factors were important to consider from the interpretivist viewpoint and when conducting the semi-structured interviews (Chapters 6
& 7) to obtain a deeper understanding of the key factors identified in the quantitative phase of the project.
4.1.3 Pragmatism and Mixed Methodological Approaches
Pragmatism is a philosophical approach used to understand social reality by integrating the ontological, epistemological and axiological perspectives of quantitative and qualitative approaches (Hess-Biber, 2015; Johnson et al., 2006; Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2011). According to Greene (2007), pragmatism informs a mixed methodological approach because it involves ‘a plurality of philosophical paradigms, theoretical assumptions, methodological traditions, data gathering and analysis techniques, and personalised understandings and value commitments’ (p. 13). In contrast to the more rigid approach of ‘traditional’ quantitative and qualitative paradigms, it allows for more flexibility because the integration of two approaches can occur at any stage of the research process (Shannon-Baker, 2016). Interestingly, the pragmatic approach has been criticised by some ‘purists’ who believe the quantitative and qualitative paradigms cannot be mixed because each methodology has its own specific assumptions (Smith, 1983; Smith & Heshusius, 1986). For instance, Lincoln
(2010) questioned its methodological validity because pragmatism does not view declaring one’s ontological or epistemological stance as important or necessary. Other scholars have warned that pragmatism may lead to an ‘anything goes’ approach and ill-
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informed research because methods are simply tools, not forms of performative and interpretive practice (Denscombe, 2008; Denzin, 2012; Sparkes, 2015). However, it can be argued that a strong understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of the quantitative and qualitative methods can facilitate an innovative conceptualisation of a research problem (Riazi, 2016).
From an epistemological viewpoint, using a pragmatist approach allows the integration of both the observable phenomenon (i.e., the responses to the questionnaire) and subjective interpretation of data (i.e., through in-depth interviews) to formulate knowledge. In this way, the full range of ‘tools’ and techniques from both methodologies can be used, with the freedom to utilise ontological beliefs that best address the research question (Bryman, 2006; Denzin, 2008, Freshwater, 2006; Rocco,
Bliss, Gallagher & Pérez-Prado 2003; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). As such, pragmatism allows the freedom to use deduction for testing hypotheses in the quantitative phase and induction in the qualitative phases for the discovery of emerging patterns and themes. Overall, this helps to achieve greater scope in relation to the explanation, justification and clarification of results (Morgan, 2007; Onwuegbuzie &
Leech, 2006; Wahyuni, 2012). In the present research, the pragmatic approach was used to integrate the findings from both phases to enable a deeper understanding of the development of elite T&F athletes in Australia, which are discussed in Chapter 8.
Another attractive feature of utilising a MM approach was the capacity for triangulation of data collection methods, whereby quantitative data are used to elaborate, expand and complement qualitative data. Researchers have shown that results from one study can be used to develop other studies, while also revealing new perspectives, contradictions or paradoxes that could lead to alternative areas of enquiry and greater breadth of understanding (Goodyear, Tracey, Claiborn, Lichtenberg &
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Wampold 2005; Greene, Caracelli & Graham, 1989; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
Incorporating both paradigms in a study capitalises on the uniqueness of their differences (Davis & Leppo, 2010) and the ‘sum of two’ elicits a much deeper and meaningful understanding of a complex phenomenon (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2007;
Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Finally, Hunter and Brewer (2003) suggested that choosing a MM approach is justified when the researcher is convinced that the research problem poses more complex questions than a single method could comprehensively cover.
In this thesis, while the quantitative data provide statistics and trends associated with training, competition and social support, they do not provide answers related to how and why these factors influence development. Hence, the results from the quantitative study were used to direct the qualitative investigation; for example, around topics exploring how coaches positively and negatively influence the long-term development of elite T&F athletes. Therefore, drawing on both quantitative and qualitative approaches allowed for flexibility to explore the research questions in greater depth by using a mixture of inductive and deductive approaches throughout the study.
Also influencing the choice of a MM design in this thesis was the increased prominence of this approach in sport research (Duffy et al., 2006, Gould et al., 2002;
Hammersley, 2006; Hollings, 2013; Poczwardowski et al., 2014). For instance,
Hammersley (2006) noted that MM research in sporting contexts ‘speaks to policy and policymakers which informs practice’ (p. 6), Additionally, MM is well suited to investigating the multifaceted theoretical and practical concepts associated with talent development because it enables a more holistic understanding of human behaviour
(Arujo et al., 2010; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2001; Renshaw et al., 2011). This was especially relevant in this thesis—being one of the first empirical studies of its kind in
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Australian T&F—because there was potential to provide evidence that may assist with formulating policies and procedures related to talent development in T&F. Accordingly, and with a targeted research audience in mind, (e.g., NSOs, AA and coaches, athletes and parents), a MM approach was viewed as the best mechanism for obtaining and conveying this information to this audience (Creswell, 2009).
4.2 Mixed Method Typologies
MM typologies are the systematic ordering for informative, organisational and communicative purposes that provide a conceptual framework and structure for planning and guiding research (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011; Greene, 2007; Greene et al., 1989; Hanson et al., 2005; Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009; Morse & Niehaus, 2009).
The plethora of MM research designs can make it challenging to select the most suitable typology (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). However, Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009) presented a content analysis of various MM approaches to research, before integrating and consolidating the main concepts into three key dimensions. This simplifies the process for understanding how to carry out MM research and thus became the most suitable framework to follow for the present study. Leech and Onwuegbuzie’s (2009) three-dimensional typology includes the following elements: (1) the level of mixing
(partial or full); (2) timing (concurrent or sequential); and (3) weighting status (equal v. dominant) of the quantitative and qualitative phases in a study.
4.2.1 Mixing (Partial)
In a fully mixed design, the mixing of the quantitative and qualitative phases can occur within or across stages, whereas in a partial design the stages are conducted separately with mixing only occurring at the data interpretation stage (Leech &
Onwuegbuzie, 2009). In this partially mixed study, the data collection and analysis of the quantitative study and the two qualitative studies was carried out separately. First,
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the quantitative data provided the background information for developing interview questions where a deeper investigation of specific results became important. Second, the quantitative participants provided a pool of participants from which to seek further participation in the qualitative research phase, aimed at further elaborating on findings from the quantitative phase. Next, the data derived from each of qualitative studies were collected and analysed independently. Finally, the discussion chapter brings together the results from each phase to provide a broader discussion of the key findings from the quantitative and qualitative phases of the project.
4.2.2 Timing (Sequential)
In terms of timing, a study can be carried out concurrently—with the phases conducted simultaneously—or sequentially; that is, one phase after the other (Creswell
& Plano-Clark, 2003, 2011; Hanson et al., 2005; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The timing of the study involved a sequential typology and according to Hanson and colleagues (2005), there are three sequential designs: explanatory, exploratory and transformative. The explanatory design is suited to studies in which the researcher seeks qualitative results to explain quantitative results that are significant, non-significant or unexpected; this is beneficial where the researcher intends to form groups to follow up in the qualitative phase based on the results of the quantitative phase (Creswell &
Plano-Clark, 2011). In the exploratory design, qualitative data are collected first and usually assume priority over quantitative data, which are used to augment the initial qualitative data and are useful for generalising qualitative findings to a specific population (Hanson et al., 2005). While both designs were considered appropriate for this study, the sequential transformative design (quantitative followed by qualitative) was deemed the most appropriate. This is because a theoretical framework
(Bronfenbrenner’s [2005] bioecological theory of human development) was used for the
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study design, and because it allowed flexibility around both the method sequencing and weighting. Table 4.1 outlines the key features distinguishing between each of the sequential designs.
Table 4.1
Summary of the Key Features (Based on Hanson et al., 2005) of Sequential Mixed
Methods Research Designs
Explanatory Exploratory Transformative Theoretical No No Yes framework Method Quantitative followed Qualitative followed Can be either sequence by qualitative by quantitative Weighting Unequal—favouring Unequal—favouring Can be unequal quantitative qualitative or equal
4.2.3 Weighting (Dominant Status)
The flexible nature of research means that a study can change and fluctuate despite a well-planned design (Bryman, 2006). In this study, there was no initial preconception in relation to the priority or weighting of components (i.e., whether the quantitative and qualitative phases have equal status or one is more/less dominant than the other). Some researchers believe that failing to clearly state the weighting of each phase from the outset may weaken the study design because the theoretical perspective underpinning the methodology may be unclear and compromise the ability to conduct the study effectively (Morse & Niehaus, 2009). Other researchers have suggested that allowing the data to dictate the weighting is best because conclusions can be made at later points in the research process (Guest, 2012; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2011, 2012).
Ultimately, this decision does not preclude readers from deciding their own priority, because ‘each reader brings his or her own evaluative lens to a manuscript or research
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proposal and may prioritise the data sets in a different way than intended by the author’
(Guest, 2012, p. 147). In this study, it was best to allow the data to dictate the weighting, with the decision to include, exclude or emphasise data from results, discussions and conclusions left to the writing-up stage. This is because the quantitative phase informed the qualitative research component. In terms of weighting of results, more emphasis was placed on the qualitative phases, given the two types of participants
(i.e., athletes and coaches) involved in that phase and deeper investigation of participant experiences. As such, using Morse’s notational system (1991) the study can be denoted as, quan → QUAL (where ‘quan’ [lower priority] stands for quantitative, ‘Qual’ stands for qualitative [higher weighting], and ‘→’ denotes sequential).
4.3 Research Design
Reflecting the sequential design of this study, the quantitative and qualitative phases were conducted and presented as separate entities (see Chapters 5, 6 and 7).
Chapter 5 reports on the quantitative phase, in which descriptive and contextual data relating to the development of senior elite Australian T&F athletes were obtained using the Track and Field Athlete Development (T&FAD) questionnaire. The questionnaire was informed and guided by the PPCT theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1999) in conjunction with the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and ACT models (Stambulova, 1994,
2003; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). The questions related to athlete’s developmental stages and career progression, training, competition and injury history, as well as the influence of family, coaches, peers and the sporting system in their development (see
Appendix A for full details of the questionnaire). This component addressed the research question:
What are the key developmental influences, milestones and specific athlete
pathways of elite senior athletes who have competed for Australia at the highest
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global level (Olympic Games and/or World Track and Field Championships)
between 1956 and 2013?
Recall bias is a well-documented limitation of using retrospective questionnaires for acquiring data (Côté, Ericsson & Law, 2005; Leite, Baker & Sampaio, 2009; Patton,
2015). Given this study involved a recall period from 2 to 50 years, it was important to maximise the reliability of the questionnaire. A brief overview is provided here, however, full details of reliability and validity specific to the quantitative and qualitative studies are reported in the relevant sections of Chapters 5, 6, & 7.
The questionnaire was based on similar player/athlete history survey instruments used across various sports in which test-retest reliability was established (Ford, Low,
McRobert, & Williams, 2010; Ford & Williams, 2012; Helsen et al., 1998). Although these studies involved younger participants (17-25 years) where the recall period was considerably less than in this study, research in various team sports has demonstrated reliable recall of training activities for periods up to 14-25 years (Baker et al., 2005; Côté et al., 2005; Soberlak & Côté, 2003) and in ‘cgs’ sports (sports measured in centimetres, grams, or seconds) as great as 37 years (Moesch et al., 2011). In addition, earlier research related to episodic memory in the general population found that older people (> 35 years) could best remember important events occurring between the ages of 10 and 30 years (as cited in Sosniak, 2006, p 296). Based on these studies and others suggesting international athletes have high recall reliability in relation to specific long term habitual experiences
(Leite, et al, 2009; Moesch et al., 2011) or critical events such as major injuries (Askling,
Lund, Saartok, & Thorstensson, 2002; Côté et al., 2005), the questionnaire was viewed a reliable instrument for this study.
The key aims with respect to the questionnaire data were to identify general demographics and milestones achieved while developing as an elite athlete as well as the
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various pathways athletes followed from their inception in the sport to elite senior status.
Use of the Statistics Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) provided descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations for all measured variables. Due to the wide age range of participants (23–87 years) and the different historical periods (e.g., pre and post Government support) in which athletes participated, identifying key findings was potentially limited. In the initial analyses, athletes were grouped into two birth year periods coinciding with the introduction of Government support in 1980 (i.e., pre and post 1967). Cross tabulations were conducted to explore between group differences associated with the key aims, however, no significant differences were found.
Although each phase was conducted separately, in line with Creswell (2007), some mixing or ‘merging’ of the quantitative and qualitative methods occurred at the intermediate stage between the two phases. Since the goal of the second qualitative phase was to explore and elaborate on some of the key results from the first quantitative phase, merging at the intermediate stage helped inform the design of the qualitative phases. Accordingly, participants were purposely sampled from the quantitative sample for the qualitative phases based on two main factors associated with the key findings from phase 1.
The first qualitative study related to the junior development experiences of athletes who participated in both junior and senior international competitions. Previous research has highlighted the high percentage (70–80%) of elite Australian junior T&F athletes who fail to represent at the senior international level (Bidder 2013; Hollings &
Hume, 2010). Considering these high attrition rates, understanding more about the developmental experiences of athletes who had successfully transitioned from elite junior to senior international level may provide valuable information to guide policy
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and practice in relation to future T&F TDPs in Australian and internationally.
Therefore, the qualitative study reported in Chapter 6 was designed to address the following research question:
What are the athlete experiences during the specialising (ages 13–15 yrs) and
investment stages (ages 16–19 yrs) that underpin the development of elite
Australian junior track and field athletes who transitioned into elite senior
careers?
In relation to the third study, it was necessary to interview experienced and successful coaches who had been involved in the long-term development of elite athletes both as juniors and seniors because the quantitative survey highlighted the pivotal role of coaches throughout an athlete’s development. Additionally, this third study would assist with gaining a deeper understanding of the factors elite coaches perceived as important in the successful development of talented Australian T&F athletes. The qualitative components reported in Chapter 7 were designed to address the research question:
What are elite Australian coaches’ perceptions of the key factors that contribute
to a successful trajectory towards the elite level in track and field?
While two sets of interview guides were created for athletes and coaches, they were constructed within the PPCT theoretical framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1999) together with the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and ACT models (Stambulova,
1994, 2003; Wylleman, & Lavallee, 2004). Literature related to athlete expertise and qualitative research in sport contexts also contributed to interview structure. This enabled a deeper examination of factors related to stages of athlete development and successful within-career transitions specifically for elite junior to elite senior T&F level in the process, person, context, and time dimensions of the bioecological model.
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In both studies inductive thematic analysis was used to identify, analyse and report on patterns that emerged from participants’ quotes. Thematic analysis (TA) was viewed the most appropriate method to explore interview data because it allows the flexibility to adopt aspects of other theoretical strategies such as grounded theory. The theoretically-flexible approach of TA makes it advantageous for using research questions within different frameworks (Braun & Clarke, 2014). As such, it allowed exploration of different types of research questions within the theoretical framework and models (refer to Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework) used in this thesis. For example, how did contextual factors (PPCT), such as parents and coaches, influence or impact the development of athletes at different stages of the DMSP, and on their ability to transition successfully to elite senior T&F level (ACT models)?
Further supporting the use of TA in this thesis is its applicability in relation to presenting practical and readily accessible findings to those such as sporting bodies, which may be outside academic communities (Braun & Clarke 2006). This aligns with one of the thesis aims of this using findings to inform policies and practices within the sport of T&F in Australia.
4.4 Integration of Results from Both Phases
The second stage of mixing the methods is reported in the final discussion
(Chapter 8) with the aim of ensuring a more robust and meaningful picture of the research findings. In that chapter, selected findings from the quantitative and two qualitative phases are integrated to generate new insights not available from the individual studies. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, together with supporting models (DMSP and athlete career models) and related literature, are used as a framework to analyse, interpret and report the key developmental processes in the athletes’ development. Additionally, combining the quantitative and qualitative findings
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provides empirical evidence for the framing of some important implications and future research possibilities in the area of elite T&F development both within Australia and globally.
To aid comprehension, Figure 4.1 clarifies the sequence of data collection, priority of methods and integration within this research process. This is based on
Ivankova and colleagues’ (2006) 10 rules visual model for the MM procedure and previous MM literature (Creswell et al., 2003; Morse, 1991; Tashakkori & Teddlie,
1998).
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Phase Procedure Product Numerical data Short answer Cross–sectional Track and questions Quantitative Field Athlete Development data collection (T&FAD) web and paper-based (Multiple choice, Likert, yes/no) questionnaire (n = 73) Long answer open questions SPSS software v. 22 Descriptive statistics, Data screening (univariate & missing data, outliers multivariate) Quantitative Frequencies data analysis Factor analysis Mean Frequencies Standard deviation Discriminant function analysis Purposeful selection of athletes who competed at junior & Cases (n = 14) senior international T&F competition Connecting the quantitative and Purposeful selection of coaches Cases (n = 12) who coached athletes at junior qualitative and senior international-level phases teams. Merging of phases to develop Interview protocol interview questions for each sample group
Qualitative In-depth, face-to-face interview Text data (transcripts) data collection
Coding and thematic analysis Diagrammatic Qualitative Cross-thematic analysis representation of data analysis QSR Nvivo 11 qualitative similar codes and software thematic map
Integration of Discussion the quantitative Interpretation and explanation and of the quantitative and Implications qualitative qualitative results Future research results
Figure 4.1 Visual model of the research (adapted from Ivankova et al., 2006)
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The Pathway to the Top—Key Factors and
Influences in the Development of Australian and World
Championship Track and Field Athletes
5.1 Introduction
With the increasing level of professionalism in sport worldwide and its ensuing benefits (e.g., economic, political, enhancement of national pride), many governments invest vast resources in the pursuit of sporting success (De Bosscher et al., 2009). As a result, there is a growing interest by leading sporting nations to understand long-term and sustainable talent development (Duffy et al., 2006; Gulbin et al., 2013a; Sotiriadou
& Shilbury, 2009). In Australia, there is a strong connection between the sense of patriotism and sporting success at the international level (Stewart et al., 2005). This sporting success is measured by the number of athletes reaching the podium at major sporting events (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009), with significant financial and human resources invested by the government to achieve these results. For example, in 2014–15 the Australian High Performance budget for T&F was $6,520,000 (ASC, 2014), representing a 160% funding increase since the Sydney Olympics and reflecting
Australia’s Winning Edge high-performance strategy for 2012–2022 of achieving
‘consistent and sustainable success for Australian athletes and teams on the world stage’
(ASC, 2017a).
Despite implementation of this strategy for consistent sporting success, only
31% of Australian junior T&F athletes who competed at the WJC between 1986 and
2006 represented Australia at senior elite competitions such as the OG and WC
(Hollings & Hume, 2011). Given these high attrition rates and the current high- performance climate in which success equals continued government funding,
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understanding the pathways to elite senior competition may provide greater knowledge to inform long-term athletic success and development of T&F in Australia.
Several studies in T&F (Hollings & Hume, 2010, 2011; Scholz, 2006;
Zelichenok, 2005), tennis (Brouwers et al., 2012; Carlson, 1988) and cycling
(Schumacher et al.,2006) have used a bottom-up approach to examine links between elite junior performance and success as an elite senior. Although these studies found that athletes successful at the elite junior level were more likely to have success as elite seniors, they do not indicate the development pathways and milestones leading to a successful senior elite career. Therefore, the current study implements a top-down analysis (Brouwers et al., 2012), to gain a better understanding of the factors involved in development of the Australian T&F athletes who did achieve success as senior elite athletes.
An ongoing debate in relation to long-term elite sporting development is the timing of specialisation in an individual’s chosen sport (Moesch et al., 2011). The two major schools of thought are early specialisation and early diversification, in which specialisation occurs between early and late adolescence. Early specialisation asserts childhood participation in a single domain, with deliberate focus on training and development for a minimum of 10,000 hours or 10 years, often referred to as the ‘10- year rule’ (Simon & Chase, 1973). This principle has been supported in a range of fields and sports (Ericsson et al., 1993; Helsen et al., 1998; Soberlak & Côté, 2003). However, some researchers have suggested that expertise can be achieved with significantly fewer hours of deliberate practice (Baker et al., 2003; Gulbin et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2006)
In sports where peak performance usually occurs before full maturation (e.g., gymnastics and figure skating), early specialisation is deemed necessary for success
(Law, Côté, & Ericsson, 2007). However, early specialisation has been linked to
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overuse injuries (Côté et al., 2009; Difori et al., 2014; Huxley et al., 2014), burnout and early retirement (Baker, 2003; Brenner, 2007; Carlson, 1988; Law et al., 2007). Further, junior success is neither a reliable predictor nor guarantee of success in senior elite sport
(Barreiros et al., 2014; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Güllich & Emrich, 2012;
Vaeyens, Güllich, Warr & Philippaerts, 2009), with studies in tennis (Brouwers et al.,
2012) and cycling (Schumacher et al., 2006) reporting poor transition rates from elite junior to elite senior international level (<50% and 34% respectively). In addition, researchers have found 50–60% of elite junior T&F athletes from Britain and Germany
(Bussman & Alfermann, 1994; Shibli & Barrett, 2011) and 80% from Belgium (Vanden
Auweele et al., 2004) did not achieve elite senior success.
In contrast, proponents of early diversification, while still supporting the need for many hours of high-quality deliberate practice to achieve expertise, recommend a greater involvement in a variety of sports before specialising at later stages of development (Baker et al., 2003, Côté et al., 2009; Fraser-Thomas, Côté & Deakin,
2008a; Güllich & Emrich, 2012). In late specialisation sports, such as T&F, triathlon, rowing and ice hockey, peak performance usually occurs after maturation (Bayli &
Hamilton, 2004; Moesch et al., 2011) when the main physiological adaptations required for these sports have occurred (Jayanthi et al., 2013). Studies in T&F have reported the age of peak performance as 24–28 years (Hollings et al., 2014a; Shibli & Barrett, 2011).
Accordingly, there is no need for early specialisation and many hours of deliberate practice because it is the specific training completed between 18 and 21 years that is more instrumental to elite senior success (Jayanthi et al., 2013; Moesch et al., 2011).
Incorporating these two broad categories—early specialisation and diversification—numerous ‘stage’ models have been proposed to explain elite athlete development. Early three-stage models to explain elite athlete development were
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published by Bloom (1985) and Côté (1999). Bloom’s stages are broadly described as initiation (i.e., process-oriented early years focusing on playful activities), development
(i.e., achievement-oriented middle years encouraging more practice and dedication) and perfection (i.e., later years with a focus on becoming an expert). Côté’s model consists of the sampling (i.e., participating in variety of sports emphasising fun between ages 6–
12 yrs), specialising (i.e., increased focus on performance and sports specific skill development from 12–15 yrs) and investment (i.e., training intensifies in one sport aiming to achieve elite status from 16+ yrs) stages. More recently, models such as Côté and Fraser-Thomas’ (2007) DMSP have been further expanded to provide more detailed stages in the development pathway. However, while these models provide a theoretical and descriptive framework for understanding development, most are viewed as limited in their practical application (Bailey et al., 2010; Gulbin et al., 2013a). For example, athlete development is depicted as occurring in a linear fashion, with an ascending scale of competition, participation and development from junior to senior level (Bailey et al.,
2010; Stewart et al., 2005), with little scope to account for individual differences such as late bloomers and talent transfer (Côté & Viermaa, 2014; Gulbin et al., 2013b) or the influence of a range of psychosocial (e.g., family, coaches) and environmental (e.g., facilities) factors (Bailey et al., 2010). Accordingly, more recent research suggests the path to sporting excellence may not be linear, but rather a varied and complex progression from novice to elite-level performance (Bergeron et al., 2015; Gulbin et al.,
2013b). Gulbin and colleagues (2013b) found athletes progress from basic competition level (e.g., school, club) to elite senior competition via three main pathways: the ‘pure ascent’ pathway whereby athletes follow a typical linear pathway from junior to elite senior; ‘mixed ascent’, which is similar but with some sideways movement in which juniors compete concurrently at senior level; and ‘mixed descent’, characterised by
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some movement from higher to lower levels before finally achieving highest elite status.
Athletes in sports where performance is measured in centimetres, grams or seconds
(cgs) (e.g., swimming, athletics) follow a pure ascent pathway.
Irrespective of the number of hours of deliberate practice needed to achieve certain milestones or the pathway taken to achieve senior elite success, key psychosocial and environmental factors also play a pivotal role in elite sporting development. Support and opportunities provided by parents, extended family and schools (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Duffy et al., 2006; Henriksen et al., 2010a, 2011;
Strachan et al., 2011) together with quality coaching throughout an athlete’s career, can have a huge effect on success at the elite level (Côté & Hay, 2002; Gulbin et al., 2010).
In addition, an athlete’s birthplace and whether they have access to better facilities and coaching opportunities in a city (Baker et al., 2009; Kristjansdottir & Vilhjalmsson,
2001) or to the more nurturing environment of a small town (MacDonald et al., 2009b) may also influence development.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine, retrospectively, the key developmental influences, milestones and specific career pathways of elite senior athletes who competed for Australia at the highest global level of T&F (OG and/or WC) between 1956 and 2013, to gain a better understanding of the ‘journey to the top’.
5.2 Methods
5.2.1 Participants
Seventy-three participants (53% males) who had represented Australia at the elite senior international athletics level volunteered to participate in this study. All participants had competed at least once in an OG (between 1956 and 2012) or IAAF
WC (between 1986 and 2013). The mean age of participants at the time of the study was
50.9 years (standard deviation (SD) = 18.4, range 23–87 yrs) with 74% of the
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participants retired from competition (50 permanently; 4 semi-retired). On average they competed at the international senior level for just under a decade (8.5 ± 3.88, range 2–
18 yrs). The University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (the HREC) granted ethics approval (Appendix B). All participants were informed of the study procedure and purpose (Appendix C) and provided informed consent prior to the study.
5.2.2 Measures
Responses to the T&FAD questionnaire provided a detailed longitudinal account of each athlete’s career history. The questionnaire was adapted from similar studies
(Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008a; Gulbin et al., 2010; Martindale et al., 2010), with the addition of questions specific to the contextual nature of Australian T&F.
The T&FAD includes three sections that incorporate closed-item questions (i.e., dichotomous and multiple choice) and scaled questions (i.e., rank order and Likert) seeking information on several key factors in elite athlete development and career progression. The first section includes questions based on demographic information and general questions about family, educational background and coaches, such as number of coaches throughout their career, education and accreditation levels of their most influential coaches. The second section seeks information on milestones achieved throughout athletes’ careers in relation to age; when they first started training and competing in athletics, when they specialised, age they first represented at senior international level and age of retirement as well as weekly training hours in athletics and other sports at various ages. The final section explores the participation history and competition pathways of athletes from their first involvement through to the global level of competition (i.e., OG and WC). Participants had the option to complete the questionnaire either online or in hard copy with privacy and confidentiality assured. The survey takes approximately 50 minutes to complete.
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5.2.3 Reliability and Validation
Researchers have indicated the high potential for recall bias associated with self- reporting retrospective surveys (Côté et al, 2005; Leite et al., 2009; Patton, 2015).
Therefore, as this study required participants to recall events that occurred 2–50 years previously, several measures were taken to mitigate bias and improve reliability and accuracy of data collected.
First, the questionnaire was pilot tested on both retired and current elite senior
T&F athletes (n = 4); specialists in training theory and methodology (n = 3); and a High
Performance representative from each of AA and Athletics International (AI). Based on their feedback and recommendations, several modifications were made to ensure questions were unambiguous (Leite et al., 2009). In addition, questions were developed in relation to specific habitual experiences associated with their athletic careers (i.e., training, competition results and injuries), as previous studies have shown athletes are able to recall more accurately this type of information (Askling et al.,2002; Helsen et al., 1998; Moesch et al., 2011). Second, athletes were encouraged to consult training diaries to confirm certain aspects of their development, such as training hours per week, milestone dates, achievements and injuries—a measure reported to improve reliability
(Baker et al., 2005). Finally, all historical data on competition, representation and performance were validated through AA reports, records and results and from the IAAF website.
5.2.4 Data Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS version 22 (SPSS Inc., Chicago,
Illinois) and Microsoft Excel 2010. For the purpose of exploratory analysis, the descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages, means (M) and SDs were determined for all measured variables.
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To investigate pathways athletes may have followed to achieve elite senior status, each athlete was mapped according to five competition levels: Level I, junior state and national competition; Level II, junior international competition; Level III, senior state and national competition; Level IV, senior ‘stepping stone’ international competition; and Level V, global competition. Global competitions refer to the major
T&F competitions, the IAAF WC (indoor and outdoor) and OG, available to the best athletes from approximately 200 nations. ‘Stepping stone’ competitions refer to those competitions with lower qualifying standards and fewer participating nations (e.g.,
Commonwealth Games [CG], Pacific Conference Games/World Cup [PC/WC]) or those that are event specific (IAAF World Cross Country [WCC] and IAAF World
Walking Cup [WWC]). These competitions are viewed as a developmental opportunity and stepping stone to elite global competitions, especially for athletes in the early years of their senior career. In addition, participation in LA (a uniquely Australian version of
‘modified’ T&F focusing on fun, fitness and skill development for children aged 5–14 yrs) was recorded; however as only 45 participants were still of eligible age when the
LAs competition was introduced, it was not designated as a separate level within the pathways. Analysis revealed athletes’ entry into competition and subsequent progression to global level occurred via six distinct pathways that involved various combinations of the five levels.
5.3 Results
This section presents data in three main categories: 1) demographics and general background 2) participation milestones; and 3) pathways to OG/WC.
The wide age range of participants (23–87 yrs) meant that the eras in which they trained and competed differed vastly in terms of financial and sport science/medical support available. As Australian Government support for elite athletes only became
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readily available after 1980, it was likely that responses of athletes participating pre- and post-1980 would be very different. To allow for any potential differences, in the initial analysis participants were grouped according to pre- and post-1967 birth year.
However, there were no significant ‘between group’ differences in any of the measured characteristics, so participants were considered one homogeneous group in this respect.
5.3.1 Demographics and General Background
Of the 73 participants, 30 (41.1%) competed in the OG only, 13 (17.8%) in the
WC and 30 (41.1%) in both the OG and WC. Twenty-six athletes (35.6%) achieved a top 8 place at OG or WC (indoor and outdoor) with 11 reaching the podium. In addition, 40 (54.8%) were medallists at the CG.
Table 5.1 highlights various aspects of the athletes’ general background and demographics. Almost two-thirds (64.4%) spent their developmental years in the two largest Australian cities with the smallest number growing up in large towns (population
>100,000 and <400,000). Forty–seven participants gained a university undergraduate or postgraduate degree. On average, participants had around three coaches (2.99 ± 1.6) throughout their careers and 39 (64.0%) of the coaches deemed most influential in the athletes’ development held university degrees. In addition, 32 (55.2%) held Level 4–5 athletics coach accreditation, the two highest levels with accrediting bodies the AA or
Australian Track and Field Coaches Association.
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Table 5.1
Snapshot of 73 Respondents’ Demographics and General Background
Category N Highest response (%) Second highest response (%) Age 73 31–40 yrs (23.3) 70–80 yrs (21.8) Where they grew up 73 Melbourne (34.2) Sydney (30.1) Sibling order 73 1st born child (43.8) 2nd born (34.2) Education—highest level achieved 71 Undergraduate (46.5) Postgraduate degree (19.7) Participation in sport by at least one parents 69 Recreational (49.3) Non-participant (21.9) Participation in sport by at least one sibling 64 Recreational (34.2) Non-participant (20.6) Most frequent form of parental support 69 Emotional (82.6) Financial (72.7) Education level of coach most influential 61 Undergraduate degree (38.2) Postgraduate degree (30.9) Coaching accreditation level of most influential coach 58 Level 4–5 (57.1) Unknown (20.7) Greatest influence in taking up athletics 69 Good results in T&F (40) Desire to be their best (18) Talent identification 54 School (29.1) Parent (27.3) Age of specialising in athletics 69 15–17 yrs (45) 12–14 yrs (18.8)
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Fifty-seven (82.6 %) athletes had at least one parent, and 53 (80.3%) at least one sibling, who participated in sport, with the greatest representation at the recreational level. Parents were reported as being very supportive, especially emotionally (82.6%) and financially (72.7%). Participants stated their parents and schools (teachers and/or coaches), were the key factors in both initiating their involvement in the sport (46.8% and 29.1% respectively) and in first highlighting their talent (27.3% and 29.1 % respectively). The dominant influencing factor in athletes’ continued involvement and specialisation in athletics was achieving good results in T&F (40.6%), with just under half (45%) specialising between the ages of 15 and 17 years.
5.3.2 Participation Milestones
Table 5.2 outlines various milestones in the athletes’ development as they transitioned through the various stages in their athletic careers. Thirty-one athletes
(42.5%) began in LA; however, because of its inception in 1963, only 45 of the sample athletes were eligible to compete in LA.
The majority of athletes began training and competition outside the normal school athletics programs between the ages of 12 and 13 years. The participants specialised in their main event at 17.7 years with only a small number (n = 18) transferring from other sports as late adolescents (18.89 ± 4.22 yrs of age). As athletes progressed from their junior to senior years, training hours per week in athletics increased, while training hours in other sports decreased to almost exclusive involvement in athletics as a senior athlete. The time from commencement of training in
T&F until selection in their first senior Australian team was on average around 10 years
(9.96 ± 4.87) and from specialising in their main event to making their first Olympic
Team, almost 12 years.
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Table 5.2
Participation Milestones of Athletes (Sample Size [n], Mean [M]and Standard
Deviation [SD])
Participation milestone n M SD Years of Little Athletics 31 5.90 2.66 Commenced competing outside school 71 12.51 4.91 Commenced training outside school 71 13.69 3.88 Age specialising in main event 63 17.68 3.77 Age transferred from another sport 18 18.39 4.22 Number of junior international teams 24 2.28 1.43 Training hrs/week in T&F (13–15 yrs) 46 5.63 3.14 Training hrs/week in other sports (13–15 yrs) 46 5.13 4.12 Training hrs/week in T&F (16–19 yrs) 60 8.67 3.83 Training hrs/week in other sports (16–19 yrs) 60 3.05 4.34 Training hrs/week in T&F (20+ yrs) 62 11.55 0.80 Training hrs/week in other sports (20+ yrs) 62 <0.5 1.50 Number of senior international teams 73 6.32 5.18 Years from commencing athletics training to first senior 73 9.96 4.87 international team Years from specialising in event to first senior international 63 4.05 2.77 team Years from specialising in athletics to making 57 11.16 5.14 Commonwealth Games (CG) Years from specialising in athletics to making Olympic 57 11.95 6.23 Games (OG) Age at first senior international competition 73 22.37 3.49 Age at first CG 59 23.87 4.13 Age at first World Track and Field Championships (WC) 42 25.26 3.74 Age at first OG 60 24.55 4.41 Career length from first senior international competition to 54 8.50 3.88 retirement Career length from first OG or WC to retirement 54 7.56 4.09 Retirement age 54 32.35 5.28
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Twenty-four athletes (32.8%) participated in at least one junior international competition (2.28 ± 1.43) and athletes first competed at a senior international competition in their early to mid-20s (22.37 ± 3.49 yrs), and were on average a couple of years older at their first OG and WC. The retiring age of participants was around 32 years of age (32.35 ± 5.28).
5.3.3 Athlete Pathways to Olympic Games and/or World Championships
Figure 5.1 depicts the six developmental pathways within the five competition levels followed by participants, from their initial involvement in athletics to representation at the OG and/or WC. From the competition level perspective, the majority of participants (83.6%) participated at Level I (i.e., junior state and or national athletics competitions), with 24 of these athletes also competing at Level II (i.e., junior
[U20] international-level T&F, cross country and road walking). All athletes competed at both senior state and national competitions (Level III), with 51 (69.8%) also participating at Level IV, the senior ‘stepping stone’ competition level before proceeding to Level V.
Within these levels, athletes followed six separate pathways to the final and ultimate competition. Twenty–one athletes followed pathway 1, participating at each level of competition from junior through to global level; 71.4% of these also participated in LA. Pathway 2, followed by only three athletes, is similar to pathway 1; however, these participants did not participate in senior stepping stone competitions.
Approximately half the athletes (50.6%) followed pathways 3 and 4, participating in state and national competitions as both a junior and senior athlete. Their first experience in international competition was as a senior athlete and 24 (65.0%) of them participated in stepping stone competitions before reaching the global competition level. Very few athletes (n = 12) followed pathways 5 and 6, participating only at the senior level, with
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT six participants competing in stepping stone competitions before going on to the WC or
OG.
Figure 5.1. Athlete pathways taken to achieve participation in Olympic Games and World
Track and Field Championships (or level/Representation)
5.4 Discussion
The aim of the current study was to explore some of the influential factors in elite T&F athlete development, together with the milestones achieved and pathways travelled by Australian senior elite athletes in reaching the highest international level.
The findings both support and add to the current literature in relation to the uniqueness of each individual’s sporting career pathway, with athletes in this study following six different pathways to the OG and/or WC. Significant age milestones, such as when they commenced athletics training, age of specialisation and age at senior international T&F competitions, revealed that specialising later and remaining involved in other sports into late adolescence was also conducive to success as elite senior. Results also highlighted
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT the importance of support from families and significant others (coaches and teachers) in their journey to the top.
5.4.1 Demographics
Consistent with previous findings, the current study indicated the influence of parents in the career development of participants via provision of strong emotional
(82.6%) and financial (72.7%) support (Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999; Duffy et al., 2006;
Henriksen, 2010; Strahan et al., 2011). The inability of parents to provide financial support can be a prohibitive factor to achieving success at higher levels (Baker et al.,
2003; Kay, 2000) and with approximately 80% of participants in the study involved at the junior level, the financial support they received from parents may have been a contributing factor in their success.
As with similar studies of Olympic athletes in both Britain and the US (Shibli &
Barrett, 2011; Synder, 2014), parents and schools (including teaches and coaches) were the main instigators and ‘talent scouts’ in relation to their initial involvement. This is not surprising as parents were reported as being both very supportive and actively involved—key factors in initiating sport participation, especially during childhood
(Bloom, 1985; Côté & Hay, 2002). Siblings may also have provided additional impetus for success by partnering participants in backyard practice and encouraging them to work hard, emulate and even surpass their siblings (Côté, 1999, Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008b; Trussell, 2014).
Given both the high level of education and coaching qualifications of many of the coaches deemed most influential in participants’ careers, a key factor recognised as contributing to the success of elite athletes (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002, Duffy et al.,
2006; Gould et al., 1999; Gould, Greenleaf, Chung & Guinan, 2002), it is posited that access to high-quality coaches, together with supportive families were two key factors in athlete success.
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Several studies have identified growing up in a city with access to better facilities, equipment and coaches as a contributing factor in elite sporting success
(Baker et al., 2009; Kristjansdottir & Vilhjalmsson, 2001). T&F is a sport that requires specific athletics infrastructure (e.g., safe jumping and throwing areas) and given two- thirds of participants were born in either Sydney (population 4.8 million) or Melbourne
(population 4.4 million), having greater access to such facilities in the bigger cities may have been advantageous to participants’ sporting development and success.
In relation to personal growth, two-thirds of the athletes completed a university degree. The high number of athletes pursuing tertiary education, irrespective of the competition era, may be in part because of the financial limitations of the sport. Few elite athletes can make a living from athletics or are fully supported during their careers
(Stambulova et al., 2007); thus, pursuit of a professional ‘post-sport’ career may have been an important motivating factor in gaining a university degree. In addition, for some athletes, university study as opposed to full time work may have provided more time and flexibility for training and competition. This is more likely for participants competing after the 1980s and 90s when Australia first introduced support programs to assist elite athletes balance education and/or work while continuing their sporting careers (Chambers, Gordon & Morris, 2013). Athletes trained on average 15 hrs/week; thus, compared with some sports such as rowing, where elite athletes are reported to train 20–25 hrs/week (Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004), participants may have been more easily able to balance study and training loads.
5.4.2 Milestones
In relation to the initial involvement in athletics, 31 participants indicated that
LA was their entry point. LA is a popular and uniquely Australian ‘sport’, and is based on the senior athletics model with specially modified events for children as young as 5 years old (LA, 2017). Although on average they participated in LA for approximately
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT six years, it was only at the age of 12–13 years that participants commenced athletics training. This suggests that during LA, athletes ‘participated’ as opposed to specialising early, and as all participants continued their involvement in athletics, LA was most likely a positive first experience of the sport. Previous studies on youth sporting motivation and involvement have linked achievement at younger ages to the development of competence—both perceived and real (Baxter-Jones & Maffulli, 2003;
Debois et al., 2012; Johnson et al., 2006). In light of this and given participants were motivated to specialise in T&F because of good results at a younger age, it is suggested that experiences through LA or as a 12–15-year-old may have been a motivating factor in their decision to specialise.
Although many participants were involved in T&F from a young age the majority specialised in the sport between 12 and 16 years, and in their main event close to 18 years of age (17.68 ± 3.77). This is quite late compared with some sports but in line with the specialisation and investment stages depicted by the DMSP (Côté &
Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and studies involving T&F athletes (Duffy et al., 2006; Güllich &
Emrich, 2006; Henriksen et al., 2010b), further supporting later specialisation as the best route to elite senior success. Analysis revealed that training hours through junior years (13–19 yrs) were moderate compared with sports such as gymnastics, tennis and swimming (Maffulli, King & Helms, 1994). In addition, the majority of participants
(80%) continued their involvement in a range of other sports during their mid to late adolescent years. This is in line with several similar studies of elite and world-class athletes in a range of sports (Barreiros, Côté & Fonseca, 2013; Leite et al., 2009), field hockey (Güllich, 2014a), and T&F (Duffy et al., 2006; Güllich & Emrich, 2006, 2012;
Lidor & Laven, 2002; Snyder, 2014), which indicates that less specific sport training and greater involvement in a range of sports during adolescence leads to long-term
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT success at the global level, again suggesting this may be an important factor in the study cohorts’ success.
Similar to findings in other T&F studies (Grind & Ritzdorf, 2005; Hollings &
Hume, 2010; Otte, 2002), only one-third of the participants competed at the elite junior international level, highlighting that success as an elite junior is neither necessary for nor predictive of elite senior success (Brouwers et al., 2012; Güllich & Emrich, 2006,
2012; Hollings et al., 2010, 2011). However, it has also been reported that athletes who were medallists or finalists at the junior international level were also more likely to be medallists and finalist at the global level (Hume & Hollings, 2010; Julin, 1995; Otte,
2002; Zelichenok, 2005). Fourteen of the junior international athletes were also medallists or finalists at this level and 46.0% of these athletes progressed to medal or make a final at the global level, adding to the view that highly successful elite junior athletes have a greater chance of being highly successful senior athletes.
At their first senior international team debut participants were on average in their early to mid-20s and had been training in T&F for approximately 11 years. This supports previous findings in Olympic sports, including T&F (Debois et al., 2015;
Duffy et al., 2006; Güllich & Emrich, 2014; Shibli & Barrett, 2011; Synder, 2014;
Stambulova et al., 2007), and corroborates the ’10-year rule’ of practice to acquire expertise (Simon & Chase, 1973). Upon reaching the highest level of performance, athletes were able to maintain this level of performance for an average of seven to eight years, which is consistent with the 5–10 years at the top (Ericcson et al., 1993;
Wylleman et al., 2004). In addition, Australian athletes were older when they retired
(32.35 ± 5.28 yrs of age) compared with their elite counterparts in several European countries (e.g., Sweden, France, Russia and Germany) who retired on average between
19 and 31 years (Alfermann, Stambulova & Zemaityte, 2004; Stambulova et al., 2007).
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Both the ability to maintain an elite career at the highest T&F level for seven to eight years and to continue into their early 30s, despite the different era athletes competed in, again may reflect the importance of positive early experiences in T&F, diversification through adolescence and later specialisation in the long-term success of these athletes.
5.4.3 Pathways
From the analysis, it was identified that participants followed six main career pathways in their development into elite senior athletes. Collectively more than 80% of participants entered the sport through the junior pathway following one of four different trajectories to the global level. In line with the traditional ‘pyramid concept of athlete development’ (Bailey et al., 2010; Gulbin et al., 2013b; Stambulova et al., 2007), these athletes appear to have progressed logically, predictably and in a linear fashion to the next level of sport participation. Only 12 participants (16.4%) entered the sport as a senior athlete, half directly to the global level and half via other international competitions.
Historically, the structure of the Australian athletics competition pathways has been based on this linear model (Stewart, Nicholson, Smith, & Westerbeek, 2005), which is also recommended as the elite athlete pathway (Elliot, 2004). As almost all
Australian children first participate in the sport at primary or high school and then by choice through to club, state and national levels with well-developed age-specific competition opportunities, it is not surprising that many followed a junior pathway (1–
4) successfully. This also aligns with the findings of Gulbin and colleagues (2013b), that the ‘pure ascent’ or linear pathway was the most common trajectory in ‘cgs’ sports such as T&F. Within these linear pathways athletes progressed through as few as two or as many as five of the competition levels to reach the global level. This could be explained in part by the ‘competitive era’ in which an athlete participated. For example,
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LA was not introduced until 1963, and the WJC and WYC until 1986 and 1999 respectively, so based on an athlete’s birth year some or all of these pathways were not an option. According to Hume and Hollings (2010), Australian junior athletes have taken between 2 and 14 years to transition to elite senior level, which may partly explain the variation in junior pathways in which some athletes progressed or developed more quickly, enabling them to bypass Level IV, the ‘stepping stone’ competitions
(pathways 2 & 4). Additional reasons why some athletes from both junior (2 & 4) and senior (6) pathways skipped Level IV (stepping stones), may include lack of opportunity, timing or simply being sufficiently talented.
Although many of the athletes in this study pre-date sporting development models such as the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and Long Term Athlete
Development [LTAD] model (Bayli & Hamilton, 2004), the developmental pathway of the majority appears to closely follow these models. Again, this may suggest that the traditional linear ‘pyramid-type’ model, despite its limitations (Bailey et al., 2010;
Gulbin et al., 2013b), appears to be the most appropriate and successful model for the development of Australian athletes. The DMSP explains the development of many athletes in the study, with the majority achieving the global level of competition via the sampling route. Three participants began training before the age of 12 and throughout their careers participated in T&F training only, so may be considered as following the early specialisation route.
With respect to the athletes who participated in LA, the LTAD model appears to describe their pathway to the top. Beginning their involvement at the fundamental stage between the ages of 6 and 9 years, the focus is on developing athletic fundamentals
(speed, agility and balance) before progressing chronologically though the next four stages. Between the ages of 9 and 16 years, young athletes spend time ‘learning to train’ and ‘training to train’ (12–16 yrs), building on athletic skills while still playing other
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT sports, before transitioning to ‘training to compete’ stage (16 + yrs) where they begin to specialise. Finally, in late adolescence they enter the ‘train to win’ stage (18+ yrs) where focus switches to event-specific training for major competitions (Bayli &
Hamilton, 2004).
However, not all adult elite performers are identified through these standard talent pathways (Bloom, 1983) but instead enter via a non-linear route because of different maturation rates, birthplace locality (Bergeron et al., 2015; Gulbin et al., 2010,
2013a) or lack of desire or opportunity to pursue a particular sport at a younger age.
This appears to be the case for the small number of participants (n = 12) who followed pathways 5 and 6, entering the sport as a senior athlete at the state and national level.
For most of these athletes, junior competition was not available as AA did not introduce a complete state and national junior championships program until the mid-1960s. Others transferred from different sports at a later age (18.39 ± 4.22 yrs) and as reported previously in the literature (Gulbin, 2008; Vaeyens et al., 2009), these athletes may have acquired competitive experience and success in other sports enabling them to perform at the global level in T&F. In addition, a few (n = 4) may be classified as late developers or bloomers (Gulbin et al., 2013b) and may not have discovered their talent or had the opportunity to pursue elite sport until later in life (e.g., children grown up).
Some athletes reported having less supportive networks (family, coaches and national sporting body), which may have been a compelling factor in their ability or choice to be involved at a younger age. Official financial support for Australian elite athletes through the ASC was not readily available until after 1989 (Sotiriadou &
Shilbury, 2009) and as many participants in this study were competing prior to this era of funding, they may not have been able to pursue sport seriously until they were older and more financially independent. However, regardless of whether participants entered the sport as a junior or senior athlete, almost 70% of the athletes’ first senior
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT international experience was at the ‘stepping stone’ level (e.g., CG or WCC). Such competitions, despite having fewer participants or less restrictive selection standards, can provide excellent learning opportunities in dealing with overseas travel, crowds and venues, the athlete village and working with team coaches and management (Gould et al., 2002b). For the athletes in this study, these stepping stone competitions appear to be very important in their trajectory from novice to elite performer. This highlights the importance and potential benefit in such competitions in the future development, preparation and participation of Australian athletes at the OG and WC.
The results from this study provide an enhanced understanding of the developmental pathway, important milestones and some of the influential social factors in the career progression of elite Australian T&F athletes. The results should, however, be considered in respect to methodological limitations. First, as with all studies reliant on self-reported retrospective recall, there remains the potential for recall bias despite the high personal importance and significance of the athletes’ sporting careers.
However, several measures found very effective in similar sporting studies (Askling et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2005; Leite et al., 2009; Moesch et al., 2011) were taken to minimise such bias here. In addition, much of the data are easily verified through reliable and current domestic and international athletics websites (i.e., AA and IAAF), adding to their authenticity.
Second, participants were involved in T&F as far back as 1950 up until quite recently (2013), so they trained and competed in very different eras (amateur v. highly professional and commercial). Given the likely different experiences of athletes (level of support, access to more global competitions) over several ‘evolving’ decades of the sport both nationally and internationally, results should be viewed in context and caution taken in generalising results in relation to the development of today’s senior
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT elite Australian athletes. However, given there were more commonalities than differences in the participants’ development this may not be a major limitation.
5.5 Conclusion
Although athletes in this study competed and trained at different times or eras in the sport both domestically and internationally, there seem to be more common threads than differences in relation to achieving at the very elite level of T&F. Findings revealed most athletes were introduced to the sport of T&F during childhood by parents or through school, but did not specialise in the sport until mid to late adolescence. In addition, they continued to play other sports throughout their development and well into their adolescent years, supporting previous literature recommending that diversification rather than early specialisation leads to greater success and longevity of elite sporting careers.
The majority of participants appeared to follow a fairly traditional linear pathway from their initial involvement as a junior athlete to elite senior level; however, it is still possible to reach the global level entering the sport as a senior athlete. Parents, siblings and significant others (coaches and teachers) were instrumental in providing both social (emotional) and practical support (financial). In addition, positive childhood and early adolescent experiences of T&F activities through school and/or LA also appear to be a common factor in long-term success. Growing up in a large Australian city (population > 2 million) with greater access to T&F facilities, completing a university degree and having a well-educated and appropriately qualified coach
(university degree and Level 4 or 5 athletics coach accreditation) are additional factors conducive to elite success for these athletes.
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Olympic and World Championship Track and
Field Athletes’ Experiences During Specialising and
Investment Stages of Development
6.1 Introduction
Over many years, research has shown that very few elite junior athletes transition into successful senior sporting careers (Bidder, 2013; Enoksen, 2011;
Schumacher et al., 2006; Williams, 2009). In T&F, the figures are more startling with
50–90% of elite junior athletes from various European countries not progressing to the elite senior level (Bussmann & Alfermann, 1994; Enoksen, 2011; Shibli & Barrett,
2011; Vanden Auweele et al., 2004). In Australia, despite every child having the opportunity to participate in T&F through school programs, and approximately 100,000 children annually participating in LA (modified competition for young athletes aged 5–
15 yrs), less than 30% of elite junior athletes achieve elite senior status (Bidder, 2013;
Hollings & Hume, 2011). Despite the high attrition rates in T&F, one of the largest and most popular sports at the OG (Wood, 2015), little is known about the development of
Australian T&F athletes who make a successful transition from elite junior to elite senior.
Various stage-based theoretical models have been proposed to describe the most effective elite athlete development (Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999; Salmela, 1994). Many, however, have been criticised for being overly theoretical and limited in their practical application and for failing to account for the individual differences and psychosocial influences (e.g., family, coaches, psychological traits) that may affect an athlete’s progression (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014; Gulbin et al., 2013b). Côté and Fraser-
Thomas’(2007) DMSP is viewed more favourably, because it provides clear physical
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT and psychosocial applications for each stage that are aligned with theories of child and adolescent development (Bruner et al., 2010; Côté et al., 2012; Côté & Vierimaa, 2014).
The DMSP outlines elite athlete development via two pathways: (1) early specialisation, where athletes invest many hours of deliberate practice (i.e., many hours of domain- specific training are conducted in one sport to achieve earlier elite performance) in their sport during childhood (Ericsson et al., 1993); or (2) sampling trajectory—characterised by gradual progression through sampling, specialisation and investment (Côté, 1999).
Sampling traditionally occurs between 6 and 12 years of age and involves participation in a variety of sports with the emphasis on ‘deliberate play’ (i.e., activities that are intrinsically motivating, immediately gratifying and enjoyable) such as small-sided neighbourhood pickup games like park football and street basketball (Berry et al., 2008;
Côté, 1999; Côté et al., 2007). Specialising takes place at 13–15 years of age, and while fun and continued involvement in other sports is still important, there is a shift to more sport-specific skill development (Côté, 1999; Macphail & Kirk, 2006). The investment stage (16–19 yrs) heralds an increased intensity of training in one sport, with the aim of achieving elite status (Côté, 1999; Côté et al., 2007).
As athletes progress through the various stages of development, they must successfully negotiate various demands or ‘transitions’ associated with sport and life
(Stambulova, 1994; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). These transitions can be ‘normative’
(e.g., beginning sport specialising) or ‘non-normative’, such as injuries, non-selection and changing coaches (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007). During the latter part of the sampling stage, there is a priority shift from ‘deliberate play’ to ‘deliberate practice’
(Côté et al., 2007) with a greater emphasis on competitive participation (Macphail et al.,
2003). In the specialising phase, young athletes face changes in training routines, coaches and competition levels with the intensification of training and competition as performance expectations increase (Stambulova, 1994). Competition brings to play an
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT important role in athletes’ learning and their ultimate progression to the investment stage (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). Research investigating Norwegian and Canadian athletes’ experiences at the Youth Olympic
Games indicated that athletes participating internationally experience the same organisational and competition stresses as senior athletes (Kristiansen & Roberts, 2010).
Outside the athletic domain, athletes face various changes, such as moving from primary to secondary education during the sampling/specialising stage and, later in the investment stage, leaving school and potentially moving out of home. Qualitative research with elite junior athletes has shown that changes associated with increasing work, study and social commitments, as well as a shift in relationships with parents, coaches and peers increase the demands on a developing athlete (Bennie & O’Connor,
2006; MacNamara et al., 2010a; Wylleman & Reints, 2010). Depending on an athlete’s psychological skill set and available support resources (e.g., parent, coach and peer support), these transitions can lead either to distress or to personal growth (Stambulova et al., 2009). Various qualitative studies investigating elite athlete development and transitions into high-performance sport contexts have reported that facing adversity in life and sport is beneficial to athlete development (Howells & Fletcher, 2015; Sarkar &
Fletcher, 2014). In fact, Collins and MacNamara (2012) purported that experiencing some distress or trauma in the sporting domain may be necessary for talent development. Whether coping with adversity is inherent (Collins & MacNamara, 2012) or develops in relation to an adverse event (Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014), regular exposure to challenges and stressors within a supportive environment may help prepare young athletes to deal with potentially greater setbacks associated with senior elite sport (Galli
& Vealey, 2008; Henriksen & Mortensen, 2014; Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014).
Despite the emergence of research into athlete talent development, there is a lack of understanding about the integrated factors that contribute to athlete development
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT during the specialising and investment years (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014; Coutinho et al.,
2016). Much athlete talent development research has focused on the sampling and specialising stages. In particular, researchers have explored whether sampling or early specialisation is a more conducive pathway to long-term sporting success (Bridge &
Toms, 2013; Côté & Vierimaa, 2014). However, it is the investment years where young elite athletes encounter the often-difficult transition from a junior to senior athlete, when many talented young athletes are lost from sport (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006;
Stambulova et al., 2009). Hence, there is a need to specifically explore the experiences of athletes during the specialising and investment stage, to deepen knowledge about the appropriate age for a total commitment to elite athlete development. Much of the research based on the DMSP has utilised qualitative methodologies to describe important contextual experiences and elicit a deep understanding of the athletes’ development. Hence, this study chose to use qualitative interviews to investigate factors during the specialising and investment stages that underpinned the development of 14
Olympic and WC Australian T&F athletes who transitioned from elite junior to elite senior careers. Gaining a deep insight into athletic experiences during late adolescence may strengthen understanding of the factors influencing athlete development during the investment years, and the ultimate successful transition to elite senior status.
6.2 Methods
6.2.1 Participants
The participants in this study were 14 (7 females and 7 males) purposively selected senior elite Australian T&F athletes (M age = 35.6 yrs, SD ± 7.34). All athletes competed for Australia at the OG and/or the WC and at either the U18 WYC, U20 WJC or as a junior in a senior international competition (e.g., CG, World Cup). AA (the T&F governing body in Australia) views junior international competitions as a specific
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT pathway to best assist athletes’ development into senior international athletes (AA,
2017). The athletes in the current study participated at an international level between
1988 and 2013. The average age of males at their first international competition (junior or senior) was 17.13 years (SD ± .99) and females, 16.62 (SD ± .92), with athletes’ representing all T&F disciplines except the throwing events. At the time of the interviews, 12 athletes had retired with careers spanning 13.4 years (SD ± 4.27) and three were still competing with careers of 11.67 years (SD ± 1.53). Table 6.1 outlines the level of success at various domestic and international junior and senior competitions.
Table 6.1 Level of Success of Participant Athletes at Domestic and International Junior and Senior Competitions National and International Results No. of Athletes
Junior National Champion 11
Top 3 at Junior National Championships 13
Non-participant at National Junior Championships 2
Senior National Champion (while still a junior) 2
Top 3 at Senior National Championships (while still a junior) 7
World Junior Champion 3
Top 3 at Olympic Games/ World T&F Championships (as a senior 2
athlete)
Top 8 at Olympic Games/ World T&F Championships (as a senior 6
athlete)
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6.2.2 Data Collection
The HREC granted ethics approval for the study to commence. Following this, participants who matched the selection criteria and had previously agreed to a follow-up interview after completing a T&FAD questionnaire as part of the earlier phase of the study, were invited via email to take part in this study (Huxley, O’Connor & Larkin,
2017). The lead researcher (myself), with over 40 years’ experience in Australian high- performance T&F as an athlete, coach and manager of Australian teams, conducted all the interviews (face to face and Skype) at a time and place convenient to the participant.
These experiences, coupled with the lead researcher’s academic background (Masters in
Coaching; qualitative research methods training as part of higher degree study), assisted with gaining detailed insight into, and empathetic understanding of, each athlete’s experiences (Yardley, 2015). A Sony IC Recorder with a built-in microphone was used to record interviews (Vazou, Ntoumanis & Duda, 2005) and participants were fully briefed about the nature of the study before commencing the interview, which lasted
60–90 minutes. During interviews 10–14, a point of data saturation became evident when no novel findings emerged and data no longer extended formerly classified concepts (Patton, 2015). Hence, recruitment of participants ceased after interview 14.
The semi-structured interview schedule (Appendix D) was created based on literature pertaining to athlete development-related models (Bloom, 1985; Côté, 1999;
Côté et al., 2010; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Mallet & Hanrahan, 2004; Pummell et al., 2008). A semi-structured interview approach was used as this method had the potential to elicit a deeper understanding of athletes’ personal and subjective experiences, with few restrictions (Babbie, 2005).
The interview began with a general section discussing the background information of the athlete, to help the participant become comfortable with the interviewer and research process. Given all athletes had a pre-existing relationship with
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT the interviewer as a coach and/or team manager, rapport was established both via Skype and face-to-face interviews.
The major section of the interview guide centred on athletes’ developmental experiences during the specialising and investment stages in relation to (1) training and competition; (2) psychosocial support (i.e., parents, coaches, peers), and (3) psychological factors (i.e., motivation, personal traits and characteristics, dealing with setbacks). Finally, the interview concluded with an opportunity for interviewees to clarify any final points and to ask questions. In line with the qualitative nature of the study, some flexibility was maintained to provide participants with an opportunity to express novel ideas, thoughts and feelings that were not part of the interview schedule
(Patton, 2015). Affording some flexibility enhanced the natural flow of the conversation
(Kvale, 2007) and ensured the engagement of both parties (deMarris, 2004; Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). Probes such as ‘Could you expand on that with more detail?’ were used throughout the interview to clarify or solicit more complete answers (Babbie, 2005;
Neuman, 2011; Pensgaard & Roberts, 2002). Research has shown athletes can recall habitual and routine activities such as training and competition, as well as pivotal experiences like a major injury (Askling et al., 2002, Côté et al., 2005, Moesch et al.,
2011). Similarily, athletes in the present study required no prompts to recall past experiences, even those occurring several decades previously.
6.2.3 Data Analysis
To facilitate the analysis process, an external source transcribed all interviews, yielding 276 pages of single-spaced text. These were then uploaded and saved for analysis in the Nvivo 10 computer software program (QSR International Pty Ltd, 2014).
This lent itself well to following Braun and Clarke’s (2006, 2013) six-phase thematic analysis of interview data, which includes (1) familiarisation with the data (reading the transcripts several times) and making notes about interesting participant comments; (2)
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT creating initial codes, where key words from the participants’ quotes are used to identify important points related to the research questions; (3) generation of initial themes, where similar codes are collated and captured under a preliminary thematic heading; (4) review of themes, to ensure they adequately capture related codes; (5) defining and naming codes articulating the crux of each theme; and (6) a deductive writing-up process revealing the analytic narrative in relation to the literature (Braun & Clarke,
2006). In this sense, the first five phases in this study followed an inductive approach while the final stage involved a deductive ‘sorting’ of themes into the four final dimensions that aligned with established categories from previous research. While the first author led the analysis phase, all authors met to review initial coding, key tags, themes and articulation of the main concepts. Any discrepancies were discussed before final decisions were made regarding the thematic representation of the results.
6.2.4 Quality Standards
To improve the quality of this study, Smith and colleagues’ (2014) list of qualitative research standards was followed (italicised below). A balanced group of male and female athletes with specific and extensive experience at international junior and senior competitions was purposively recruited to achieve substantive contribution and width in relation to the topic area. To minimise any potential bias, detailed information about the researcher’s background was provided to participants prior to recruitment and again just before the interview recording commenced. The lead author also engaged in a self-reflective process throughout the data collection and analysis phases to critically reflect on her own views, ideas and biases to enhance sincerity in the research process. Further, the use of verbatim quotes along with the discussion of results with existing research presents dialogue as a space of debate and negotiation that readers can interpret and apply to their own sporting contexts as desired.
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To improve the rich rigour of this research (Smith, Sparkes & Caddick, 2014), the interview guide was pilot tested with three T&F athletes of the same calibre and age range, resulting in a few minor changes. In addition, elements of the research process were documented in an audit trail of events (Creswell & Miller, 2000). This aided aesthetic merit and coherence through the reconfiguring of original codes and themes as the project progressed (Smith et al., 2014). To improve credibility and reliability of athlete responses, interview questions were based on actual events and memories in the athletes’ development, previously shown to mitigate recall bias (Côté et al., 2005).
Finally, two very experienced qualitative researchers provided ‘checks’ and suggested alternative interpretations of the data throughout the lead researcher’s analysis. This helped evaluate the lead researcher’s potential bias and enhance transparency throughout the research process.
6.3 Results
Results derived from the data analysis process reflect the collective responses of all 14 participants in relation to their development throughout the specialising (age 13–
15 yrs) and investment (age 16-19 yrs) stages of the DMSP (Côté, 1999; Côté & Fraser-
Thomas, 2007). Given the different eras in which athletes participated in T&F, it is plausible that experiences may have varied. However, the data revealed that athletes’ experiences were similar regardless of when they competed. As such, the results are reflective of all participants’ responses, unless expressed otherwise. Overall, a total of
186 meaning units (codes) were identified and collated into 27 first order themes. These were then categorised into 10 second order themes and finally deductively sorted into one of the following four general dimensions: (1) training, (2) competition, (3) social support, and (4) personal factors. To ensure participant anonymity, the seven male and seven female athletes are represented using pseudonym names
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6.3.1 Training
The training dimension includes the themes of participation in other sports, specific training in T&F, and training squads and camps. In conjunction with their athletics training, athletes in this study were involved in a wide range of sports and recreational activities during the specialising and investment stage of development.
Participating in multiple sports and activities was an integral part of growing up, family life and schooling:
I was always out and about, horse riding, whatever it was, played every sport,
netball, touch footy, swimming—we were a very sporty family I guess. (Isla)
In high school, it wasn’t all just running, I did all different sports, and I loved
Saturday sports (school competition). (Ava)
Despite their involvement in other sports, T&F was always their passion, and the sport in which they excelled the most during the investment stage. Only two athletes by age 12–13 years had given up other sports to focus on athletics, because of lack of enjoyment or expertise in other sports or because their involvement in athletics did not allow time for other activities:
I started off training three nights a week. Then once I got a bit better started four
nights a week and then plus the senior competition at the weekends or LA on
Friday and Wednesday nights, so there was no time for other sports. (Scarlett)
Athletes discussed the volume and intensity of training in T&F throughout the specialising and investment stages. During the specialising stage, 11 of the athletes were training in T&F all year (outside school), with the other three athletes only training for school athletics for 8–10 weeks each year. For the athletes training all year, there was a gradual move from less involvement in other sports to specialising in T&F. The majority of athletes recalled training as being relatively easy and involving 2–3 sessions per week all year round. During the specialising stage, the focus of training was T&F
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT specific, but in a variety of events within the discipline of their main event as a senior athlete (e.g., sprints, endurance, jumps). Indeed, some were not ready to make a serious commitment:
I used to train twice a week and then compete on the Saturday and I can never
remember those sessions being hard. (Beau)
We trained three days a week and it was competitions on Saturday inter club. I
did 100 & 300 hurdles, also 100, 200, 400, 800 and HJ and LJ. (Noah)
At age 16–19 years (during the investment stage), all athletes’ training had increased in volume and intensity with the majority of athletes specialising in their main event towards the end of this stage. For example, at age 16–17 years some athletes were focusing on sprinting in preparation for horizontal jumps or middle-distance events in preparation for longer distance events commenced later in the investment period:
I did a bit of everything. I sprinted, hurdled and even did the throws, shotput and
discus right up to 18 years, before focusing on jumping. (Sienna)
Also, most athletes continued to combine T&F with other sports, yet had increased training frequency to between four and six sessions a week. The rigour and challenge associated with the increased demands was both manageable and enjoyable:
I was training hard, but I was swimming every morning … and sometimes I
would swim in the afternoons. I’d go home from swimming training, have to
sleep for two hours and then get the bus to Inter Club Athletics, do my walk and
sometimes I might do a 1,500 run as well. (Harper)
All athletes could balance their high school studies (specialising and early investment stages) with their training and competition schedules, as schools were very supportive. However, trying to combine study or work with training once athletes left school (late investment stage) was more difficult for some athletes and affected training:
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I was pretty much standing up all day and then from work going to training tired
… and work was taking so much time of my day and I couldn’t do proper gym
sessions. (Archie)
This resulted in some athletes choosing their athletics over other career options.
It was during the investment stage that athletes became eligible to compete in junior (U18 & U20) international T&F competitions. Interestingly, achieving selection in their first international competition was not a major training goal for most athletes.
Many recalled qualifying relatively easily without any specific or extra preparation beyond their normal training at that stage:
I didn’t start the season going okay let’s go for world juniors, but the first comp
we hadn’t even spoken about it, and I qualified by a mile, so it wasn’t really to
try and make the team. (Jacob)
I wasn’t training for that; I was just training to perform well. At the time, all I
wanted to do was better my PB [personal best]. So even when I made the team I
didn’t know about the international competition. (Beau)
However, several of the younger athletes who participated in WYC decided to specifically focus on qualifying for the WJC the following year and substantially increased their training commitments accordingly. Interestingly these athletes perceived failure to qualify was a result of the increased loads (e.g., because of injury or health issues):
World youth was a great trip and I loved it. I wanted to go to world juniors the
following year so I did increase both the training volume and intensity. I focused
everything on making world juniors but I just missed out [as a result of an
overtraining health issue]. (Isla)
Although all athletes qualified to compete at youth and junior international T&F competitions, their readiness mentally, emotionally and physically varied throughout the
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT investment years. For example, for some athletes the decision to focus on T&F was quite easy:
When you make the Commonwealth Games at 17, your decision is made for you
in terms of what you are going to do. You’re going … ok this is the sport I’m
going to go with. (Oscar)
Conversely, even towards the end of the investment stage, not all athletes were ready to fully commit or invest:
I was about 17/18 … sometimes I managed five sessions, sometimes three … I
was never consistent but at the time that’s where I was at—mentally. (Jackson)
So then when I left school, I had maybe a year I was a little bit undisciplined.
First year university I was having a lot of fun … and then I don’t know, but
something just snapped in me, I got selected for another (Australian) team and
… that was when I started to train hard. (Ava)
For some athletes, the fear of injury in other sports became the reason for focusing exclusively on T&F:
I used to play touch football and netball, but as I got a little bit older, around 16,
17, I sort of was a bit wary about rolling ankles and hurting myself so I didn’t do
it (Isla).
In addition to day-to-day training sessions, athletes also mentioned the value of training in a supportive, fun and safe environment during the investment stage. For instance, as expressed by Scarlett ‘training squads were competitive, but fun and encouraging, which you need’, while Oscar noted:
[Coach] had a squad of athletes and that was a real turning point. Suddenly, I
was in a group of people, admittedly a lot of them connected back to school, so
there was a familiarity with that, which probably made it a safe environment
because I was a bit shy. (Oscar)
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Many athletes also attended training camps organised by their state or national sporting bodies that were enjoyable and educative:
The junior camps … we were all a team and that made it fun … I remember
them being a hoot! (Harper)
As a junior, I think the training camps were really valuable because that was the
first real education process that I had in the sport. (Jackson)
6.3.2 Competition Experiences
This general dimension explored athletes’ involvement in T&F competitions and included the themes of early success and international experiences. All athletes were initially exposed to T&F competition through primary school carnivals or LA. During the specialising and investment stage, athletes continued to participate in AA-sanctioned school, state and national competitions. The opportunity to participate and win at higher levels of competition was important for their development, confidence, and motivation during this stage:
Success breeds confidence and the better I became, the more I believed in
myself. As a junior, I started advancing from being a good club athlete, to a
good state athlete, and then a national athlete to being the best athlete, and then
craving to be even better and that meant an international athlete. (Jackson)
The thrill and love of competition or as expressed by one athlete the ‘grit of it all’ (Harper), was also very motivating, and for some it was the main reason they continued in the sport:
I enjoyed competition stimulus—I enjoyed training and the camaraderie and
mateship and that side of it too but that wasn’t the sole driver; the sole driver
was always the competition. (Jackson).
Being competitive at the domestic junior elite level was the incentive for some to strive to work harder and compete on the international stage:
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I was always probably top five or maybe top three depending on the event in the
state and that was the same at nationals all the way through and it wasn't till I
was 15 I won my first National Championships. My goal then was to represent
Australia at the World Youth Championships two years later. (Levi)
Apart from one athlete (aged 15 yrs), the first international competition experience was during the investment stage. Competing at the international level for the first time was pivotal in athletes’ careers as it enabled them to learn about logistical aspects of international competition. Some explained that being part of an elite environment was motivational and inspired them to pursue T&F more seriously:
As an elite athlete, you’re not an average person; it’s kind of nice being around
people who are like that as well … I found that really motivating. (Evie)
Being over there (at WJC) and seeing all the other elite juniors and just being at
a track full of people doing elite training was a massive eye opener and really
motivating. Because I’d see them (other competitors) and go ‘I’m doing good
stuff … I can beat some of those guys, I can do better than that. These guys are
the best in the world and I’m up there’. (Jacob)
However, not all athletes found their first international experience enjoyable and motivating, because of lack of readiness, even when they had an opportunity to compete at the international level as a junior:
I don’t think my coach had enough experience at that time … we were trying to
run as a senior on a junior-type program and it didn’t quite click. (Evie)
I was 16 or 17 and I guess mentally for me, I was quite young, still quite new to
the sport … being away from parents … and I had a bit of a calf injury in the
lead-up too, so it was just a bit of everything. It wasn’t my time to perform
really so that was quite hard (Scarlett).
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6.3.3 Social Support
The social support dimension focuses on the role that parents, coaches and peers played in athletes’ junior development. During the specialising and investment stages, parents provided tangible support, mostly in relation to transport to and from competitions and finance for all aspects of training, recovery and competition:
He (dad) would’ve driven home from work to pick me up from school and then
drive me to training an hour away, then sit on the sidelines for [an] hour and a
half or two hours and then drive me home. Tuesday, Thursday from age 8.
(Noah)
I’m really fortunate that financially they’ve been able to support me … it’s not
so much just the running, like really what do you need? Do you even need
shoes? It’s more the physio and massage, and the supplements and, I guess I was
lucky. (Ava)
However, some athletes whose parents were unable to provide the financial support required, and others, needed to work to support themselves. This became especially prevalent towards the end of the investment stage, which had some effect on their participation:
I think if I didn’t have the institute of sport, it would have been a different story.
I came from a very poor family so we would never have the money to do
basically anything. (Isla)
I’d be on the chainsaw all day … carrying railway sleepers and barrowing soil
and turf and then I’d go to training and I’d be smashed. I remember I did a
session one day and [coach] said, ‘You can’t keep working like this, you’re
exhausted when you get to training’. (Noah)
All athletes recalled parents providing unconditional emotional support and were invaluable when dealing with setbacks:
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I was devastated when I missed selection … but Dad was great and he made me
see sense and realise it wasn’t the end of the world. (Isla)
Athletes also appreciated the support of parents who respected the parent–athlete boundary, for example, by respecting the coaches’ domain:
I’m very lucky that my parents are supportive but they don’t get running. Some
runners my age go home and their parents are like their half coach and they talk
running, but Mum and Dad don’t have a clue, which is refreshing. I can come
home and they think that everything I do is like ‘Oh my God like you did a 400?
Wow’. They always just think everything is amazing and they have no
expectation, which is good. (Ava)
Athletes recalled parents taking more control during the specialising stage in relation to guiding and influencing sporting decisions, such as selecting competitions, clubs and coaches:
I did the School Sports one year and I probably did eight events and I won all of
them. Smashed everyone! I got a letter from the State Athletics Association
saying, because of my good results I could compete at the State All Schools. I
didn’t want to but my mum made me do it and said, ‘you have to pick two
events that you have the best chance in—you did really well at School Sports so
you have to do it’. (Jacob)
As athletes entered the investment stage, honest advice and critique of athletic performances from parents was welcomed:
He was realistic and l loved that. The more mature an athlete I became, the more
I craved that sort of person. (Jackson)
Parents were also very important at this stage in terms of creating an environment that fostered the development of some key sporting and life values and characteristics, such
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT as work ethic, commitment and responsibility. They also helped athletes balance sporting commitments with other aspects of their life:
As a teenager, going through those years and there’s so much pressure …
whether you want to be in the cool group or study and do well at school, or be a
good athlete, whatever. There’s so many different directions that you are being
pulled, so you need some really important guidance from your parents … My
parents always said you know, ‘If you want to succeed, don't be disappointed if
you don’t achieve your goals, if you don’t work hard at it.’ And that was school
or whatever, you know? Like if you don’t do the work, don’t be upset because
what do you expect? So, understanding that concept I think is really important
and set a solid grounding for my future. (Harper)
Most athletes trained with coaches who created a motivational and fun environment during the specialising and investment stages, while also possessing knowledge and understanding appropriate to coaching developing athletes. Their coach allowed flexibility and autonomy while developing their foundation skills and fitness that enabled them to progress to the next level:
To have a coach at 13 or 14 that pretty much liked the sport more than you did
… made it easy to want to do well. (Scarlett)
I feel very fortunate to have had a very good coach not realising it then he was
actually quite advanced in his time … I believe it’s why I had such longevity in
the sport because I was very lucky with the skill and the technical expertise and
just how we trained. (Sienna)
At that time as a developing athlete, she was super patient, [had] a very caring
attitude, helped me make the transition, [from] a normal junior to an elite junior.
And also, it fitted in my special requirements; because I still wanted to swim …
she was very good like that. (Harper)
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During the investment years, coaches were more focused on improving technical skills, being a source of information and preparing athletes for competition. While most athletes reported positive coaching relationships throughout the investment years, six athletes changed coaches during this stage. Two relocated interstate to work with new coaches as part of a sporting institute T&F scholarship program, and four to find the best athlete–coach fit in terms of goals, coaching styles and developmental level, as shown by the following quotes:
I didn’t really like getting told I was overweight and all this forcefulness and
negativity … it just doesn’t work for me. (Milla)
When I was getting older and trying to work out ‘well, we need to start maybe
doing things a little bit differently’, it was extremely hard for him (coach) to
budge. Being very old school as well … his way is the right way … I just kind
of had to make a decision ‘well if I stay here, am I going to get better or am I
going to hate the sport and want to quit?’ (Scarlett)
Athletes described the motivation, enjoyment and peer support that emerged from friendships within their training group and other high-profile athletes within the sport:
I think personally training partners for the repetitious work you are doing is very
beneficial for me. It’s always good to have like-minded people around that you
can enjoy and train and socialise with (Levi).
Several athletes also acknowledged the importance of older athletes who acted as role models or mentors that provided encouragement and advice:
When I was younger AA had a mentor program and she (my mentor) used to
send me emails giving me some advice and it was also exciting that these
awesome athletes are caring about you. (Isla)
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6.3.4 Personal Factors
This dimension related to athletes’ personal attributes and capacity to deal with setbacks throughout their junior development. All athletes described their self-belief, ability to focus and discipline as key drivers of their success:
I think the reason I was so good so young was a little bit that I was so head-
strong … I just thought if I didn’t want to do something, I wouldn’t. (Milla)
I had a mentality, a drive because I wanted to make something of myself. And I
had a goal, you've got goals, you know. (Harper)
Being disciplined enabled athletes to cope with setbacks because they believed in themselves and could refocus their efforts:
I guess in the past I have always dealt with them [setbacks] pretty well, because
I always had the physios surrounding me … and you’d rest and do your cross-
training. I was young, so I still thought ‘I have got plenty of years’. I’ve always
been pretty good with them [injuries] and I hate not running but I just get on the
bike and cross-train. (Milla)
Although this athlete cohort experienced success as juniors, they faced various setbacks and disappointments during their specialising and investment years, such as injuries preventing training and competition during this critical development stage.
Several athletes also expressed disappointment with missing WJC team selection, while for others, moving out of their family home aged 17–18 while continuing to train was difficult:
It was a really hard transition … the first 6 months I hated it and just wanted to
go home. (Sienna)
Interestingly, for others, this was also a period of self-discovery and growth:
I came here so young and I was on my own … I actually didn’t know anyone. I
was 18 … it was tough, but I never panicked, so I don’t know if that’s just how I
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am maybe naturally, or it is something I came to develop without me knowing.
(Archie)
Despite setbacks, all athletes drew upon personal attributes, family, peers and coaches to cope with setbacks during the specialisation and investment years:
Six weeks before I tore my hamstring in Sydney trying to do a pre-departure
time (for the WJC) … you know I had built up everything to try and make the
team and it was a bit of a setback … I guess then, I took a step back and focused
on my school and finished off Year 12. I didn’t even compete at nationals at the
end of that year … I had my friends and enjoyed this time. I had plenty of time
to get back to running as an adult. (Levi)
The athletes also suggested that remaining injury free during the investment stage was instrumental to their ongoing success:
I definitely think that period between ages 15–20 years of having uninterrupted
training without injury set me up for success. (Oscar)
6.4 Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the developmental experiences of athletes who competed internationally at junior and senior levels for Australia in T&F.
Semi-structured interviews with 14 high-level athletes provided a deeper understanding of their experiences during the specialising and investment stages of development.
Athletes in this study continued to enjoy, train and participate in a range of sports (e.g., football codes, swimming, and netball) throughout the specialising stage and, for some, well into the investment stage. This is consistent with studies of other world-class athletes in a range of Olympic sports (Güllich & Emrich, 2012, 2014; Lidor
& Lavyen, 2002) that revealed that participation in a variety of sports in conjunction with their main sport during their junior development promoted long-term sporting
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT expertise. Further, according to talent development researchers, broad participation helps to develop general sport skills, contribute to overall training volume and reduce risk of overuse injuries (Brenner, 2007; Difori et al., 2014). Athletes in this study reported a lower prevalence of injuries, and given injury is a main reason cited for dropout among junior T&F athletes (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Bussman &
Alfermann, 1994; Enoksen, 2011; Shibli & Barrett, 2011; Vanden Auweele et al.,
2004), this may have also contributed to their ongoing involvement and success.
Overall, given the range of sports that the sample of Australian T&F athletes participated in as young people, it seems feasible that diversification may have contributed to the athletes’ general physiological development, low injury rate and motivation to progress into senior international T&F at the highest level.
Athletes in the present study indicated that winning and being involved in high- performance training and competition environments throughout the specialising and investment stages enhanced perceived competency, motivation and goal accomplishment, which positively influenced their decision to specialise (or invest) in elite T&F participation beyond the junior years. It is posited that this junior international experience (both positive and negative) provided the sample of athletes with the opportunity to develop coping strategies beneficial in dealing with future elite- level competitions. Additionally, the excitement, challenges and growth opportunities
(i.e., physically, technically, psychologically) that international competition afforded these young athletes was a key factor in their long-term athletic careers. While studies of Youth Olympic participation (for athletes 14–17 yrs) have demonstrated how exposure to organisational stresses associated with international competition (e.g., village life, travelling, doping control, timing of events) helps prepare athletes for future senior international competitions (Côté et al., 2010; Peters & Schnitzer, 2015; Wong,
2011), other research with youth sport participants found that exposure to performance-
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT focused competitive environments at a younger age can increase anxiety and decrease self-esteem (Vandan Auweele et al., 2004). Further, a lack of experience and coping strategies can lead to greater competition stress, burnout (Holt et al., 2005; Kristiansen
& Roberts, 2010) and premature retirement (Bussman & Alfermann, 1994; Enoksen,
2011) as reported by for some junior international athletes in European and Canadian contexts. Clearly the differences in opinion with respect to early experiences in high- performance training and competition environments signifies that this debate requires ongoing investigation with a broader sample of athletes who have succeeded on the world stage.
Parents and coaches are instrumental in establishing a motivational climate during the specialising and investment stages, which contributed positively to these
Australian T&F athletes’ long-term success. Athletes in the present study suggested their parents adapted and changed parenting roles and styles in accordance with the specialising and investment stages. During the specialising stage, parents were encouraging and firm and more authoritative with their guidance in relation to the athletes’ sporting experiences. When athletes entered the investment stage, parents encouraged more autonomy, providing advice rather than direction (e.g., when parents supported and facilitated a change in coach better suited to their child’s needs). These findings are indicative of ‘sporting parent expertise’, which has been defined as the ability to adapt parenting styles to the stage-specific needs of the developing child/athlete (Côté, 1999; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008a) and as most effective for supporting elite youth development in sport (Hardwood &
Knight, 2015)
The study’s findings indicate that emotional support, particularly during stressful times during the investment stage, relates to another key factor associated with
‘sporting parent expertise’—the ability to provide the ‘right’ balance of empathy and
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT emotional support in dealing with setbacks and pressures associated with elite sport participation (Knight & Holt, 2014; Knight et al., 2016). Particularly important in this study was parents understanding that some athletes were not ready to ‘enter’ the investment stage before 16 years of age and even by age 18–19. This enabled these athletes to make a full commitment when they were physically, mentally and socially ready, rather than giving up because of pressure, expectations and unsupportive behaviours by parents and coaches (Knight et al., 2016; Wolfenden & Holt 2005). In addition, the sample of athletes here suggested their parents were key contributors to promoting strong values (e.g., high work ethic, commitment) and positive behaviours
(e.g., intrinsic motivation and confidence), which previous studies have reported as
‘emotionally intelligent’ parental role modelling (Harwood & Knight, 2015) influential in junior development (Keegan et al., 2010; Knight & Holt, 2014). Parents continued to play a key role in supporting long-term sport participation through the provision of tangible support (e.g., transport, finance), which enabled access to quality coaching, facilities and competition opportunities (e.g., national, international) instrumental to the athletes’ development and reflective of other elite junior athletes in previous T&F
(Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Enoksen, 2011) and multiple sports studies (Vanden
Auweele et al., 2004; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005).
Given poor coaching at the junior level has been associated with youth sport dropout (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008a, b; Vanden Auweele et al., 2004), it appears having access to appropriate ‘stage-specific’ coaching during junior development was instrumental to successful development for the athletes in this study. While this was more often by chance (e.g., where they lived and/or which school they attended) rather than a selective process, in most cases the athletes in this study reported very positive experiences with their coaches’ behaviour, styles and knowledge. This aligns with the
DMSP prescription for both the specialising and investment stages in that the coaches
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT became more important in providing a motivational environment conducive to all-round development. For example, the coaches provided the ‘right’ balance of deliberate play and practice, engendered a sense of belonging and provided opportunities to increase their autonomy. These factors are recognised as important assets in enabling athletes to undertake longer hours of deliberate practice (Allen & Hodge, 2006; Côté et al., 2010;
Hedstrom & Gould, 2004).
The athletes in this study suggested that strong relationships with training peers who held similar values and goals provided a supportive and motivating environment for long-term T&F participation. Studies with elite Australian and British T&F athletes
(Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; MacNamara & Collins, 2011) and some Canadian collegiate sports teams (Kim et al., 2016) found that a strong affiliation with other athletes during the investment stage, and early in their senior career, was influential when continuing in the sport. Several athletes in this study also commented on the encouragement and learning opportunities that more experienced athletes provided to younger athletes in the group. Additionally, the cohort of athletes acknowledged the role coaches played in facilitating training environments that were conducive to positive social interactions and learning opportunities, which is commensurate with other studies that focused on athlete transition from junior to senior sporting competitions
(Henriksen, 2010; Johnson et al., 2008b; Morgan & Giacobbi, 2006). Thus, a positive training environment established by coaches and peers is recognised as vitally important during the latter part of the investment stage, to encourage long-term participation in elite sport.
Athletes shared several personal qualities and behaviours including commitment, focus, confidence, self-belief and coping skills. Not surprisingly, these have been recognised as common attributes among elite junior athletes during the specialising and investment stages in swimming (Johnson et al., 2008b), soccer (Larsen
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT et al., 2012) and a range of other sports (MacNamara et al., 2010a, b). Several athletes expressed that although they knew they were talented and passionate about T&F, they were still not ready mentally or physically to fully commit, even as late as age 18 years.
This was particularly evident in the case of some of the athletes who experienced their first international competitions at the WYC (U18) rather than the WJC (U20) level.
These athletes reported negative experiences, such as below-average performance because of injury and health issues or dropping out of competitive sport for a few years.
According to previous elite athlete transition research, these scenarios are reflective of athletes who were not mentally ready for the stressors associated with elite-level competition (Finn & McKenna, 2010; Stambulova, 1994, 2003). Again, this highlights the importance of stage-appropriate support from parents and coaches in facilitating the gradual acquisition of psychological skills necessary to commit fully to achieve at the elite senior level. It also reinforces the notion that athletes may be best suited to focusing on a variety of sports until after 16 years of age (Côté et al., 2007; Patel, Pratt
& Greydanus, 2002).
The transition from junior to senior elite athletes was not a seamless process for the athletes in this study. Several reported suffering injuries, missing selection and moving away from home during the investment stage as major challenges or setbacks.
Rather than deterring or demotivating athletes in continuing their careers, athletes successfully overcame whatever challenges and adversity they faced during their junior development. Indeed, suffering injuries and not being selected for teams provided opportunities for the present sample of athletes to develop ‘resilient integration’
(Richardson, Neiger, Jensen & Kumpfer, 1990) whereby they were able to overcome setbacks as well as develop various protective factors (e.g., positive psychological attributes and coping mechanisms) advantageous in dealing with future adversity
(Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014; Savage et al., 2017). In line with previous sporting research,
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT being provided with the opportunity to learn how to overcome problems during late adolescence, together with a supportive social environment, helped develop the protective factors instrumental in developing the intrinsic and long-term motivation for specialising in T&F (Galli & Reel, 2012; Galli & Vealey, 2008; Tamminen, Holt &
Neely, 2013). Additionally, factors such as self-belief, a positive disposition, resilience and discipline enabled the sample of T&F athletes to manage potentially greater stresses and setbacks when transitioning into senior elite training and competition settings. It may therefore be prudent for the national body to initiate some ‘psychological skills’ training for athletes and coaches in high-performance junior programs during the investment stage to mitigate the existing high attrition rates when transitioning from junior to senior athletic competitions.
6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the findings of the development of elite Australian junior T&F athletes who transitioned successfully to represent at the senior global level, several important recommendations are offered.
First, talented young T&F athletes should be encouraged to play other sports throughout the specialising years and into the investment years in conjunction with
T&F, and only invest fully in T&F later in the investment stage. Most athletes in the present study were late specialisers and did not focus on their main senior event until the end of the investment stage. This reinforces the need for stakeholders to understand the fluidity of commitment at this stage of development.
Second, athletes in this study successfully dealt with various setbacks by either tapping into inherent skills or learning new coping mechanisms. Therefore, it is important that national governing bodies provide regular educational opportunities for both athletes and coaches to learn psychological coping skills at a younger age because
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT many elite junior athletes have opportunities to compete internationally and thus experience greater performance pressures.
Third, it is critical that coaches and parents ensure that the environments in which athletes train and compete are rich in social support. The level and timing of support received from parents, peers and coaches was reflective of the recommendations of previous studies that have used the DMSP as a framework for athlete development.
Overall, this underlines the importance of matching the social and psychological support with the appropriate developmental stage.
The findings from this study contribute to the understanding of elite Australian
T&F athletes during the specialising and investment stages; however, they should be viewed in relation to the following limitations. Smaller interview numbers can limit the reach of the findings; however, the homogeneous study cohort (Guest, Bunce &
Johnson, 2006) and richness of data gained through the 14 interviews aligned with previous studies in T&F (Hollings et al., 2014b; Mallet & Hanrahan, 2004; Vernacchia et al., 2000). Retrospective recall and self-preservation biases (Savage et al., 2017) presented another limitation; however, several measures were taken to mitigate such biases (see Section 6.2). Finally, triangulation between parents and coaches would further strengthen the results of this study and be worthy of further exploration in future studies to gain a more holistic perspective about the development of elite athletes in
Australian T&F contexts.
Research into elite athlete development has tended to focus on the sampling phase of development, and has rarely included the detailed perspectives of athletes as they progressed through the specialisation and investment stages. The current study provides a detailed account of stage-specific development factors that may enhance elite junior T&F athletes’ chances of long-term participation within the sport. Indeed, training and competition experiences were commensurate with athlete development
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT ideas suggested in the DMSP, where Australian athletes spent time playing various sports while nurturing their athletic talent in a progressive, satisfying and successful manner. These findings also support postulate 7 of the DMSP (Côté & Vierimaa, 2014), with athletes being at least 16 years old (and often closer to 18 yrs) before they were ready to fully invest in specialised intense training.
In conclusion, this study adds to the existing talent development literature by providing an account of the transition experiences of Olympic and WC representative athletes as they progressed from junior to senior athletic competitions.
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Australian Elite Track and Field Coaches’
Perceptions of the Key Factors That Contribute to a
Successful Trajectory to the Elite Level in Track and
Field
7.1 Introduction
The professionalisation of elite sport has led to higher performance standards, which means it is increasingly difficult to ‘make it’ on the world stage (De Bosscher et al., 2008). In Australia, success in T&F at WC and OG rests largely on elite junior development programs as a pathway to elite performance in adulthood (AA, 2018e).
This reflects international sporting trends where governments invest substantial sums of money into HP sporting programs, with expectations of success on the international stage as a return for their investment (Barker-Ruchti et al., 2016; Côté & Erikson, 2015;
De Bosscher & De Rycke, 2017; De Bosscher, Shibli, Westerbeek & van Bottenburg,
2015). Despite this investment in junior talent programs (for athletes aged 15–18 yrs), several studies of Australian T&F athletes have revealed that only 20–30% of talented juniors reach senior elite status (Bidder, 2013; Hume & Hollings, 2011; Probst, 2012).
While many researchers have investigated the reasons for dropout from elite sport over time (Difori et al., 2014; Enoksen, 2011; Fraser-Thomas et al., 2008a, b), rarely has the coach’s perspective been considered when determining the factors that influence the long-term development of elite athletes. Accordingly, eliciting the views of coaches who have consistently developed junior talent to international success on the world stage is of vital importance for understanding the long-term development of elite athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate elite Australian coaches’
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT perceptions of the key factors associated with Australian athletes’ successful trajectory to elite-level T&F.
Talent development is a long-term process that involves athletes progressing through various developmental stages and transitions throughout their career
(Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007). Numerous models have been designed to outline elite athlete development (Balyi, 2004; Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007; Gulbin et al.,
2013b) and career transitions over time (Stambulova, 2003; Wylleman & Lavellee,
2003). Stambulova’s (1994) career transition model was one of the earliest frameworks, and included six main stages for career transition in elite sport participants: (1) beginning sport specialisation (2) intense single sport-specific training (3) transition from junior to elite senior sport (4) amateur to professional status (5) peak stage, and (6) retirement. Each stage comes with specific challenges in sport (e.g., higher training demands) and non-sport (e.g., academic/work and psychosocial factors) contexts
(Stambulova, 1994, 2003; Wylleman et al., 2004) and the ability to successfully negotiate these challenges is of primary concern for coaches and athletes. Often, an athlete’s capacity to move to the next transition stage is dependent on the availability of internal (e.g., self-knowledge, motivation and personal traits) and external resources such as family, coach and financial support (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007; Côté,
1999; Wylleman et al., 1999). Indeed, the transition from elite junior to senior competitions (generally this includes athletes aged 17–20 yrs) is recognised as one of the most challenging to navigate (Stambulova, 1994, 2003; Stambulova et al., 2012;
Vanden Auweele et al., 2004; Wylleman & Lavellee, 2004).
Studies with numerous team and individual sports have revealed that up to 66% of athletes who participate at junior international level do not participate at the senior international level (Barreiros et al., 2014; Boccia at al., 2017; Enoksen, 2011; Hollings
& Hume, 2010, 2011; Kearny & Hayes, 2018; Schmacher et al., 2006). For example,
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Hollings and Hume (2011) reported that 72% of Australian and NZ athletes who competed at a WJC did not transition to compete for their country at a global senior international competition (WC/OG). In addition, researchers have reported variable and non-linear trajectories as common place for many athletes who are successful at the elite senior level (Gulbin et al., 2013b; Huxley et al., 2017). In sum, these findings highlight the challenges associated with developing and retaining talented juniors as much as elite junior success may not necessarily be a ‘good’ predictor of elite senior success.
To explore how elite athletes develop as they transition through their careers, various researchers have interviewed successful athletes from a variety of team and individual sports about their developmental histories (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Duffy et al., 2006; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; MacNamara et al., 2010a, b; Synder, 2014).
Studies of US Olympians participating between 2000 and 2012 (Synder, 2014) and Irish international athletes in various sports including T&F, rowing, boxing and racquet sports (Duffy et al., 2006) have highlighted the importance of good social support
(families, peers) at junior levels and system support (finances, sport science) at the elite senior level. Similarly, research with elite Australian T&F athletes found psychological
(e.g., motivation), social (e.g., peer support), economic (e.g., funding) and educational
(e.g., balance commitments) factors contributed to whether athletes continued in the sport beyond the junior years (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Huxley et al., 2017). More recently, Huxley and colleagues’ (2018) interviews with elite Australian T&F athletes who had transitioned from elite juniors to elite senior competitions revealed they did not fully commit to intense training and their main event until their late teens. In sum, these studies highlight some common factors that appear to be instrumental to successful elite athlete transition over time, such as later sport-specific specialisation, an ability to balance training and study, and having good social, financial and psychological support.
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Qualitative studies involving expert coaches’ views about elite-level athlete development are less prevalent than research involving elite athletes. Where studies have included the coach’s perspective, the focus has tended to include perceptions of effective TDEs (e.g., Henriksen, 2010; Larsen, Alfermann, Henriksen & Christensen,
2013; Martindale et al., 2007; Mills et al., 2014; Røynesdal, Toering & Gustafsson,
2018). In these studies, coaches highlight the importance of integrated systems where all stakeholders (e.g., governing sporting body, coaches, schools, and clubs) value common and long-term goals in relation to developing pathways for elite and senior athletes. They also tend to highlight the coaches’ perspectives on the traits and characteristics of talented juniors who have successfully transitioned to elite senior/professional levels, such as having well-developed physical strength/endurance, a strong work ethic, good coping skills and the ability to compete well and self-regulate
(Finn & McKenna, 2010; Johnson et al., 2008a; Jones, Mahoney & Gucciardi, 2014;
Mills et al., 2012). While coaches have contributed to a basic understanding of talent development across a range of sports and countries, in the Australian T&F context, to date, there has been limited attention. Therefore, this study seeks to extend the existing literature in relation to elite coaches’ perceptions about the key factors that contribute to long-term elite athlete development within Australian T&F.
Côté and colleagues’ (1995) Coaching Model (CM) was used as a framework to investigate the phenomenon of elite athlete development from the perspective of elite
Australian T&F coaches. The CM is a seminal framework that has been used to outline the concepts and strategies that coaches use in their daily roles. Originating from a study with elite gymnastics coaches, the model proposes three core elements associated with the goal of developing athletes: training, competition and organisation (Côté et al.,
1995). Underpinning these elements are three peripheral components that influence the coaching process: coaches’ characteristics, athletes’ characteristics and unstable
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT contextual factors such availability of facilities, financial and sport system support.
Essentially, the CM explains that coaches form a ‘mental model of an athlete’s potential’ (Côté et al., 1995, p. 10) based on the three peripheral components, which are subsequently used to determine the organisation of training and competition to achieve the overall goal of developing the athlete. Previous studies have used the CM to explore the knowledge, skills and experiences of elite coaches in training, competition and organisational settings (Côté & Sedgwick, 2003; d’Arrip-Longeville, Fournier &
Dubois, 1998; Duchesne, Bloom & Sabiston, 2011; Saury & Durand, 1998). For example, Saury and Durand (1998) detailed how the practical knowledge of Olympic sailing coaches enabled them to anticipate and adapt training and competition plans depending on unpredictable weather conditions. In research with elite Canadian rowing coaches, Côté and Sedgwick (2003) found that an effective training environment, strong coach–athlete relationships and understanding of individual needs facilitated the best athlete outcomes. Accordingly, this is an appropriate model to examine how coaches in this study applied their knowledge to plan and organise the most appropriate environment for elite Australian T&F athlete success. In addition, it provides the scope to examine how coach characteristics (e.g., leadership style, beliefs), together with contextual factors (e.g., sporting bodies and policies), can influence the motivational climate and coach–athlete relationships in elite Australian T&F contexts.
In summary, a substantial body of literature has confirmed the pivotal role of coaches in elite athlete development, from the developmental stages through to senior international level (Bengoechaea et al., 2004; Côté & Sedgwick, 2003; Jowett &
Cockerill, 2003; Martindale et al., 2007; Mills et al., 2012, 2014; Pensgaard & Roberts,
2002; Strachan et al., 2011). Qualitative methodologies have provided an appropriate platform to attain a deeper understanding of the factors perceived to be instrumental in developing elite senior athletes. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to existing
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT knowledge about elite athlete development by providing a unique set of ideas from highly experienced and elite coaches about the factors they perceive to be most influential in contributing to the trajectory of Australian athletes to elite level in T&F.
The findings will provide an evidence base for future talent development policies for
Australian T&F and aims to have practical implications for the various stakeholders involved in elite T&F athlete development.
7.2 Method
7.2.1 Research Strategy and Philosophy
This study aimed to investigate elite Australian coaches’ perceptions of the key factors associated with Australian athletes’ successful trajectory to elite-level T&F. As well as building on the literature, it aimed to provide evidence in relation to talent development in the Australian T&F context. This aligns with the pragmatic research philosophy in which researchers seek to link their results to practical and policy outcomes for the benefit of the individuals or groups it investigates (Corbin & Strauss,
2008; Giacobbi, Poczwardowski & Hager, 2005; Hammersley 2000). A pragmatic philosophy also provides flexibility in the use of the epistemological viewpoint and ontological beliefs in choosing the methodology best suited to address the research question (Bryman, 2006; Denzin, 2008; Freshwater, 2006). In line with an interpretivist viewpoint (qualitative methodology), reality of knowledge (ontology) can have multiple meanings based on the personal meanings and social experiences of the social actors. As such, it was assumed that acceptable knowledge (epistemology) acquired by the coaches through semi structured interviews was subject to their different interpretations and social phenomena (Creswell, 2014; Harwell, 2011). In this situation, the researcher and participants are interactively linked, with the previous experiences and interpretations of all parties jointly influencing the research process. As such, the axiology of the
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT researcher is value bound, which means they are part of what is being researched, resulting in a more subjective outlook (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Secker et al., 1995;
Wahyuni, 2012). A pragmatic approach acknowledges these interactions, biases and prejudices of researchers as inevitable, but at the same time can allow for a more innovative approach to hypothesising (Bryant, 2009). To mitigate or bracket against potential biases or presumptions in this study, various measures were implemented to facilitate the maintenance of a neutral and open-minded stance (Holt et al., 2017; Kvale
& Brinkman, 2009; Neuman, 2011) and are discussed in Section 7.2.4.
7.2.1.1 Participants
Purposive sampling was employed to recruit coaches with a sustained involvement in Australian high-performance T&F athlete development, because they could provide in-depth information in relation to the research aims (Morrow, 2005;
Patton, 2015). Accordingly, coaches were recruited based on the following criteria, which were also used in previous studies with expert coaches (Abrahams et al., 2006;
Santos, Fernandez-Rio, Alamansba, Sterkowicz & Callan, 2015; Saury & Durand,
1998):
more than 20 years’ experience in coaching T&F
a minimum of 10 years’ coaching experience with national-level Australian
T&F athletes
experience training junior and/or senior T&F athletes to an international level of
competition (e.g., WJC, OG)
highest coaching accreditation available in T&F (Australian Level 4 and 5
accreditation).
Table 7.1 list the demographic data of the coach sample.
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Table 7.1
Coaches’ Demographic Data
Number of coaches 12 (9 male, 3 female) Sex coached All coached both male & female athletes (12) Age group coached All coached juniors (12–19 yrs) and seniors (approximately 20–35 yrs) Coaching experience (yrs) M 25.3 (±10.6), range 10–45 Age (yrs) M 56.1 (±10.4), range 42–72 Coaching qualifications Level 4–5 Number of combined OG & WC (senior & 4 junior) medals won by coaches’ athletes Athletes on junior international teams 87 (M 8 ± 8.2) Athletes on senior international teams 219 (M 18.25 ± 29.1) Experience as Olympic athlete 8 (5 M, 3 female)
7.2.2 Procedure for Data Collection
After receiving approval from the HREC, 15 coaches were contacted by email and followed up with a phone call inviting them to participate. To avoid coercion whereby participants may have felt undue influence to participate as a result of the
‘close’ relationship with the lead author (Steinke, 2004), coaches were fully briefed about the purpose and assured that the study was independent of the NSOs and affiliated bodies. In addition, the coaches’ anonymity was assured and coaches were reminded that participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Twelve coaches agreed to participate and a suitable time and place for each interview was scheduled.
Semi-structured interviews (Appendix E) were used to investigate elite
Australian coaches’ perceptions of the key factors associated with Australian athletes’ successful trajectory to elite-level T&F.
The semi-structured interviews enabled a level of flexibility so that the order of questions could vary according to coach responses, thus allowing for greater exploration
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT of individuals’ specialist knowledge (Patton, 2015). The first part of the interview focused on general questions about the coach’s background, including their own athlete experiences and pathways into coaching. The aim was to build rapport and ensure coaches felt comfortable during the initial stages of the interview before focusing on the main topics for discussion. The second section explored coaches’ views in relation to athlete attributes (physical and psychological) they perceived as common characteristics of talented juniors who succeed at the elite senior level. The next section involved core questions related to how coaches perceived their knowledge and experience as helping to develop, plan and prepare athletes (as individuals) both physically and psychologically for elite performance. For example, coaches were asked ‘How do you prepare your athletes to deal with the pressures of elite competition?’ and ‘How do you balance achieving good results at the junior level while preparing the athlete for career longevity at the senior level?’
The third section focused on how the coaches perceived that their own characteristics and coaching behaviours helped and created an optimal training and psychosocial environment for the best athlete outcomes at various stages of development. For example, coaches were asked ‘How do you adapt/tailor your approach to suit the needs of athletes?’ and ‘How do you support athletes dealing with other changes (apart from training/competition) occurring at the same time in their life?’ The final set of questions related to barriers coached believed impeded the development of elite athletes in the Australian T&F context. In line with Patton’s (2015) guidelines, prompts were used to enhance clarification (e.g., to ensure I got that right, could you go over that point again?) or when a novel or interesting point was raised and warranted further exploration (e.g., Could you please explain that point in more detail?). To increase technical consistency (Finn & McKenna, 2010), the lead researcher, who had undertaken postgraduate coursework in qualitative methodology, conducted all
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT interviews. Each interview was conducted face to face or via Skype at a convenient location and time, with each interview lasting 45–60 minutes. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim, yielding 150 single-spaced pages for data analysis.
7.2.3 Data Analysis
The pragmatic approach adopted in this study lent itself well to using Braun and
Clarke’s (2006, 2013) six-phase thematic analysis because their approach allows for theoretical flexibility. The first step involved familiarisation with the data in which the lead author read and re-read transcripts, making brief notes to gain a holistic understanding. Correction of minor errors (e.g., participants’ grammar), and elimination of redundant text (Patton, 2015; Wertz, 2005) improved the clarity and flow of interviews (Blazo, Carson, Czech & Rees 2014). Step two involved creating the initial codes by breaking down the interview text line by line to identify relevant text and participants’ quotes: for example, ‘you can see who is a natural competitor and who can deal with the pressure’ was coded coping with pressure. This process was done manually rather than using computer-assisted analysis, because previous studies have shown this can facilitate a closer examination of data (Davis & Meyer, 2009; Wadley,
Clark, Podlog & McCullough, 2013). In step three, similar initial codes were collated into broad categories, leading to the creation of first order themes. This analytical process was continually refined in steps four and five by reviewing, comparing and regrouping the initial first order themes to create more descriptive and definitive second order themes and finally the broader dimensions. For example, the first order theme
‘good genetics’ was merged into the second order theme ‘physical talents’ and ultimately merged into the broader ‘athlete characteristics’ dimension. Data collection ceased when no further knowledge about the research questions emerged and connections between data in existing categories became clearer (Milne & Oberle, 2005).
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The final step involved writing up the process by relating the findings back to the research questions and relevant literature (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
7.2.4 Quality Assurance/Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness in a qualitative inquiry demonstrates quality and credibility of the results and explains how interpretations were reached (Lincoln & Guba, 1985;
Sparkes & Smith, 2009, 2014). A relativist approach—rather than a predetermined criteriological approach such as Tracy’s (2010) ‘eight universal hall marks’ or Lincoln
& Guba’s (1985) ‘gold standard’—was used to establish trustworthiness. This approach allows researchers the flexibility to use whatever criteria best suit the study, which aligns well with the pragmatic nature of this study (Smith & McGannon, 2017; Sparkes
& Smith, 2009). Milne and Oberle’s (2005) concepts of ‘authenticity and credibility’, together with ‘criticality and integrity’ can be used to establish trustworthiness, as they are well suited to qualitative studies seeking first-hand knowledge of participants
(Neergard, Olesan, Andersen & Sondergaard, 2009). Authenticity and credibility were addressed here by using purposeful sampling to ensure participants had an understanding of the context (i.e., development of Australian elite T&F athletes). Also contributing to authenticity was the use of semi-structured interviews, which allowed coaches the flexibility and freedom to convey their views and the use of probing for clarification, resulting in participant-driven data collection. Further enhancing authenticity was accurate transcription, data-driven coding and categorising and the use of many direct quotes from the coaches, which ensured their voices were both heard and accurately portrayed (Milne & Oberle, 2005). Contributing to the credibility of the study was the researcher’s extensive background in elite T&F enabling a genuine insider perspective to be portrayed (Holt et al., 2017). The lead researcher was an elite athlete, coach and team manager in T&F, which proved advantageous for understanding the subject matter as well as building rapport and acceptance with the coaches in this
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT study (Carless & Douglas, 2012; MacPhail, 2004; Mills et al., 2012). The lead researchers’ personal profile also shaped the subsequent data analysis and write up of the participants’ experiences (Allen-Collinson, 2009; Galli & Reel, 2012; Hesse-Biber,
2015; Hodge et al., 2014).
To ensure a critical appraisal (criticality) and the integrity of the research processes and decisions, ongoing peer debriefing and a reflexive diary were utilised.
Two academic colleagues with expertise in qualitative methodologies and experience in working with elite athletes and coaches in various sports served as ‘critical friends’ throughout the research process, acting as both ‘devil’s advocates’ and ‘external’ auditors (Creswell, 2007; Morgan & Giacobbi, 2006; Smith et al., 2014). This collaborative process challenged assumptions and provided alternative viewpoints (e.g., suitability of categories and themes), which helped in recognising personal biases and preferences and provided opportunities to critically reflect on the analysis (Holt et al.,
2017; Shenton, 2004; Swann et al., 2018). A reflexive diary was used to encourage frankness and honesty about any personal biases, motivations and shortcomings in relation to interpretations that may otherwise have influenced or shaped the researcher’s past experiences and relationship with participants (Clancy, 2013; Jones, Brown &
Holloway, 2013; Tracy 2010).
7.3 Results
The results derived from the data analysis process yielded 139 meaning units
(codes) that were collated into 29 first order themes. These first order themes were then categorised into 10 second order themes and finally sorted into one of the following three general dimensions: (1) athlete characteristics; (2) developing the talent; and (3) barriers to talent development (see Figure 7.1). The results presented below reflect the collective responses of the 12 coaches who were interviewed; raw data are provided in
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT the form of quotes to provide key examples of their perceptions of the key factors associated with Australian athletes’ successful trajectory to elite-level T&F. To ensure participant anonymity, the nine male and three female coaches have been given pseudonyms.
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First Order Themes Second Order Themes General Dimensions
- Innate talent - Good Genetics
Physical Strengths - Ability to compete - Cope with pressure - Receptive to learning mental skills - (from coach & psychologist Psychological Natural - Strengths talent - Responsible (The - High work ethic Athletes) - Determined Personal attributes - Committed -
- Stage specific - Long term holistic development Professional - Planning & analysing Knowledge - Experience as elite athlete
- Adaptable coaching style - Build trust & rapport Developing - Honest communication and feedback Coach-Athlete the Talent - Empower athlete /develop autonomy Relationship - Understand & ‘read’ individual (Coaches) - Care and friendship
- Motivational, inclusive & ‘happy’ environment - Setting standards and expectations Positive Training - Older athletes -role models/advice Environment - Providing competitive/challenging opportunities (with other squads)
- LAs & senior athletics separate entities Fractured System - Talent loss from LAs to senior
athletics -- PoorEarly senior specialisation club structure- burn Results Driven Barriers - out & injuries (to loss- Pressure of athletes) for results over development Culture - Too much focus on competition developing -- Inadequate coach education talent) - Lack of collaboration (coaches) TD & System - Selection criteria too elitist and - limited Support -- Under Protective resourced of territory - More support & opportunities for 19-23 yrs
Figure 7.1. Key factors perceived by elite coaches as important in elite T&F development
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7.3.1 Athlete Characteristics
The athlete characteristics dimension includes various traits such as an athlete’s physical and psychological capacity and strengths, as well as certain personality attributes that the coaches viewed as important for a successful trajectory in elite T&F.
7.3.1.1 Physical Strengths
Several coaches highlighted how inheriting certain physical traits such as natural
‘springiness’ or more fast-twitch fibres can increase an athlete’s chances of reaching elite levels in T&F. For example, certain young athletes possessed ‘genetic hardiness’
(Isaac), making them more likely to cope with the rigorous training required to reach the top. As one coach expressed:
It’s all about ‘survival of the fittest’ … even if some kids train hard at a young
age with the wrong technique and poor coaching, some still survive. (Dylan)
In contrast, it was suggested that even promising young athletes who are developed appropriately may not achieve senior success because biomechanics may change with age, which may result in the athlete being more injury prone and unable to take the loads needed to step up to senior levels:
For some athletes, growth and anatomical problems that come in as they mature,
and biomechanics became less conducive to doing a quality exercise or training
program and holding up, in other words, a lack of anatomical resilience. So even
kids on the same event, you could see some are thriving and could absorb that
workload and others just couldn't do it and they fall by the wayside. (Ethan)
However, while having natural talent can mean some athletes can qualify for
WJC without much training, at the elite senior level, natural talents are not enough:
You can be a good junior on natural talent and by the time you reach senior
ranks you need another 20% step up in terms of performance level, and it’s all
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the extra one percenters that you do every day over months and years that are
needed to achieve at the elite senior level (Leo)
7.3.1.2 Psychological Strengths
Coaches acknowledged that the nature of elite T&F makes it a difficult environment for athletes to survive. For example, one highlighted that:
Unfortunately, athletics is the most measurable sport there is, and your
performance is instantly shown and it’s either good, bad or indifferent, but you
can’t bury yourself in the team … so individually that’s a real pressure. (Mason)
Accordingly, coaches identified key psychological skills/traits that were needed for elite success and, similar to physical strengths, some coaches identified that certain athletes had innate psychological skills that enabled them to deal with pressure and flourish as a senior athlete:
I’m a huge believer that you were born with the innate skill to compete …
you’re in an environment where you’re competing every day of your life and
you acquire and develop those skills as you grow … the good ones, they know
how to win and they know when to step up, they know when it’s race day …
you can learn some of those skills along the way but I still believe that
competitive instinct it’s just there. (Leo)
However, coaches believed all athletes could benefit from training in this area because of the importance of psychological skills to athlete development and performance. Most coaches felt it was their role to teach these skills, because coaches and athletes have the highest level of responsibility during competitive situations:
Psychological preparation can certainly help to improve the results but it is still
the skill of the coach in understanding and getting the best out of the athlete in
both the training and competition situation—the coach knows best if the athlete
needs to be yelled at or whether to take a more gentle approach. (Dylan)
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Daily training and high-level competitions provide many opportunities to foster the development of psychological skills and the coping strategies athletes need to succeed at the elite level. In relation to training, Lewis explained:
by giving a set training session [one that an athlete can repeat and compare
outcomes] every now and then, an athlete can gain a lot of confidence when they
see an improvement … it proves to them the level they are at, and when they get
that belief, they have the confidence to deliver something they haven’t done
previously.
In a competition setting, occasionally pushing a junior athlete outside their comfort zone by getting them to race at the elite senior level can be an opportunity to develop some valuable tactical and psychological skills:
Talented junior athletes need to understand what it is like to be in a very
competitive and tight race where it might be stop and start with elbows, pushing
and shouting … the only place to get that is in a big race, so, I encourage the
athletes to compete in senior competitions as a good psychological preparation
for junior international competitions. (Leo)
Although most coaches believed teaching psychological skills fell under their domain, they also recognised that in some situations a sport psychologist can add value to an athlete’s development:
It’s not all about weaknesses, it’s actually providing some sort of armoury or kit
bag of tools to the athlete to allow them to perform in certain areas, whether it be
visualisation skills, whatever relaxation skills, it doesn’t matter. There are
certain things every athlete could do to up-skill themselves in that area, some of
it comes naturally too, but there are still some things that you could learn [from
a sport psychologist] and practice and use in preparation for your races and
travelling overseas. (Leo)
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7.3.1.3 Personality Attributes
The coaches in this study outlined several personality traits that they believed contributed to elite success. Taking responsibility, being accountable and showing some independence—especially from a young age—are important for future development. As one coach explained, the athletes that you want are those who:
always come prepared and can get on with the warm up routine without
supervision. (Grace)
Coaches also highlighted the importance of providing opportunities for athletes as they mature, to further develop these traits:
I might ask the athlete to modify my training program or to write their own
program or session to suit a particular stage of their season or development.
Another would be my regular instruction prior to a session, for athletes to use
the session as their own optimal session, to adjust what we are doing within the
session … with a quick discussion with me before they do it to ensure we are on
the same wavelength. (Ethan)
Other common attributes that coaches recognised in successful athletes included a strong work ethic and being strong minded, with:
a very committed approach to winning … it is win or nothing, there was no such
thing as a good 2nd place. (Lewis)
These athletes were determined to achieve their goals and would do whatever it takes to succeed, as Leo explained:
There’s certain people you can look at in our athletic environment or teams,
there’s half a dozen of them … using the old war analogy … they are the first
you’d pick if you’re going off to war. Yeah … who’s coming off to the trenches
with me? You just want them … Charge, I’ll follow you. It’s just the ticker
they’ve got.
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Perseverance and self-belief were also qualities that coaches perceived to be important for long-term success, especially in relation to dealing with a decline in athlete performances:
It is often tricky for girls to improve or even maintain performances they
achieved at 14, 15 and 16 years into late adolescence and beyond, because their
body changes and performances fall away … but if they are able to persevere
they can maybe get through it all and then be all right again. (Mason)
In summary, coaches identified various traits and characteristics evident in younger athletes that they perceived as contributing to a successful trajectory to elite level in T&F. While many of these traits were viewed as innate or genetic, coaches also acknowledged the importance of building on these natural attributes to ensure success at the elite senior level.
7.4 Developing the Talent
The coaches in this study perceived that having access to effective coaching was instrumental to long-term elite athlete development in T&F. Specific themes identified in this dimension were professional knowledge, the coach–athlete relationship and creating a positive training environment.
7.4.1 Professional Knowledge
The coaches in this study acknowledged the importance of having the stage- specific knowledge attuned to an athlete’s developmental needs and individual capacities as a key factor in achieving success at a senior level. For example, focusing on building a good training foundation based on event skills and techniques can help develop the physical capacities needed to sustain an athlete from a junior to a senior career:
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My number one area with developing athletes is technical. So, I tell the parents,
‘I can work your kids as hard as you want but, in the end, if technique is flawed,
down the track they will be injured—sooner or later, it will happen’ … that’s
why so many athletes at 18, 19, 20 years disappear from the sport. (Liam)
Matching training with the athlete’s developmental stage, especially in relation to qualifying for youth or junior international competitions, was also seen as an important aspect of physical development for success at the senior level. Thus, the ability of a coach to plan and individualise programs based on scientific training principles such as a fundamental understanding of physiology enables the coach to make adjustments to a program. To achieve optimal athlete performance at the elite senior level involves taking some risks and making some mistakes, but adjusting quickly can mean the difference between breaking down with injury and improving enough to qualify for a major championship:
I've got athlete A, for example that I made a mistake with … so I gave [athlete
A] for the first time in their life some intervals and a little bit of hill work …
even though it was gradually introduced it developed into an injury and cost the
athlete a couple of weeks … but I've pulled out of that completely now. It all
goes back to understanding the individual differences, because of their
physiology … so we’ve gone back to the other program that’s got the athlete to
where they are now … it might get a qualifying time … I can’t do it any other
way; I've proved that. It’s just a case of trial and error and pulling out quick.
(Ethan)
Additionally, the ability of coaches to see the big picture by planning and analysing all aspects of training and competing, as well as various non-sporting aspects of an athlete’s life, was important for success at the elite level:
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It’s more than just the physical part of it; there’s the mental side of it, there’s a
whole range of things that go into the planning process and actually
understanding, okay, what is going to be required to come out and make semi-
final, if it’s a tactical race or, in long jump, what are you going to have to do to
consistently to make top 12 … even right down to understanding the criteria for
getting selected (Leo)
The process of being an elite senior athlete is another two or three-year deal. I
take the long-term holistic approach in the process of developing an elite senior
athlete by working on the cumulative effect of every day of the week of every
month over a period of two to three years … The first year, it’s holding their
hands, helping them adjust to study or a job … showing them how to be an adult
while implementing a gradual increase in training … not just training, but also
emotional issues, family issues, life issues … you need to address them so that
when they move forward to be a truly elite athlete they should be stable in their
adult life, and then it’s actually increasing the training and saying exactly where
their strengths and weaknesses lie and then in year three, then they are ready to
get out there and perform at the next level. (Blake)
The coaches who had competed as senior international athletes themselves, felt that ‘the combination of being an elite athlete yourself and knowing what it takes to get there’ (Hugh) was beneficial to the development and preparation of athletes also competing at this level. Understanding the training and competition requirements and stressors, the demands of a specific event and also the learning from their own mistakes as an elite athlete benefited the athletes they now coached.
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7.4.2 Coach–Athlete Relationship
All the coaches in this study emphasised how important the coach–athlete relationship was for long-term elite athlete development. For instance, one emphatically stated:
The whole sport lives on the basis of individual relationships between the athlete and coach, and the most enduring successful coach–athlete relationships are those where people develop together. (Isaac)
While coaches acknowledged that there was no ‘right way’ in relation to a coaching style (from autocratic, flexible and consultative), being flexible within their own coaching style and adapting to the needs of the individual athlete was important for getting the best out of an athlete:
There are athletes who are ‘just tell me what to do and I will go and do it’ and
the others they don’t operate like that, you need to give them a script and then let
them go out there and do it anyway. (Hugh)
My style of working is rarely to directly ‘instruct’ or to lecture, but to be more
subtle about aspects I think are important. For example, discussing with an
athlete how one of my previously successful athletes dealt with a particular
situation … helps in facilitating the current athlete to consider this and make her
or his own decisions as to what might work for them. I have found this mode to
more likely be successful than direct instruction. (Ethan)
Coaches described various coach behaviours that contributed to a strong coach– athlete relationship. For example, having an open and honest approach, where athletes felt confident to discuss issues both within and outside sport with their coach, showed that the coach cared about them as a person as well as an athlete:
I tend to do this over a coffee or chat … I discuss the concepts my runners are
having trouble with at university or school … might be maths or human
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physiology or nutrition or study habits. There have been times where my runners
like to be quite personal, both male and female and ask about a rather sensitive
issue mostly, but not always related to running. I interpret this as athletes having
respect for their coach’s experience, knowledge and privacy of the conversation
… and this builds trust. (Ethan)
Developing trust and respect through knowing and understanding each other can lead to greater commitment and enjoyment. This can be very important for keeping athletes engaged and motivated during the ups and downs in both their sporting and non-sporting lives:
A lot of athletes really thrive on a very close relationship with their coach,
especially if they are very committed (to achieving at the highest level) … they
love to be able to share their excitement over a good performance … and know
you are there to support them when they are struggling through injuries, poor
performances or personal issues. (Mason)
Also, socialising with athletes as they get older can help strengthen bonds between coach and athlete that are conducive to ongoing motivation, for example:
taking them out and letting them have a couple of beers might be seen as
sacrilegious by some … but then the next couple of weeks at training is the most
productive. (Blake)
Other coaches supported the view that being a ‘friend’ not just a coach, as athletes get older, really helps the athlete sustain the ongoing commitment needed at the elite senior level:
The athlete knew I was concerned with them as a whole human being, not as
somebody who was just a number … and then you develop a relationship with
that person because they understand that this is about you working with them.
You become more than just the coach … you become their friend and counsellor
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and they’ll ask you questions about, ‘should I go overseas or shouldn’t I?’ and
‘I’ve got this boyfriend … what do you think?’ I mean, you don’t have to go
overboard, but you can add an extra dimension to the athlete that can make a real
difference. (Lewis)
Coaches also strongly believed that establishing a climate of mutual trust, care and respect helps support the growth of athlete autonomy and empowerment. For example, as athletes get older, they can develop the ability to make their own decisions and manage without the coach always being present at training and/or competition. For example, they can:
read their bodies and be able to tell me, I think I have had enough. (Evelyn) and:
You want the athlete to develop to the point where they don't need the coach as
much … you want to start developing their independence and the ability to make
their own decisions as they get older … you want to not think, ‘I must go away
with the athlete’ every time, because the aim of a coach with an elite athlete is
that they will be able to coach themselves. (Grace)
A coach’s recognition and support of the athlete as an individual was also an important factor in long-term athlete success. Sometimes this means:
reschduling training or providing a one on one session to fit in with an athlete
who can’t make the regular session. (Jasmine) or:
taking the time to sit down one on one over a coffee, and listening to what they
have to say, can make the athlete feel special. (Mason)
In some cases, coaches went beyond the traditional coaching role that tends to focus on developing purely physical capacities:
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For some athletes who may lack family support, even into late adolescence …
you take on a parental role … helping them get a job, providing transport and
teaching them how to cook, shop and other basic life skills … you do that to
keep them going not just to keep them in the sport, because they may have no-
one else and that develops enormous trust. (Evelyn)
The ability of the coach to ‘read’ their athlete and be flexible with communication when preparing for a competition or providing feedback was also considered important for developing positive relationships and long-term athlete development:
Before the race, I realised I didn't have to say too much. He was focused. He
knew what he had to do … so I hardly had to say anything to him. And to say
anything to him would have been detrimental. (Ethan)
Sometimes straight after [the competition] is not the best time because it’s an
emotional period … you have to know the athlete and understand the situation
because pushing the wrong buttons or saying the wrong things inappropriately
can create fall out between athletes and coaches. (Leo)
This is also important when working with talented young athletes who might be
‘getting ahead of themselves’ because they are more mature or talented. The coach needs to be firm and honest to effect a change of attitude and encourage the athlete to focus on long-term goals:
I just remind them that I’m not interested in how they compete against such and
such at the age of 14 when someone’s biological age might be 13 and the other
one 16. And just because they are winning now they need to understand others
will catch up and natural ability won’t get you through and that ‘you might not
be as good as you think you are’ … being honest in this way can really help a
young athlete understand the commitment needed. (Ethan)
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7.4.3 Positive Training Environment
The coach’s ability to create a positive training environment was seen as a key factor contributing to the successful development of elite level T&F athletes. For example, setting standards and expectations was considered important for creating a culture of excellence that benefited the long-term development of their athletes:
In my coaching group, I make it clear that training is like your business and you
come here you train as hard as you can. It’s not about individual personalities,
they all have running goals, and so my group is built on everyone getting the
most out of themselves … if athletes are buying into that and seeing everyone
doing that they realise they are all working for the same reasons. (Blake)
Several coaches also highlighted the importance of ensuring squads were cohesive. This was achieved by:
attracting the right sort of person into the group [so] I can provide a happy work
environment, and when an athlete is struggling through a down period, having a
good squad environment can keep them going. (Mason)
The coaches also acknowledged that creating opportunities for socialising, developing shared networks and utilising peer-to-peer interactions ensured that training squads remained motivated over long periods of their development. For example, many coaches outlined how older peers were valuable for nurturing and supporting younger athletes who may be experiencing difficulties in various aspects of their lives:
The athletes encourage each other and might share how they got over something
… like a psychological barrier … because most are older and at university or
have been, they have been through those sorts of things too at the same age. And
I have one athlete at the moment who really helps to motivate the younger ones,
so I think if you’re lucky enough to have a support group it takes you a long way
towards success. (Lewis)
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I find the older athletes sometime take a younger athlete under their wing who
might, for example, have some family or psychological issues that are affecting
their training … the older athlete conveys this back to me and this really helps
me understand and coach the athlete better. (Evelyn)
They could also act as a conduit between the young athlete and coach, when translating key messages associated with long-term development:
Simply by younger athletes observing the older athletes and the way they
interact with me … especially when it shows how much dedication is involved
to prepare for competition. But I also like to point out, with a younger athlete
casually listening, or in earshot, in a conversation with a senior athlete who was
not all that good in his or her younger days, but has come through to be a fine
athlete. This sinks into the younger athlete’s mind that it’s not all about how
good you are now, but in later years when the development process has evened
up the competitors. (Ethan)
While the direct training squad environment is critical, several coaches extended their individual training environment to include other coaches and squads because this provides additional opportunities for developing elite athletes. For example, one suggested that:
having your athletes training together with other squads, can help develop
competitiveness and provide a challenging and stimulating training environment.
(Hugh) and another believed training with other squads also provides an opportunity for athletes:
to talk to and learn from other athletes they might not always have the chance to
mix with. (Mason)
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For coaches, there were also benefits related to sharing knowledge and working collaboratively:
There are a group of us [coaches] who work together with our squads. We
exchange ideas and give feedback and sometimes input into each other’s
programs. Also, because we work closely together, the athletes from all groups
know us well so we can look after each other’s athletes at a competition or
overseas when the personal coach can’t be there. (Lewis)
In summary, it is clear that a coach’s professional knowledge and the ability to match it to the needs of individual athletes while cultivating a positive training environment are crucial for elite athlete development over the long term. This is a complex process that can be contributed to, or undermined by, the relationships that the coach and athlete cultivate within and beyond their squad.
7.5 Barriers to Development
The three specific themes related to factors that coaches perceived as impeding the successful trajectory to elite level T&F were a fractured system; results-driven culture; and TDPs.
7.5.1 Fractured System
Most coaches expressed a level of frustration in various areas related to the sporting structure and governance of AA, which they felt affected the successful development of elite juniors to elite senior level. Coaches were critical of the fractured system whereby LA, a modified version of T&F for children/adolescents (5–16 yrs), operated as a separate entity to the sport’s governing body (AA), because there was no direct pathway between the junior and senior levels of the same sport:
There’s no real relationship, at a formal level … it’s quite silly to me that we’ve
got the biggest part of the sport is not part of our sport. I always think that the
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LA and senior athletics should be aligned and they should be in one club. I think
it’s been an issue for the senior sport because there seems to be a perception that
senior athletics (T&F) is scarier or its more pressure. (Dylan)
Although many coaches were in favour of the original concept of LA, most felt the current model encouraged early specialisation over training and in some cases boredom with, and dropout from, the sport:
What other sport do you go out in the heat for five hours at seven years old?
(Isaac)
I think LA is a great idea to be able to teach people to run, jump and throw, but
it goes way beyond that, they become so competitive and it’s too much for their
little bodies to handle it. (Jasmine)
Why are we allowing young athletes to do events such as the triple jump … how
many times can their bones and cartilage take the impact … in my squad I find
those athletes who did a lot of jumping in LA had more knee injuries at 16–17
years than athletes who didn’t. (Dylan)
While many coaches identified LA as a major reason for loss of talent in the transition from LA to senior athletics, some coaches also believed that the senior club system, where athletes and coaches worked independently rather than as a community, also affected development of elite athletes at the senior level of the sport:
Elite senior athletes don’t want to compete for the club … they have no sense of
pride or belonging because they have allegiance to their coach who may have no
connection with the club they compete for … so that means the best athletes
aren’t competing against each other each week and there are less role models for
our younger up-and-coming athletes to learn from. (Isaac)
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7.5.2 Results-driven Culture
Various coaches felt the competitive structure of the sport—from LA through to elite junior levels—created pressure on coaches to focus on results rather than development of athletes. For example:
being an employed coach, I have to get performances out of athletes, so it’s not
fun and games. (Grace)
Even coaches working in a ‘voluntary’ capacity felt pressure from parents and athletes to achieve qualifying standards so that young athletes could be selected for competitions, talent squads and teams. The coaches in this study believed that if they were not able to achieve these high standards with their athletes, then the athlete would move to another coach. Being pushed too early before bodies were physically able to cope with the training loads required to be highly competitive often led to injuries and negative experiences, all of which impeded future development and success:
I think one of the big problems of pushing young athletes too early is that there
is a danger in getting injured … for example a navicular stress fracture can take
12 months to get over … and then they feel they can’t really train as hard
because they are worried about getting injured again, so performances drop off
quite a lot making it very hard to achieve beyond what they did at the junior
level. (Mason)
I think too they are under pressure and some get pushed too early and either
have a bad experience … whether it’s an injury or they don’t get there or they do
get there but have a bad experience, and some can’t turn it around? (Grace)
According to some coaches, these negative experiences sometimes resulted from an inadequate coach education. Several coaches felt the formal coach accreditation courses failed to adequately educate coaches, especially in the area of junior development. For example, introductory coaching courses placed too much emphasis on
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT teaching individual event-specific techniques rather than creating a general grounding of technique development across all events. As a result, the participants perceived that new coaches were not gaining foundational knowledge to progress their own coaching capacity, which ultimately may hinder athlete development and progression:
There is a lack of real coach education—it is getting better now with the
introduction of university coaching degrees but it may take 20–30 years to reap
the benefits; but teaching poor event-specific technique at the Level 1 (beginner
level) courses is wrong. (Dylan)
A results-driven culture also affects the development of athletes at later stages of an athlete’s development. This is because pressure to maintain their reputation as an elite coach results in some reluctance to share knowledge. Additionally, miscommunication between personal and national coaches often occurs in high- performance camp situations, making collaboration with other coaches and the task of developing elite athletes more complex:
You (the coach) are therefore in some kind of competition status with other
coaches. And some stupid people … don’t share, and they don’t think about
doing things together. (Isaac)
I find that these kids get into the elite squads and that’s when all the drama
starts; that’s when there are certain coaches that are pulling them away or telling
them there is another way. At the last camp, there were four different coaches
giving advice on the way to train lactic tolerance and I just have to say: ‘Look
everyone has different ideas and you don’t have to believe what everyone else
says’. (Evelyn)
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7.5.3 Talent Development Programs
Several coaches’ highlighted concerns in relation to the long-term development of athletes aged 15 to 18 who are selected for national and state-based talent programs.
For example:
my analysis shows that a large number of kids who were in the junior national
program are not making it to senior national teams for years. (Dylan)
Coaches felt that selection criteria based on achieving specific performance targets at a given point, rather than considering athletes’ long-term potential, were too restrictive. They felt that criteria should be more flexible and accommodate athletes who are late developers or training less than others at the time of selection:
Look, you can see it already … they are only looking after the few select elites
and missing the whole middle bracket … so many miss out because we live too
much by the law of selector’s discretion and talent development is not black and
white. (Hugh)
Coaches also felt that existing TDPs were limited by the lack of specialist (e.g., medical support) and financial resources. This often resulted in losing athletes whose parents were not able to pay for the support services they needed to keep on developing and improving:
Athletes are going to get injured at any age, but there’s no assistance … as a
coach, you have to make the decisions about what it is that they need and hope
they can pay for it. (Jasmine)
I think it’s [support] very important but you don’t necessarily need every luxury
[at the junior level], to do it. You don’t need to be in an institute of sport or you
don’t need a free gym subscription—but it’s handy and it depends a little bit on
the family. If you came from a wealthy family, they can buy anything and get
you going. If you’re really poor, then you can have real issues. (Mason)
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While coaches in general acknowledged that some extra support from the system at the junior level was helpful, they strongly believed the lack of support during the crucial transition period from U19 to elite senior ranks affected the ongoing development, success, and retention of these athletes:
When the athletes make it to a world junior team they get some support for a
brief period of time but once it’s over it’s gone … one of my athletes rang the
institute after getting back from the world juniors, expecting that they would get
access to the gym, but he was told he can’t use the gym … he couldn’t believe it
and became disillusioned with the system. We lose so many athletes at this level
because of lack of support … out of the six relay athletes in that particular team
only one is still in the sport. (Lewis)
Several coaches also emphasised the importance of:
getting something [competitions] for U23–U25, instead of having all these
international youth competitions, because that’s when we lose them from the
sport. (Liam)
Coaches also believed it was essential for elite junior athletes during the junior to senior transition phase (19–23 yrs) to have more opportunities to travel and compete on the European circuit to help them step up to major senior competitions such as the
OG and WC. However, the lack of financial support from the system can make it hard for athletes to benefit from these opportunities:
Even though my athlete was a Commonwealth Games medallist at 21, [they]
couldn’t get funding from AA to go to Europe to try and qualify for the world
champs so we had to do it all ourselves … we had a lot of problems and it was
much harder to get to the competitions we wanted because of limited money …
and [the athlete] didn’t qualify. (Dylan)
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Many coaches highlighted the benefits of athletes undertaking a university degree during these transitioning years (age 19–22) because it often gave them more time and flexibility to increase training loads needed to succeed at the senior elite level.
However, because there is minimal financial support from the system, many athletes also need to have part-time jobs to support themselves, which is counterproductive to success:
I had one athlete who was waitressing Friday night, competing Saturday
afternoon, then waitressing again on Saturday night, training on Sunday and up
at 6 am on Monday for a school coaching job … and she was frazzled! (Evelyn)
In addition to the lack of financial support from the system, coaches also felt athletes were not given enough time to make the transition from a world junior team to a senior international team:
We have to try, not just for one to two years and say it’s not working … because
that’s when they leave the sport … you can’t just make an athlete in two years, it
takes a decade. (Liam)
In sum, coaches in this study perceived three main barriers impeding the trajectory of athletes to elite-level T&F in Australia. The lack of unity and continuity between LA and senior athletics associations resulted in a loss of young talent because many who have participated in LA did not continue to senior athletics. Coaches also believed the competitive structure of the sport in general created a results-driven culture with pressure on coaches to focus on early results rather than long-term development.
The final barrier identified was the restrictive and under-resourced TDPs that failed to provide enough support for developing talent.
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7.6 Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of 12 WC and
Olympic coaches in relation to the key factors they perceived contributed to a successful trajectory of Australian T&F athletes to the elite level. According to coaches in this study, a combination of athlete characteristics, coaches knowledge and experience in planning, organising and developing productive athlete coach relationships, together with some contextual elements (e.g. sporting system barriers), were factors influencing the trajectory of athletes to elite-level T&F. This is consistent with the peripheral components outlined in Côté and colleagues’ (1995) CM, which influence the coaching process associated with developing elite athletes. In addition, the findings build on existing evidence relating to long-term athlete development and provide support for various aspects of the DMSP and athlete career transition models.
In relation to athlete characteristics, the coaches in this study identified common personality traits, psychological skills and physical factors that are critical for athletes to succeed over a long period at the elite level. From the physical perspective, coaches outlined how a naturally strong and aligned physique assisted with injury prevention. As injury is cited as one of the major reasons for dropout in T&F (Bussman & Alfermann,
1994; Enoksen, 2011; Huxley et al., 2014), having ‘genetic hardiness’ (e.g., good biomechanics) meant athletes were less prone to injury and therefore more likely to cope with the training loads needed as an elite senior athlete.
In terms of personality attributes and psychological skills, it was not surprising that coaches listed athlete characteristics such as accountability, autonomy and a fierce inner drive to do whatever it takes to succeed as being essential for long-term elite success in T&F. This is because previous research in a variety of elite sporting contexts has demonstrated the power of determination, motivation, and perseverance as critical
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT for overcoming challenges throughout an athlete’s elite career (Alfermann &
Stambulova, 2007; Côté, 1999; Duffy et al., 2006; Giacobbi et al., 2002; Johnson et al.,
2008a; Mills et al., 2012; Morgan & Giacobbi, 2006; Oliver, Hardy & Markland, 2010).
While the coaches acknowledged that many of these traits seemed innate, they also believed providing opportunities in training to build on these attributes was beneficial for long-term success. For example, encouraging athletes to adjust training or have some input to their program can help athletes become more autonomous, further enhancing their chances of succeeding at the elite level because they are better able to make decisions on their own when the coach is not present. This view is supported by elite athletes from various nations (US, Mexico and Greece) and sports (gymnastics, sailing and T&F), who have cited having opportunities to make decisions and cope with different situations without a coach present as being instrumental in their success as an
Olympic medallist (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). Overall, these athlete characteristics continue to deepen the evidence base about what coaches perceive to be essential for long-term elite athlete development across a variety of sports.
In line with the CM (Côté et al., 1995), the ability of the coaches in this study to understand athlete’s personal characteristics and level of development, together with their personal qualities were instrumental in developing elite athletes. The coaches emphasised the need to draw on their professional knowledge to meticulously plan training, build trusting coach–athlete relationships and develop positive training environments for the best long-term athlete outcomes. In relation to training, coaches drew on their professional experiences as an athlete (and other sources of formal learning experiences) to understand each individual athlete’s characteristics (e.g., physical capabilities, stage of development, ability to deal with stress). This helped apply their professional knowledge for the best athlete outcome and is reflective of coaching practices associated with the success of Olympic, WC and professional sport
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT athletes (Din, Paskevich, Gabriele & Werthner, 2015; Greenleaf et al., 2001; Tracey &
Elcombe, 2015). In addition, coaches in the current study believed that being reflective and innovative and taking some calculated risks with training plans (thereby learning by trial and error) was an important contributing factor in the successful developmental of their athletes. Again, this supports practices of other elite coaches who have acknowledged that to consistently improve an athlete’s performance you need to be creative, take some risks and push beyond traditional coaching methods and techniques to achieve the small incremental improvements that can make the difference at the elite level (Abraham, Collins, Morgan & Muir, 2009; Din et al., 2015; Lara-Bercial &
Mallet, 2016, Stodter & Cushion, 2017). Having a sound level of stage-appropriate developmental knowledge helped coaches adapt training schedules to each individual athlete’s psychological and physical levels. This was important not only for developing junior athletes but also for increasing the potential for their young athletes to remain in the sport over long periods of time and to perform at the elite level.
As T&F is an individual sport where relationships with the coach are often closer than in team sports (Jowett et al., 2005), coaches deemed a strong and close coach–athlete relationship based on trust, rapport and honest communication was important in the successful development of athletes. Coaches acknowledged how their relationships with senior athletes often resembled a ‘friendship’ or ‘parental’ role, which they found to be effective for motivating athletes over the long periods needed to achieve athlete success. This close relationship—going beyond a purely sporting relationship—supports previous studies that revealed how such a caring relationship with coaches helped athletes discuss issues from within and outside athletics, to successfully cope with the difficulties associated with the transition from junior to senior sporting contexts (Becker, 2009; Duchesne et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2017;
Jowett & Carpenter, 2015; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Kim et al., 2016). By
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT understanding the broader factors that might affect athlete wellbeing, the coaches in this study believed they were in a better position to help the athlete achieve their long-term athletic goals.
In relation to another important finding associated with developing elite athlete talent, coaches described the value of having inclusive and happy training environments to encourage long-term commitment to T&F training and competition. They believed that a positive training environment could be enhanced during squad meetings/social gatherings, which provided opportunities to informally share ideas and solicit feedback.
In particular, coaches highlighted the importance of senior athletes who acted as role models providing extra support and guidance, which contributed to the development and progress of younger squad athletes. These findings support previous research with university student athletes that demonstrated how more senior athletes in teams are especially beneficial when acting as role models for junior athletes who are transitioning to senior competition (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Brown et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2016).
Given more than 60% of Australian Olympic athletes (Huxley et al., 2017) and British
Olympic gold medallists (British Universities & Colleges Sport, 2014) between 1992 and 2012 were university graduates, it may be prudent for coaches of late adolescent athletes transitioning from high school to university to make greater use of senior role models in their training groups.
Coaches believed establishing clear standards and expectations within the training group can promote shared goals and a sense of community among athletes. In turn this can minimise rivalry and promote greater cooperation in training squads because athletes are working towards similar goals resulting in more effective use of training time and longer-term motivation to perform for themselves and their team
(Hodge et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2003). Additionally, coaches highlighted the importance of having the emotional intelligence to ‘read athletes’ by accurately judging
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT their physical and emotional state, which also contributed to athlete success. Knowing when to ‘push’ and when to ‘hold back’ helps the athlete develop more confidence and trust in the coach’s ability, which ultimately strengthens the coach–athlete relationship.
Building on these areas related to the training environment, the coaches in the present study believed that providing opportunities to train with other high-performing squads was an important factor in elite athlete development. This is because it provided additional competition, motivation and learning opportunities for younger talented athletes—a factor acknowledged by other elite senior athletes (including world and
Olympic champions) as contributing to their success (Duffy et al., 2006; Durand-Bush
& Salmela, 2002). Coaches perceived several other benefits for both athletes and coaches when coaches from different training groups collaborated. For example, athletes gained by having access to the combined knowledge and expertise provided when several coaches work together, and coaches profited by learning from each other.
Sharing knowledge through team coaching and providing opportunities for coaches to acquire practical ‘on the job’ tacit knowledge from other coaches with excellent records and credibility has previously been found to enhance both athletes’ and coaches’ learning (Henriksen, 2010; Koh et al., 2017; Rynne et al., 2006; Werthner & Trudel,
2009).
Reflecting another peripheral component of the CM (Côté et al., 1995), coaches in this study identified various barriers or contextual factors that they perceived to impede the successful trajectory of athletes to the elite level in T&F. Their main concerns related to the fractured system between two main arms of the sport (LA and senior athletics), the results-driven culture and the limitations of TDPs. In relation to elite sport systems, coaches in this study shared their unease with the lack of unity between
Australia’s two separate athletics governing bodies: AA, the overarching governing body; and LA, 5–16 years’ competition. This is interesting because more than 15 years
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT ago, Oakley and Green (2001) recommended that an elite sport model should encapsulate a simplicity of administration through common sporting and political boundaries. Given that approximately 100,000 children and adolescents participate annually in LA, while in 2015–16 approximately 8,000 young athletes aged 15–20 years were registered with the senior arm of the sport (AA, 2018d), coaches in the present study believed that stronger links between the two bodies, especially specific pathways to senior athletics, would increase the overall athletic population and potential talent pool as well as facilitating better coaching and athlete development. Unity, a shared vision and direct links between junior and senior sporting stakeholders have previously been identified as key elements of TDEs that foster the successful transition of elite juniors to elite senior levels (Henriksen, 2010; Martindale et al., 2007; Mills et al.,
2014). Additionally, various studies have identified strong club structure and culture as pivotal to elite athlete development at both junior and senior levels (Henriksen, 2010;
Morris, Tod & Oliver, 2015). As a result, T&F governing bodies in Australia might take heed of cultivating a more unified approach to talent development with stronger ties to the club structure. This would provide an environment that attracts, retains and provides incentives for elite senior athletes to have an allegiance or commitment to a club.
The findings from this study indicate that most coaches supported LAs because of its focus on teaching fundamental skills applicable to all sports; however, many were critical of the results-driven competitive structure because it encouraged early specialisation rather than a long-term athlete development approach. Unfortunately, the competitive nature of youth sport often encourages coaches to adopt the same coaching model as senior coaches rather than facilitating age-appropriate development
(McCallister, Blinde & Weiss, 2000). Further, coaches perceived the current T&F coach education system in Australia contributed to this problem as it was limited in both relevance and applicability. In particular, programs for beginner coaches were perceived
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT to be inconsistent with well-researched recommendations for developing young athletes by being too heavily focused on event specialisation (Côté et al., 2009; Moesch et al.,
2011). Given coaches concerns in relation to the heavy focus on technical knowledge, it may be practical to incorporate more of the pedagogical, interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of coach knowledge into future coach accreditation frameworks. These concerns mirror those of various stakeholders (coaches, parents, athletes and medical professionals) in relation to factors perceived to contribute to injuries in Swedish T&F youth athletes (aged 12–15 yrs). The study found insufficient coach knowledge and a competitive results-driven and short-sighted approach by the athletics were as cofactors contributing to injuries (Jacobsson et al., 2018).
In relation to TDPs, coaches believed the selection criteria and entry standards were too high, resulting in the loss of talented junior athletes who may need more time to achieve the required standards. Accordingly, coaches in this study suggested that a more flexible talent development system that allows more time and scope to cater for differences in individual development would facilitate transition of more elite junior athletes to elite senior level. Coaches also believed that a lack of resources, competition opportunities and support hindered athlete progress, especially when they were trying to step up to the next level of competition (e.g., elite junior to senior, senior national to senior international). In agreement with previous studies, coaches believed athletes benefit from specialist advice such as strength and conditioning or nutrition to enhance performance, and sports medicine such as physiotherapy to help manage the higher training loads required at the elite senior level (Duffy et al., 2006; Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002; Shibli & Barrett, 2011). Interestingly, several quantitative studies have shown that providing athletes who are in the ‘transition zone’ between elite junior and elite senior representation with opportunities to participate in ‘stepping stone competitions’ benefited their long-term development. For example, Huxley et al.,
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(2017) found that 70% of their sample of 73 Australian Olympic and WC T&F athletes participated in various ‘stepping stone competitions’ prior to OG/WC. Similarly,
Hanley’s (2014) analysis of the trajectory of athletes who participated in the European
Athletics U23 Championships between 1999 and 2013 revealed approximately 40% of athletes from a given championship eventually reached OG/WC. Based on the evidence from these studies and the views of the elite coaches in this study, it may be prudent for
AA to provide more competition opportunities for athletes post-world juniors to better prepare them for the ‘cut and thrust of the Olympic or World Championship arenas’
(Dick, 2012, p. 37).
These findings should be considered in light of a number of limitations. The information gathered in this study was obtained solely from coaches without triangulation involving athletes or other stakeholders (e.g., parents, governing body representatives). Future research with a broader range of stakeholders might complement the existing study to deepen our understanding about the topic. The retrospective nature of the study for some coaches may have inadvertently led coaches to view their own success more positively by remembering the good rather than the more negative events or experiences. Further, the imbalance in gender of coach participants, while representative of the current gender balance of elite coaches in
Australia, may have influenced the findings as behaviours and coaching styles and beliefs may differ between male and female coaches. Caution therefore needs to be taken when interpreting the findings in this context.
In conclusion, this study aimed to seek the views of elite Australian T&F coaches in respect to factors they perceived as pivotal in a successful trajectory to elite- level T&F. Although the sample number of coaches was small, given their extensive knowledge, experience and achievements, the data yielded rich and detailed information beneficial at both an individual and system level.
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From the individual athlete perspective, coaches identified specific characteristics (physical, psychological and personality) common among talented juniors who transition successfully to elite senior levels of T&F. For example, having genetic hardiness and the ability to cope with pressure were advantageous to athletes’ long-term development and success because they were better able to handle the higher training loads and competition stresses associated with elite senior level T&F.
Additionally, certain personality traits such as a determination, accountability and a strong will to win were common attributes coaches identified as contributing factors in elite athlete development. To develop athletes’ talent, coaches identified aspects of their personal experiences and knowledge used to consistently develop elite junior and senior
T&F athletes in Australia. Positive and effective coach behaviours (e.g., catering for individual needs, creating productive and nurturing training environments), and strong coach–athlete relationships were also key contributing factors in successful athlete development. The main barriers coaches perceived were largely systemic in nature: in particular, coaches acknowledged the pressure and difficulties a results-driven environment creates in the development of long-term success. Coaches strongly recommended a unified system, linking LAs with AA to encourage more junior athletes to continue in the sport. Coaches also believed the very selective and elite nature of the junior talent program eliminated prospective talent, while the lack of resources hindered the potential of many talented juniors. Finally, the lack of support and opportunities for athletes during transitioning years (ages 19–23 yrs) was perceived to affect athlete progression and success at the elite senior level.
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Discussion of key findings, practical implications,
strengths, limitations, and recommendations
This chapter presents a summary of the main findings of all phases of the research within the context of the main theoretical framework and associated models, together with relevant literature. This chapter also provides recommendations for coaching practice, education, policy development and future research. It also discusses the strength and limitations of the study.
8.1 Introduction
This chapter integrates the key findings from both the quantitative (Chapter 5) and qualitative studies (chapter 6 and 7) in relation to examining the key factors that influence the development of Australian Olympic and World Championship Track and
Field athletes. The following research questions were established to address the aim and guide the study.
1. What are the key developmental influences, milestones and specific athlete pathways
of elite senior athletes who competed for Australia at the highest global level
(Olympic Games and/or World Track and Field Championships between 1956 and
2013?
2. What are the athlete experiences during the specialising (ages 13-15) and investment
stages (ages 16-19 years) that underpinned the development of elite Australian
junior T&F athletes who transitioned into elite senior careers?
3. What are elite Australian coaches’ perceptions of the key factors that contribute to a
successful trajectory to the elite level in T&F?
As this thesis focuses on the athlete’s development from junior sporting ranks through to the elite senior level, the questions are addressed within the theoretical
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT framework of Bronfenbrenner’s (1999) bioecological theory of human development
(Process-Person-Context-Time model [PPCT]), together with the DMSP and athlete career transition models. The bioecological theory provides a framework for examining and analysing the data associated with the wide range of factors influencing development (Nitsch, 2009), while accounting for individual differences (e.g. physical and psychological maturation rates) changes that occur over time (Krebs, 2009). While the PPCT model provides a broad organisational structure to discuss the findings across all three studies, the complementary use of the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) and athlete career transition models (Stambulova, 1994, 2003; Wylleman, & Lavallee,
2004), helped provide a more sport specific comprehensive theoretical framework to guide, interpret and discuss findings in this study (Araújo et al., 2010). Practical implications, study limitations and recommendations for future research are also presented in this chapter.
8.2 Process-Person-Context-Time Model Overview
This chapter starts with a brief overview of the study’s main findings in relation to the Process-Person-Context-Time Model (PPCT, Bronfenbrenner, 1999, 2005). The
PPCT model encapsulates human development as a series of progressively more complex reciprocal interactions (proximal processes) between an evolving biopsychosocial individual (person) and their surroundings (context/environment), over a regular and extended period (time). The reciprocal interactions between the athletes, key people and other influences (immediate and remote) overtime, will be discussed in relation to their successful development under each of the four components of the PPCT model.
Included in the discussion of proximal processes are the training and competition experiences of the athletes from their first involvement in the sport through
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT to the elite senior level. The magnitude of these processes varies depending on the developing athletes’ physical and psychological traits and characteristics and how these factors impact on, or are influenced by others, and are discussed under the person component of the model. Overtime, the context in which the athletes developed, interacted and were influenced, varied to encompass most levels (micro, meso and exo) of Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) nested system and reinforces the model. At the micro and meso-levels are relationships with parents, families, coaches and peers, while at the exo- level, there are the effects of the sporting system (e.g., funding, selection criteria, and
Talent identification and development [TID] programmes) that do not directly involve the athlete, but impact on their development. The influence from the most distal macro- level (e.g., Australia’s sporting culture) did not emerge as a key influencing factor so will not be discussed. The final component of the PPCT model, time, reviews athlete’s training and competition involvement, milestones, and pathways from the perspectives of micro – time (regularity/irregularity of day to day training sessions) and meso-time
(accumulated training over weeks, months, seasons and years). In addition, as athletes in this study participated between 1956 and 2013, the changing expectations and events in the larger society and across generations (e.g. government sports funding, competition opportunities) that may have affected developmental processes (macro- time) are also discussed.
8.3 Processes
Proximal processes refer to the training and competition experiences of the athletes and are aligned with the three stages (sampling, specialising and investment) of
Cόté and colleagues (2003, 2007) Developmental Model of Sport Participation
(DMSP).
One of the key findings from the present study was that elite track and field athletes
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT followed the sampling-specialising-investment pathway to elite senior status as denoted in the
DMSP (Cόté et al., 2007). The majority of athletes were involved in a wide range of sports and recreational activities from childhood though to mid adolescence. During the sampling stage (6-12 years), the focus of athlete’s training or practice activities across various sports, was on unstructured deliberate play and fitness activities. However, a small number of athletes did participate in specific T&F training through their involvement in Little Athletics
(LAs). It appears these activities were more geared towards deliberate play than deliberate practice, and similar to the experiences of some elite Danish athletes, training could be defined as ‘playful’ (Storm et al., 2012). This is because the athletes in this study reported that while training was structured and organised by adults, it was socially oriented and fun.
The opportunity to engage in deliberate play in enjoyable physical activities (e.g., backyard games, bike riding and free play) and a variety of sports fostered intrinsic motivation and promoted early skill acquisition which was an important factor in the successful long-term development of the elite athletes (Baker & Cote, 2006; Côté et al., 2009; Côté & Erickson,
2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Most athletes commenced more regular training (2-3 times/week) in T&F during the specialising stage (13-15 years), while continuing to train and participate in other sports. Training loads were moderate in both volume and intensity, progressively increasing in T&F and decreasing in other sports as they moved to the investment years
(ages 16-19). For example during the specialising stage athletes averaged about five hours/week training in other sports, but by the investment phase this had reduced to three hours/week. However, compared to similar aged athletes in other sports, training volumes in T&F were still moderate. Maffulli and colleagues (1994) study of training in elite juniors revealed tennis players, swimmers and gymnasts trained between nine and
17 hours/week during the specialising and investment phase. During the same stages of development athletes in this study trained between five and eight hours/week
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT respectively, which enabled continued involvement in other sports during the specialising and investment stages. Diversification of sport participation during the specialising/investment stages enhanced the development of all round physical capacities (e.g., endurance, speed, power and strength) and a range of skills (e.g., balance, co-ordination and spatial awareness), as well as reducing the risk of burn out and overuse injuries associated with single sport focus (Côté et al., 2009; Difori et al.,
2014; Huxley et al., 2014). Athletes and coaches in the present study acknowledged early diversification as contributing factors integral to their future success as world class performers. This finding is consistent with the early training practices of successful senior athletes in a range of other sports including team ball sports, triathlon and several
Olympic sports (Baker et al., 2003; Baker et al., 2005; Barreiros et al., 2013).
While most athletes were training specifically for T&F during the specialising and investment stages, very few were totally focussed or committed exclusively to T&F training (or their main event as a senior elite athlete) until later in the investment stage
(aged 16-19 years). Importantly, the athletes and coaches in the present study emphasised that training within a discipline (i.e., sprints, jumps, throws), rather than a single event focus (e.g., high jump, shot put or the 400m), was important for long term success. By training within a discipline (e.g. jumps or throws) during the specialising and early investment stage, athletes were able to develop the physical, cognitive and emotional skills before making an informed decision in relation to fully committing to
T&F, and a specific event. This reflects Côté and Erickson’s (2015) concept of diversification/sampling whereby an athlete can specialise in a sport specific domain and sample though different experiences of the same sport domain. It has proven to be a successful pathway within this sample of elite T&F athletes and in other sport contexts like soccer in England (Ford et al., 2009) and Switzerland (Sieghartsleitner et al., 2018).
Overall, these findings confirm that the majority of athletes were late specialisers and
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT strengthens the argument for late specialisation in T&F. This is because specialised training commenced during late adolescence rather than earlier in the athletes T&F careers, which led to long term commitment and success at the elite senior level in the sport. Furthermore, these findings provide additional support for postulate 7 of the
DMSP which states that adolescents (by 16 yrs) have developed the physical, cognitive, social, emotional and motor skills required for investment in specialised sport training.
Regular competition in T&F for the majority of athletes in this study commenced during the sampling and specialising stages. Approximately 40% of all the athletes participated in Little Athletics during the sampling stage where they experienced their first
T&F competition in various running, jumping and throwing events. Athletes enjoyed the challenge and excitement of these competitions, and when coupled with success, this enhanced their perceived competence, which motivated them to continue in the sport (Duda
2001; Holt & Harris, 2002; Ntoumanis, Vazou, & Duda 2007). During the specialising stage, there was an increased commitment to competition, with athletes now participating in a variety of competitions (LAs, school, state and national level). While success again contributed to their enjoyment and perceived competence, the thrill, stimulus and challenge of multiple competitions was a strong motivating force driving athletes towards achieving success during the investment stage. This contrasts previous research that early involvement in too much competition can contribute to an early exit by many young talented athletes from the sport due to increased anxiety, decreased self-esteem (Horn and Harris, 2002), and early burn out (Brenner, 2007; Capranica & Millard-Stafford, 2011; Difori, 2010). The coaches agreed with previous literature, specifically in relation to LAs competitions because they perceived there was too much emphasis on winning, which encouraged early specialisation and inappropriate training principles and practices by some coaches. Coaches based their views (contrary to the athlete views) on their observations and experiences over many years in respect to the number of talented LAs athletes who did not go onto be successful senior
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT athletes. However, as the LAs athletes in this study did enjoy senior success it further strengthens the argument that competition in the right context can be enjoyable and beneficial to elite athlete development.
Given that achieving good results in T&F was the biggest influence for the majority of athletes continuing in the sport, an environment focussed on competition and winning was an important and positive factor in their development. This confers with previous literature in a range of sports including T&F (Cervello et al., 2007; Macphail et al., 2003; Whitehead,
Andree, & Lee, 2004) and Judo (Le bars et al., 2009), which found that when some talented young athletes feel more capable than others, they find competitive parameters more motivating. Based on the findings of the present study, a high ego orientation (i.e., focussed on competition and winning, Ames, 1992) was the young athletes’ natural disposition, which is a characteristic commonly associated with elite senior athletes (Lemyre, Hall, & Roberts,
2008; Pensgaard & Roberts, 2000, 2002). In addition, the present sample of T&F athletes believed that their ‘formal competition’ experience during childhood and early adolescence were well-structured and regulated. As such, their positive early sporting experiences in T&F, together with the athletes’ ego-oriented personality, were key motivational factors in their long-term participation in elite T&F.
During the investment phase (16-19 years), the athletes in this study were exposed to progressively higher levels of competition at the junior and senior national level, with one third of the athletes experiencing their first international competitions during this time. Irrespective of performance results, the interviews with athletes revealed that these international experiences were critical learning opportunities and beneficial to their success as a senior elite athlete. Experiencing the excitement of a global international competition enabled athletes to test and measure their progress and skills against the best junior athletes in the world. In turn, understanding they had the talent to match their international competitors gave them added confidence, and fuelled
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT the athletes’ passion and love of competition and galvanised their focus and resolve to become elite senior athletes. An additional important finding was that almost half (46%) of the athletes in this study who medalled or achieved a top 8 position at the junior international level of competition, achieved similar results at the senior global level (OG and/or WC). This is consistent with previous research in combat sports (Li et al., 2018) and T&F (Hume & Hollings, 2011; Scholz, 2006; Zelichenok, 2005), further confirming the value of high level junior international competition experiences as preparation for senior global competitions (OG/WC).
While participating and/or achieving a top 8 placing at the World Junior T&F championships proved to be an important stepping stone to the future success of some athletes, two thirds of athletes in this study did not participate at the junior international level. Similar to previous research, this confirms that participation at the junior international level is not a prerequisite for attaining senior international representation
(Hollings & Hume, 2011; Güllich & Emrich, 2006). However, most athletes (70%) did participate in ‘second tier’ senior international competitions (e.g., Commonwealth
Games, World Student Games), which were important stepping stone competitions and learning opportunities in preparation for the ‘big stage’ (Olympic and World T&F
Championships). These findings demonstrate the benefit of providing high level support and opportunities to participate regularly in senior elite competitions to bridge the gap between elite junior and global senior competitions (OG/WC).
In summary, the findings in this study demonstrate that the cumulative effects of the proximal processes (e.g., physical, technical, and physiological aspects of the athlete’s training) together with the characteristics of the athletes (e.g., physical ability, desire to win) and the environment (e.g., stimulating and progressively more elite competitions) were powerful driving influences contributing to the long-term success of elite Australian T&F athletes.
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8.4. Persons
The individual characteristics of the athletes in this study, in conjunction with proximal processes and the environment at varying levels, also influenced their trajectory to elite senior level in T&F. According to Bronfenbrenner (1989, 1995), there are three types of personal characteristics that influence development – force, resource, and demand. Force characteristics, such as an individual’s motivation to engage in an activity, are powerful behavioural characteristics because they can set the proximal processes (e.g., training and competition) in motion and either continually sustain or actively impede or prevent their occurrence (Aruajo & Davids, 2009). Athletes in this study were motivated to participate in T&F from sampling through to the investment stage because of their love for, and enjoyment of, T&F. Ultimately, when athletes engage in sport for self-determined reasons such as passion and enjoyment, they enjoy more positive experiences and show greater persistence (Vallerand & Losier, 1999), as was the case for athletes this study.
Resource characteristics are the biopsychosocial factors (e.g., natural physical talent, ability to focus) together with physical resources (e.g., geographical location and access to facilities) which influence the development of a person, and can be developed from past experiences, and depending on the context, be both an asset and liability
(Bronfenbrenner, 1995). It was evident that the elite Australian T&F athletes in the present study had certain physical, mental, and genetic attributes which influenced their capacity to engage effectively in the proximal processes of sport and T&F training.
These attributes were further developed and enhanced by resources, such as good training facilities, geographical location and educational opportunities. Athletes reported low injuries rates throughout their specialising and investment stages, which was partly attributed to sound biomechanics, a physical asset which enabled athletes to cope with
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT the increasing training loads and demands required to progress to elite senior levels.
Athletes possessed psychological or behavioural traits such as being determined, committed and goal oriented, which have been identified as important characteristics for enhancing confidence, self-belief and contributing to success (Holt & Dunn, 2004:
Larsen et al., 2012; Gould et al., 2002; Vernacchia et al., 2000). The findings from the present study indicated that parents and coaches helped athletes develop these important traits over time by creating supportive social environments. In turn, the interaction between the athlete’s personal characteristics and their environment assisted athletes in developing coping skills and mental strategies. Similar to athlete career transition models (Stambulova, 1994, 2003; Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004), these skills helped athletes deal with various setbacks and challenges, thus facilitating a successful transition through different stages of development.
Parents further enhanced these personal assets by providing physical resources
(e.g., financing trips to state, national and international competitions and medical costs), that were pivotal to successful athlete development. These findings corroborate a substantial body of research across a range of sports and countries of the importance in elite athlete development of tangible parental support (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006;
Vanden Auweele et al, 2004), as well as the geographical location where an athlete grows up (Baker et al., 2009; Pennell, Cassidy, & Gilbert, 2017).
Two thirds of the athletes in this study spent their development years (childhood- mid adolescence) in major cities (Melbourne and Sydney) and depending on the age of study participants, the average populations varied between 1.5 to 5 million (Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2008). While this finding differs from previous studies that found elite athletes were less likely to come from very small towns or large cities (Cote et al.,
2006; MacDonald, Cheung et al., 2009a; MacDonald, King et al., 2009b), it is not surprising that a high percentage of the Australian athletes grew up in large cities.
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Access to specialist T&F resources (e.g., safe throwing facilities, jumping surfaces and equipment), especially during the investment stage was necessary for the success of athletes in these events. Although many of the athletes in the study were sprinters and endurance athletes with less specialist needs, having competitive training squads, as highlighted by athletes and coaches was instrumental to their success. Having access to equipment and human resources (e.g., more specialist coaches and larger training squads), more prevalent in major cities, may have been advantageous for long term elite athlete development. Given the significant body of research related to birthplace effect has focused on team sports in North America and European countries (Baker et al.,
2009; Lidor et al., 2010; Macdonald, King at al., 2009b), this finding contributes some valuable sport specific insight into the birthplace effect and elite T&F athlete development.
Demand characteristics are defined as those that either encourage or discourage reactions from the environment, consequently enhancing or impeding developmental outcomes (Bronfenbrenner, 1989; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). In the present study, the athletes’ demand characteristics, such as physical and psychological attributes, and subsequent reaction from the environment (e.g., coaches and parents), positively and negatively influenced developmental outcomes. This was demonstrated by coaches recognising athletes’ physical and psychological attributes and responding appropriately by tailoring training programs to optimise individual athlete outcomes.
For example, prescribing a different training load for an athlete with a natural physical hardiness (e.g., sound biomechanics) as compared to a less physically robust athlete.
Additionally, aiding the athletes’ development was the ability of coaches to recognise some athletes had more “natural” psychological ‘demand’ characteristics enabling them to cope better with competition pressure and stress, while others needed additional support to enhance developmental outcomes. Alternatively, some athletes were pushed
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT by their coaches and entered into competitions before they were mentally and physically prepared based on the coaches perception of their natural talent and athletic ability. In these situations this led to injury, disappointing performances, decreased confidence, and temporary withdrawal from the sport. Although this resulted in negative outcomes at the time, athletes reported these experiences as helping to develop the resilience and mental toughness required to continue in the sport and compete at the highest global level. Previous studies of elite athletes confirm experiencing adversity provides the opportunity to learn important coping skills and strategies that enhanced their future performances (Collins & McNamara, 2012; Martindale et al., 2005). This also augments the proposition that experiencing adversity or career major setbacks is beneficial to an athlete’s long term career, provided they have appropriate personal resources (e.g., determination, commitment and persistence) and psychosocial support (Galli & Vealey,
2008; Galli & Reel, 2012; Howells & Fletcher, 2015; Sarkar, Fletcher & Brown, 2015).
In summary, the findings from the present research confirm that the personal attributes of athletes, some innate and some that developed over time, were dynamic forces acting as important vectors in their development and success. While these characteristics enabled athletes to engage effectively in the proximal processes (training and competition), the positive influence and interaction with parents, coaches and significant others further enhanced their successful development. These contextual factors are discussed in the next section.
8.5 Context
The environmental context in which a person develops can define their role and, to some extent, their opportunities in society (Bronfenbrenner &Morris, 1998). Within this context various factors such as proximal processes (e.g., training and other developmental activities), physical features, events and people can interact at multiple
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT levels (micro, meso, exo, and macro) to influence an individual’s development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The most influential people for these elite Australian T&F athletes are their parents, coaches and peers. Therefore this section will focus on the reciprocal interactional relationships at the micro-level. However, the sport system
(encompassing Athletics Australia [AA], State Associations, Little Athletics [LAs) and various Sports Institutes), is also part of the context influencing athlete development, and will also be discussed in this section.
8.5.1 Parents (and families)
Evidence from the athletes in this project demonstrated that families, especially parents, have a considerable influence on their initial involvement and ongoing motivation to participate in T&F. According to Bronfenbrenner (1995, p 638), ‘the belief systems of significant others can function as instigators and maintainers of reciprocal interaction with the developing person’. The power of the proximal processes, in this case parent-child interaction at the micro-level, varied as a function of the environment (i.e., socioeconomic status, geographical location) and characteristics of the person (i.e., physical and psychological attributes) over time. During the sampling and specialising years, parents played an important leadership role and were a key factor in the early development of the elite athletes. They fostered family participation and the opportunities to sample a range of sports, as well as being active role models (as a sporting participant or coach/administrator) creating a positive sporting environment. Parental encouragement to be physically active (proximal process) promoted deliberate play and diversification of sporting interests over early specialisation. These positive parental interactions influenced athletes’ perceptions of physical competency and created a healthy emotional identity that was important for their children’s ongoing enjoyment and commitment to T&F participation. In addition, the parent’s financial status and family location was important in the athlete’s ongoing
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT development, as parents in this study were able to provide tangible support (finance & transport) enabling access to good coaching, training, competition and medical support needed to reach and maintain elite level performances.
Parents formed strong positive bonds by maintaining emotionally intelligent parenting (Harwood & Knight, 2015) throughout the athlete’s developmental years.
This was demonstrated by their ability to select and direct stage appropriate opportunities (in line with the DMSP; Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007), as well as providing the correct balance of involvement, guidance and emotional support commensurate with the different stages of their athletic careers. This guidance and unconditional emotional support resulted in the development of close and trusting relationships with their parents which was instrumental in helping athletes successfully negotiate setbacks and adversity, make decisions and find an optimal balance with other aspects of their life. It is also likely that the parents’ encouragement to focus on a variety of sports, and facets of their lives apart from T&F, ensured that the athletes in this study developed an expanded self-identity rather than the one dimensional athlete identity associated with negative outcomes such as burnout (Coakley, 1992: Gustafsson et al., 2008).
Ultimately, the findings from the present research confirms the need for parents to be educated in relation to helping their adolescents successfully negotiate the critical sporting and non-sporting challenges associated with moving from elite junior to elite senior levels. They confirm that athletes require encouragement, sound guidance, lack of parental pressure, and the avoidance of ‘coaching’ or negative responses to poor performances, together with ongoing tangible support so as to facilitate long-term success in elite track and field contexts. These findings therefore build on previous career transition studies within T&F, which emphasised that without strong parental support, high attrition rates occurred when athletes transitioned from elite junior to elite
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT senior ranks (Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Hollings et al., 2014).
8.5.2. Coaches
The findings from the present study revealed that access to well qualified coaches throughout all stages of development was pivotal in the elite athletes’ success.
Athlete interviews indicated the developmental influence of coaches during the sampling stage was in line with the DMSP (Côté 1999; Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007).
Athletes recalled coaches (at LAs) creating a fun and welcoming environment with a focus on learning the fundamental movements and basic elements of running, jumping and throwing in a T&F context. This is important because although the athletes in this study enjoyed competition during LAs, this was balanced with coaches creating a positive training environment, which has previously proven to be conducive to the development of younger elite athletes (Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2006; Le Bars et al.,
2009). Although coaches in the present study believed some LAs coaches adopted an early specialisation approach, no athletes recalled experiencing highly structured
‘deliberate practice’ type activities. Even the few athletes who preferred a more structured training approach (e.g. sprint repetitions), over a games-based/informal structure, still viewed training as fun. This illustrates the importance, even at a younger age, of the coach understanding individual athlete needs and personality disposition.
During the specialising and investment stages, the coaches’ influence became more important. As recommended in the DMSP (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007), coaches demonstrated stage specific knowledge for balancing the ratio of deliberate play with deliberate practice, as well as understanding both the physical and psychosocial benefits of maintaining involvement in other sports, especially during the specialising stage. This ensured ongoing opportunities for the intrinsic enjoyment of sport participation, developed earlier in the sampling stage. As athletes moved through the specialising and investment stages coaches focused more on developing sport-
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT specific skills and preparing athletes for competition. This provided opportunities for athletes to test and measure their progress and develop important competitive skills and strategies (e.g., goal setting, visualisation and ability to focus), which further enhanced their confidence and self-belief. The quality and appropriateness of the coaching athletes received throughout their careers reflects many elements of coaching expertise and excellence instrumental to elite athlete development (Côté at al., 2007).
Although injury rates in T&F are very high and a major reason for drop out from
T&F (Bussman & Alfermann, 1994; Enoksen, 2011; Huxley et al., 2014), athletes reported lower rates of injuries during the specialising and investment stages. This can be attributed to the coaches’ knowledge and ability to design and tailor incremental and moderate training loads, which resulted in a safe and productive progression for athletes from their initial involvement through to the end of the investment stage. The coaches’ level of knowledge was fundamental to the long-term development of the elite athletes in this study because it enabled them to understand individual needs and prepare athletes both physically and psychosocially in the specific coaching context. Based on results from both athletes and coaches a combination of a University degree, the highest
AA coaching accreditation levels (IV & V), and for some, past experience as a national or international athlete contributed to coaches’ overall knowledge and their ability to successfully develop elite Australian athletes. At the meso-level of interaction, several coaches also acknowledged the developmental benefits for both athletes and coaches when coaches work together combining and sharing knowledge. Athletes benefitted from a wider range of coach knowledge and experience and coaches were provided with mentoring opportunities with more experienced and knowledgeable coaches. This supports a very strong body of literature in relation to effectiveness of informal coach education methods such as mentoring and coach collaboration (Cote et al., 2007; Koh et al., 2014; Lara-Bercial & Mallet, 2016; Mesquita et al., 2010; Rynne et al., 2006).
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Another important finding from athlete and coach interviews was the strong influence coaches had in shaping the psychological wellbeing of athletes. Athlete interviews revealed that coaches facilitated a gradual acquisition of psychological skills and mental attributes in an informal manner through day to day training. This, in conjunction with the coaches’ emotional intelligence, ensured that athletes received appropriate feedback (e.g. giving praise or space after a disappointing performance) which helped develop confidence, trust mutual respect, and a strong coach-athlete relationship. Furthermore, coaches accommodated athlete’s needs in relation to participation in other sports and not pushing them to commit until they were mentally ready. This supported the parents’ stance in relation to athlete’s involvement in a range of sports and other life pursuits, and also helped athletes develop a holistic self-identity and strengthened coach-athlete relationships. Finally, the positive coach-athlete relationships evident in this study also promoted intrinsic motivation, responsibility, and the ability to self-regulate, all of which are important traits that have been associated with successful development and transitioning of athletes through to elite senior levels
(Hollings et al., 2014; Jonker et al., 2010; Mallet & Hanrahan, 2004; Toering et al.,
2009). This extends previous literature which highlighted the importance of a positive coach-athlete relationship to elite athlete development (Hemery, 1986; Jowett &
Cockerill, 2003; Jowett et al., 2005).
In summary, the coaches’ high educational level, knowledge and practical experience enabled them to understand and respond appropriately to individual needs
(physically, psychologically and emotionally). Over time the bi-directional influences at the micro-level between the athletes and coaches were instrumental in the development of the elite athletes in this study throughout their whole career. This highlights the importance of Athletics Australia’s providing a quality Coach Education program from
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8.5.3. Peers
One of the most interesting findings from the present study indicated that peer support became more important during the investment stage. Athletes indicated as they got older, friendships formed with T&F peers who shared a similar focus and goals were important for providing support and understanding. In particular, spending time together at training camps and national and international competitions was instrumental because it provided the opportunity to socialise, be motivated by, and learn from other like-minded athletes. These findings mirror the experiences of elite junior swimmers
(Johnson et al., 2008) equestrian riders (Pummell et al., 2008) and T&F athletes
(Henriksen et al., 2011; Hollings et al, 2014), confirming the importance of sporting peers, especially during adolescence and the junior to senior transition.
Coaches also confirmed the support, guidance, and nurturing of younger athletes by older athlete roles models was instrumental in an athlete’s ongoing development. As well as motivating, educating and encouraging younger athletes, senior role models were often a sounding board or confidant for younger athletes when dealing with issues and challenges. Coaches believed this was important because not all athletes feel comfortable talking to the coach, so having senior athletes who could help nurture and provide empathetic understanding was important for the younger athletes’ wellbeing and long-term development. These findings reinforce the results from previous studies of elite athletes who were undergoing transition from elite junior to senior careers
(Bennie & O’Connor, 2006; Kim et al., 2016: MacNamara & Collins, 2011) by demonstrating how role models were instrumental to maintaining long term participation in elite T&F.
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8.5.4. The Sport System
In the present study, at the exo-level of influence, the support from the National and State Sports Institutes was pivotal to elite success because it provided the financial and medical support needed to transition from elite junior to senior status in T&F competition. While some studies have reported system support as important to elite athlete development (Duffy et al, 2006; Synder, 2014), an extensive study involving
German athletes, found sport science system neither enhanced or hindered the athletes’ success (Güllich & Emrich, 2012). Given the small number of athletes in the qualitative studies of this thesis, more research is needed to draw a definitive conclusion in relation to the benefits of Australian Sporting Institutes’ support for elite athletes.
In relation to athlete support, coaches were sceptical of the effectiveness of
Athletics Australia’s Target Development Programs for junior athletes. This is because they believed that athletes were selected based largely on “one–off” performances at the
National Championships, which takes place once a year. Coaches felt this small ‘talent identification’ window of opportunity meant many potential athletes missed out because of variations in an athlete’s physical and psychological development, or readiness at a specific point in time. This view is supported by previous research highlighting the inadequacies of basing talent identification on performances of young athletes at a time when individual timing and rate of maturation is normally associated with unstable development (Abbott, Button, Pepping & Collins, 2005; Lidor et al., 2009; Martindale,
Collins & Daubney, 2005). Many athletes and coaches highlighted the importance of talent camps in providing social, educational and training opportunities instrumental in their athlete development and success. Therefore, it may be prudent for AA to include more regular camps (currently only once or twice a year for squad members) for both squad and non-squad members to provide opportunities for a greater number of developing athletes.
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From a broader perspective, many coaches were critical of several key aspects of the Australian T&F sport system they felt hindered elite athlete development. Firstly, coaches strongly believed LAs should come under the governance of AA to establish an explicit pathway to senior level for better retention, previously proven to be successful in other sports (Mills et al., 2012; Henriksen et al., 2010b, 2011) and T&F (Henriksen et al., 2010a; Macphail et al., 2003). Additionally, coaches were critical of the inadequate level of coach education, especially at the crucial developmental level (latter stages of sampling/early specialising stage), which they felt was exacerbated by the results driven nature of the sport. While athlete interviews indicated most athletes had good coaching throughout the sampling and specialising stages of their development, elite coaches in this study witnessed many young talented athletes who failed to succeed due to poor coaching during these important foundational years. Given the strong recognition in
Australian T&F that talented juniors are the future of the sport, a greater focus should be placed on educating coaches to facilitate the successful transition of athletes from sampling and/or specialising through to the investment stage.
Both athlete and coach interviews highlighted the importance of psychological skills and mental resilience to succeed at the elite level. However, it appears that skills were either innate, developed though experiencing adversity (e.g., injury, non-selection) or informally through coach and or parent interactions and instruction. Based on these results and the fact that psychological traits can differentiate between athletes at both the elite junior and senior level (Gould et al., 1999; Toering et al., 2009), it would be useful for AA to provide more education for coaches in this area. Additionally, this education should be provided to talented junior athletes (and parents) through the camp and talent squad programs because teaching psychological skills and coping strategies at this stage can help prepare athletes for the greater psychological demands of elite senior
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT competition (MacNamara & Collins, 2010; MacNamara et al., 2010a; Nicholls &
Polman, 2007).
In summary, athletes were supported in their development by a range of contextual variables (parents, coaches, peers and the sport system), who provided a rich microsystem of knowledge and information in a supportive environment. The combination of these influences, together with their training and competition experiences (in T&F and other sports) generated powerful proximal processes which led to their eventual success as elite senior athletes
8.6 Time
The bioecological model specifies three aspects of time in relation to the effectiveness of the proximal processes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). First, these processes (e.g., training and competition) must occur on a fairly regular basis, secondly, they must occur over a long enough time to be effective; and finally, the historical time period in which they occur can also shape the proximal processes. Accordingly,
Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) classified time at three successive levels, micro-time, meso-time and macro-time. From the perspective of this study, micro-time refers to the regularity/irregularity of day to day training sessions, with meso-time incorporating the accumulated training over weeks, months, seasons and years. At the macro-level, given that athletes in this study participated between 1956 and 2013, time refers to the changing expectations and events in the larger society and across generations that may have affected developmental processes (e.g., government sports funding, competition opportunities).
As illustrated by results from the quantitative study, and in line with the temporal perspective of the PPCT model, the proximal processes (training activities) of athletes occurred on a regular basis, progressing incrementally overtime (e.g. in terms of
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT frequency, an average of 1-2 sessions per week during sampling to 4-6 sessions at the end of the investment stage). For further information on training over time please refer back to (processes (section 8.3).
In addition, not only do the proximal processes (i.e., training) have to be habitual, they must also occur over a long enough time to be developmentally effective
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). Supporting the view that achieving expertise takes a minimum of 10 years or 10000 hours (Ericsson et al., 1993), findings from the present study indicate that athletes took 9.96 years (± 4.87) from commencing training to making their first senior international team and closer to 12 years to make an Olympic
Team. Although research has revealed that athletes in a range of sports (e.g. team and individual sports such as basketball, cricket, swimming and wrestling) required considerably less sport-specific training hours to achieve expertise (Baker et al., 2003;
Helsen et al., 1998; Johnson et al., 2006), this was not the case for T&F athletes in
Australia. Some studies have suggested that athletes can bring transferable skills from other sports which can drastically reduce the time to expertise (Baker et al., 2003;
Gulbin, 2008; Vaeyens et al., 2009). This was not applicable to this context as very few transferred to athletics at an older age as almost all survey participants started training and competing in athletics (outside school) between ages 12-13 years. This further suggests many hours and years of consistent, gradual and stage appropriate training was required to achieve elite status as a T&F athlete.
The era in which athletes participated also had the potential to influence athletes’ development. For example, some athletes who were competing prior to the 1980s and
1990s (pre 1963 birth year) may have been disadvantaged, compared to those competing after 1990 when government funding for elite sport in Australia became available (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009). However, the athlete surveys revealed that there were no significant ‘between groups’ differences, highlighting that the era of
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT participation was not a major influence in the final outcome (i.e. participation at the highest level in T&F). Although athletes followed six different pathways to global competition level (OG/ WC), all followed a linear pathway with the majority commencing this pathway during the sampling and specialising phase. This differs from research examining a variety of sports that reported the path to excellence is more varied and complex (Abbott et al., 2005), however it confers with the view that linear development is common in ‘cgs’ sports (measured in centimetres, grams, or seconds) because of the greater focus on physical capabilities than technical/tactical skills
(Gulbin et al., 2013b; Moesch et al., 2011). Given athletes across all eras progressed via the traditional linear pyramid model, the results strongly support this pathway as very effective in the Australian context. It is proposed that this linear pathway with a gradual progression from junior to senior status enabled athletes to maintain participation in a range of sports, thus contributing to their success at the elite level.
8.7 Practical implications
The findings from this thesis highlight the key influences in the development of elite T&F athletes in Australia. However, due to the specific high performing population sampled, the findings derived should not be considered as definitive or generalisable to other sporting populations or cultures. The holistic Bioecological model assisted with framing the practical implications of this study for various stakeholders involved with the development of elite Australian T&F athletes. As such, the implications extend beyond the physical aspects of training and competition (process) to the wider environmental influences of parents, peers, coaches and the sporting system (context) over time. The application of these findings aims to assist young Australian athletes with the aspiration and talent to reach the highest level of T&F, as well as the coaches who work with these athletes. Being the first of its kind in Australian T&F, the study
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT provides some valuable information and applicability for the development and implementation of policies and practice for Athletics Australia’s (AA).
8.7.1 Diversification and late specialisation
The results from this study were conclusive in relation to the early specialisation versus late specialisation viewpoint for elite athlete development in T&F. The majority of athletes had diverse sporting experiences during the sampling years and did not specialise in T&F until late in the investment stage (17-19 years). In fact, most combined various sports with their T&F participation right up until the point of specialisation in their chosen event during this latter part of the investment stage. This has important implications for coaches and parents who can ensure that their athletes/children have the opportunity to be involved in a variety of sports throughout adolescence. It also highlights that training and competition loads need to be appropriate and delivered by well qualified coaches who understand long term development rather than focusing on early success. This also has implications for the various independent bodies who run multiple competitions for junior athletes during their primary (5-12 years) and secondary school years (13-18 years). The International Olympic Committee consensus recommends young athletes (<15 years) have a break away from competition and training each year (Bergeron et al, 2015), yet many young T&F athletes compete almost all year round in competitions run by LAs, AA and School Associations.
Collaboration between these bodies is needed to ensure competition formats and settings are age and skill appropriate with appropriate rest and recovery between multiple competitions.
8.7.2. Early competition
The early competition experiences of LAs participants in this thesis has some practical implications for parents, coaches and administrators involved in LAs. The elite athletes in this study who participated in LAs (between ages 5 and12 years) reported
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT enjoying the competition aspect of LAs. However, the main emphasis for these athletes was on having fun and experiencing a range of different T&F events with minimal focus on training or winning. Developing domain specific learning of the fundamental skills and techniques in running, jumping and throwing, in a social stimulating environment, provided a great start to the sport for these athletes. This aligns with the main focus currently promoted by LAs on family, fun and fitness. However, in reality the current LAs format also has a strong emphasis on competition from a very young age (8 years). Young athletes must win at the club level to be able to progress to the next levels (zone and region), and if good enough through to state and national level competitions. This may account for the loss of many athletes from the sport each year as only a few athletes can be selected to compete at each level of competition (i.e., zone, region, state and national). Additionally, the focus on competition can lead to over training and injuries and further attrition from the sport, a factor several coaches believed contributed to loss of athletes from the sport at this age. Based on both athletes
(LAs participants) and coaches in this study it may be prudent for the organisers of LAs to consider changing the current results driven format and shifting the focus to process rather than outcome based.
8.7.3 Coaches
A key finding in this study was the importance of quality coaching throughout the athletes’ career, from the beginning of their involvement (e.g., LAs) through to their senior years. Accordingly, it is imperative that coaches have access to quality coach education to ensure they are adequately qualified for the context in which they coach.
The majority of coaches involved with athletes during the sampling and early specialising years are usually volunteers with the basic levels in coaching qualifications and specific T&F knowledge. Therefore, it is unrealistic to expect a coach working at the LAs level will have the expertise, knowledge, time and finances to significantly
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT invest in the development of an athlete from childhood/early adolescence through to elite senior level. Given the majority of athletes involved in T&F in Australia are under
15 years with approximately 100,000 participating in LAs, it is important for Little
Athletics coaches to be well educated. Therefore, there is a need for the governing bodies of both AA and LAs to assist coaches working with children and early adolescents to have better access to coaching knowledge targeted at participation rather than performance level. This would involve learning how to provide opportunities for young athletes to engage in games based activities that develop fundamental movement rather than the acquisition of sport specific skills.
In relation to developing more coaches at the junior and senior elite level, it would be advisable for AA to make greater use of the current group of highly qualified and experienced coaches. The coaches in this study had coached close to 300 athletes to junior and senior international teams in all disciplines of the sport (T&F, Cross-Country and Road) over a 10-45 year period. Collectively these coaches have a wealth of knowledge which many have and do share with others in an informal way, however, there is no formal mechanism or pathway for coaches to disseminate or share their knowledge. One important finding from the coaching chapter in thesis related to the perceived benefit of ‘team coaching’, where coaches bring together their individual training squads to train as a group. The coaches believed this benefitted their athletes through the pooling of coach knowledge and opportunities to mentor or be mentored (as an athlete or coach). It would therefore be prudent for Athletics Australia to capitalise on this coaching expertise and knowledge by employing these coaches to provide practical coach education, such as mentoring to less experienced coaches. However, to do this the sport would need to invest funds into training mentor coaches systematically with a standardised and empirically developed program.
Another important practical implication for coaches relates to the training squad
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT environment, as both coaches and athletes highlighted the importance of the training environment the coach created, in the success of athletes. While having good training partners was essential for the day to day physical training, just as significant to athlete success, was creating a cohesive and supportive training squad in which athletes felt a sense of belonging, had opportunities to socialise, and felt cared for by both the coach and other athletes. Therefore, focusing on creating a healthy balance of training, social interaction and support within the training group is important at all levels of the sport.
8.7.4 System support
Given Australia’s small population base and overall poor transition rate from junior to senior levels of the sport, compared to other sports such as cricket, swimming, soccer and netball (AA, 2015) it is important to nurture the talent already in the sport.
Coaches were critical of the current very selective and restrictive talent development programs because they over looked potential talent when athletes did not achieve the arbitrary selection criteria (performance at national championship) at a specific time point in their careers. Based on the scant analysis available, very few U17 AA squad members’ transition to elite seniors (AA, 2015; Bidder, 2013) however, athletes in this thesis recalled the camps they attended through AA and member states had been very educational, enjoyable and motivating. Rather than creating exclusive talent squads, AA could expand their camp program especially for athletes in the investment stage (16-19 years), to include more athletes who are committed and passionate about the sport.
Additionally, extending the number of camps from once or twice a year to four times
(coincide with school holidays) would broaden the base of the talent development pyramid and provide more regular exposure to important education (e.g., injury prevention, sport psychology, recovery) beneficial to long term development. More frequent camps would also provide greater opportunities for young athletes to train and socialise with their peers and meet elite senior mentors and role models, experiences
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT that athletes in this thesis found beneficial to their development as elite athletes.
As well as extending involvement in camps for the 16-19 years age group,
Athletics Australia needs to provide a higher level of support and opportunities for junior athletes who perform well at the WJC. Research indicates athletes who are medallists/finalists at world junior level are more likely to achieve at the senior elite level (Hollings & Hume, 2011; Scholz, 2006). Government funding to AA is largely based on medals and world rankings achieved at both junior and senior international
T&F global (OG/WC) competitions. Therefore providing more support (and opportunities to compete in stepping stone competitions [e.g., Commonwealth games] to junior international medallist/finalists may increase their chances of achieving a similar standard at the global senior level of T&F, and hence secure important funding for the future of the sport.
Another consideration for AA in relation to supporting elite junior athletes who are transitioning to senior levels is providing stronger links with Universities. Based on the quantitative study two thirds of the athletes during this period of development were attending University. As outlined by some coaches, combining study and higher level training at this stage in the athlete’s development often provided more time and flexibility for athletes to train. However, coaches also indicated if athletes were forced to work on top of study and training it was difficult to succeed. It is suggested more support provided by AA (e.g., scholarships) as well as closer collaboration with
Universities may help more talented junior athletes transition successfully at the elite senior levels, while at University.
8.7.5 Role models
The results of this study highlighted how important senior athlete role models were in the success of the athletes. For instance, coaches acknowledged the value of having older athletes with good leadership skills and empathy in the training squads
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT because they could communicate important messages with younger athletes, lead by example and provide additional nurturing of younger athletes. This highlights the importance of the athlete mentoring role and could benefit more athletes if the current
Athletics International program that provides mentors for a small number of athletes was extended to more junior athletes. Athletics Australia may also consider bringing back and extending the Big Sister program (which linked senior mentors with female elite junior distance athletes) to include all athletes and all events.
Another important finding revealed that parents of the successful athletes in chapter
6 demonstrated ‘sporting parent expertise’ (ability to adapt parenting styles to the athlete’s stage specific needs), which has been recognised as very effective in elite youth sporting development (Harwood & Knight, 2015). This suggests parents of successful elite athletes are a potentially valuable untapped resource of knowledge and experience that could be utilised for the benefit of ‘new’ parents of elite athletes.
Therefore, it is highly recommended that education workshops and camps provided for selected junior (aged 16-19 years) and emerging squad (aged 19-22 years) athletes include their parents. Parents of past and current elite senior athletes could then be invited to share their knowledge and experience in relation to effective parenting of elite athletes. For example, parents may share their perspectives related to when to provide feedback and advice, and respecting the coach-athlete relationship and boundaries.
Additionally, sharing experiences in relation to managing their own emotions in relation to disappointments (e.g., poor performances or serious injuries) and how best to provide the support and guidance needed by their child/adolescent during the difficult transition periods would be insightful for all parents.
8.7.6 Psychological skills training
The demands, stresses and expectations for athletes in the high performance domain are significant. Competing at the elite level brings with it extreme performance
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT pressures and other stressors such as travelling and dealing with life away from localised support networks. The emotional response to these demands, especially at the junior level, require a clear understanding of psychological support strategies for the athletes, coaches, managers, peers, and parents. In fact, research shows that at the elite level of sport, psychological skills can differentiate between athletes of the same physical abilities (Boes et al., 2014; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 1999).
This thesis revealed most athletes were well prepared physically for training and competitions and were very well supported by effective social networks (coaches, families and peers). However, the development of the psychological skills needed at the elite level appeared more of an incidental rather than structured process. As such, this highlights the need for athletes to develop coping skills and strategies during their early elite sporting years, to ensure they have the necessary skills when they participate in elite junior and senior levels of competition. There is a clear opportunity for Athletics
Australia to implement a psychological skills training program as part of their Target
Talent program for athletes as well as providing more coach education in this area. It would also be prudent to provide more access to sport psychologists, especially at camps and major competitions to help support both athletes and coaches.
8.8 Strengths and Limitations
8.8.1 Strengths
This thesis had several strengths in relation to its uniqueness and methodology.
This was the first study of its kind in Australian Track and Field involving a very elite sample of athletes and coaches across several decades in Australia’s T&F history. The knowledge and insight gained in relation to the key factors influential in the athletes’ development, makes a valuable contribution to the sporting expertise literature and to government and policy makers involved in high performance sport. At the T&F ‘coal
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT face’ in Australia and internationally, these findings provide some concrete evidence for aspiring athletes, their coaches and parents, to help guide, motivate and develop future generations of elite T&F athletes.
The mixed method sequential design of this study promoted a more extensive understanding of the phenomenon which could not be obtained through a sole quantitative or qualitative approach. The questionnaire used was very extensive and well validated, capturing a wide range of information from 73 athletes competing over several decades. Much of the previous literature related to athlete development during childhood and adolescence has focused on the sampling and specialising phases, however the athlete interviews allowed a deeper examination of elite development throughout the investment stage. This contributed to the understanding of elite athlete development leading up to the critical junior to senior transition. Knowledge and insights obtained from interview with the elite coaches (collectively coached approximately 300 athletes to international teams over a 10-45 year period), further strengthen this study. Triangulation of data from all three studies provided the opportunity to make inferences and present a much broader and ecologically valid picture of the development history of elite athletes.
8.8.2 Limitations
Despite these strengths there were also some limitations. Although the quantitative study involved an adequate sample size, the recruitment rate was relatively low based on the number of athletes (approximately 500) invited via email to participate. The response rate was affected by several factors, the most significant being the lack of accuracy and or currency of the databases used by Athletics Australia and the Athletics International. In addition, many athletes at the time of data collection were competing at the international level and did not complete the questionnaire perhaps due to training, travel, work and study commitments or lack of relevance to them at the
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Sensitivity of the subject matter, and or the fear of being identified due to the very small and close knit elite athletic population/community may also affected the response rate. Some athletes may have been unwilling to participate or answer truthfully due to more sensitive issues, such as difficult coach-athlete relationships or past negative experiences during their athletic careers. For example, several athletes commented to me in follow up interviews, that had I asked them a few years ago to participate in the study, they would not have been ready to reflect and answer honestly,
Another athlete also commented that initially, they were unable to address the questionnaire because it brought back too many unhappy memories. Reflecting on such an important and often very long part in an athletes’ career where physically, mentally, financially and emotionally the athlete has invested so much may have been a real deterrent to participating in the project. Finally, the length of the survey, and the difficulties for some in accessing and using the online format to answer the questionnaire, were other factors that may have negatively influenced the response rate.
As most of the participants responses (quantitative and qualitative) in this thesis were based on past rather than current experiences, recall bias was a limitation. Recall bias can occur when participants have to recall events retrospectively and depending on the time frame, the recall can be unreliable this affecting the validity and reliability of the information collected (Baker et al., 2005). This was more of a limitation in the quantitative phase as athletes were asked to recall events decades previously. However various methods (e.g., questionnaire included questions based on habitual experiences, verification of competition data), as outlined in Chapter 5 were used to mitigate against the recall bias.
The small sample number used for both athlete and coach interviews may also be considered a methodological limitation, however past research with elite athletes has
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT employed samples between 10-16 (Durand-Bush, 2002; Hollings et al., 2014; Mallett &
Hanrahan, 2004).
Additionally, the lead researcher was the only person involved in the interview process and while it ensured greater consistency in conducting the interviews, there was the potential for subjective bias, especially given my long involvement in elite T&F in
Australia. However, these relationships ended up strengthening the methodological strategies involved in the project by forming close relationships with athletes and coaches. This in turn assisted with recruiting participants, building rapport during interviews and verification of the analysis of data event, though it may have increased the likelihood of bias on the researchers’ part.
8.9 Future research
As outlined in the limitations section the extensive Track and Field Athlete
Development questionnaire provided a wide range of information pertaining to the development histories of the elite athletes, however the length prevented some potential participants taking part in the survey. Future research could target specific areas revealed by athletes as influential in their development. For example, very little formal psychological skills training was provided to athletes in this study, yet psychological skills can differentiate between athlete performances at the elite level. Therefore, future research is needed to understand more about the importance of psychological skills to performance, how they are developed, what type of skills are needed at different stages, and how best to use sport psychology professionals in the development of elite T&F athletes in Australia.
Although this thesis examined the development of elite T&F athletes who participated at the Olympics and or World Championship level, there are many more talented junior and senior athletes who have represented Australia at elite junior levels,
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT and or ‘second tier’ international events (e.g., Commonwealth Games, World Student
Games). However, a more extensive investigation of the development of these athletes was not within the scope of this thesis. More research is therefore needed to understand the reasons why athletes were unable, or chose not to, ‘step up’ to the next elite level. In particular, this research could examine the low transition rate of elite juniors to elite senior ranks (<30%). This research could incorporate an investigation of the effectiveness of AA’s Target Talent program for junior and emerging athletes (19+ years), as well as the key reasons and influences behind the poor retention and/or transition of our talented young athletes. This thesis interviewed a small sample of athletes who did make a successful transition from elite junior to elite senior, however interviewing a larger sample of athletes (and including parents and coaches), who did transition, as well as those who did not, will elicit a more extensive understanding of the issues and challenges associated with this difficult transition.
Another interesting area of future research relating to the transition of elite junior athletes during the investment stage pertains to the increasing number of Australian junior athletes choosing to combine study and T&F in America. As discussed in the practical implications several athletes and coaches in interviews (Chapters 6 and 7) mentioned the difficulties of trying to combine study (and often part-time work) with the training loads required at the elite senior level. This may be one reason why more athletes are choosing to take up T&F scholarships at American universities, where they are able to concentrate solely on study and training. In 2015, Athletics Australia estimated there were 60 Australian T&F athletes on scholarship at American universities (Malone, 2015), and this year (2018), three Australian athletes placed first at the prestigious National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) T&F
Championships; in the men’s and women’s 1500 metres on the track, and in the women’s javelin in the field (NCAA, 2018). Given so many of our talented juniors are
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT spending their junior to senior transition years at American Universities, further research is needed to explore the impact on the development of elite junior athletes who choose this pathway to the top.
8.10. Summary
In this chapter, the Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) has been used as the framework to examine the processes (training and competition), the person (physical and psychological traits, geographical location of development), the context (parents, coaches, peers and the sport system), and the time (training time, chronological time), in relating to the development of Australian Olympic and World championship T&F athletes. The findings support the theoretical concept that the development of these athletes was the joint product of the proximal processes and the influences of the interlinking social systems of the surrounding environment
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
The present study also supports a strong connection between talent development
(specifically the DMSP [Cote & Fraser-Thomas, 2007]) and career transition (e.g.,
Stambulova, 1994, 2003) models, in that the athletes built up their resources (physical, psychological and social) to successfully cope with specific stage development demands and then transition successfully onto the next stage of elite athlete performance in T&F.
The athletes’ physical environment afforded access to recreational and sporting facilities that facilitated the development of the various athletic skills needed for elite sporting development. However, it was the athlete’s social network support and input that ensured the athletes developed the resources needed to cope with demands both inside and outside of T&F. The athletes personal resources (e.g., physical and psychological) capacities were developed by training (primarily through excellent coaches) and competition (provided by state, national and international T&F governing bodies)
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CHAMPION ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT opportunities. During the sampling, specialising and investment stages the training environment allowed room for diversification, deliberate play and deliberate practice, commensurate with tenets of the DMSP. As athletes progressed to elite senior levels the training environment was structured to enable athletes to invest intensely in developing sport specific skills and prepare for major competition.
Athletes’ psychosocial resources were developed by both parents and coaches.
During childhood and the early adolescence parents provided strong leadership and direction, and were the primary influence in helping the athletes develop psychological resources (e.g., confidence, self-belief, commitment and a strong work ethic), beneficial to long term sports participation. As athletes reached late adolescence parents acted more in an advisory role but were instrumental in helping athletes develop the psychological resources (e.g., resilience, perseverance, responsibility) to help athletes balance the demands of study, work, and relationships and importantly deal with setbacks such as injury and missed selection. Coaches were also instrumental in developing psychological resources and shared similar views as parents, as well as the willingness to invest time and effort which further supported the acquisition of certain coping skills and psychological strengths. Training partners and sporting peers were also important in the development of psychological resources. Training with older or more accomplished athletes helped develop resources (e.g., competitiveness, confidence) that were beneficial in dealing with stresses of higher level competitions.
They also provided friendship, support and empathy which helped athletes deal with the competing demands (academic, work and social) of the transition from junior to senior level.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Consent & Track and Field Athlete
Development Questionnaire
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Appendix B: Human Ethics Approval
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Appendix C: Participant Information Sheet
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Appendix D: Sample Interview Schedule (Athletes)
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Appendix E: Sample Interview Schedule (Coaches)
Coach Interview Questions
1. Introductory questions Number of years coaching in athletics Coaching qualifications Training method/techniques, philosophy and style Level of coaching (club, state, national, international) 2. What are your views on age of specialization in T&F? Little Athletics? 3. Transition from junior to senior. What do you believe are the most important factors related to the successful transition for juniors to senior level? Why do some make it and others don’t? 4. Transitions in senior career – what differentiates between elite senior athletes who make one or many teams, make a final, win a medal? 5. What do elite senior athletes need in order to maintain a long career? 6. What common traits do elite junior/senior athletes have – physical, personal, and mental/psychological? 7. What importance do you place on psychological/mental skills training for your athletes? 8. How important are support systems to success – family, peers, training squads, club, state/national bodies? 9. What factors are instrumental in the success of an elite athlete and what factors hinder their success? 10. What obstacles, challenges did you athlete face while you were coaching them? How were you involved? What support did you personally give or source for your athlete? 11. What qualities do you as a coach have that have enabled you to develop/produce elite athletes? E.g. level of education/experience, ability to detect and nurture talent, 12. Does or has the ‘system’ put pressure on you to get results against your better judgement? 13. What are 'we' doing well at the moment to help our best talent get to the top and stay there? What can we improve on?
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14. How does/has ‘organisational’ stress (e.g. difficulties with team management, team - coaches, camps etc.,), at major championships affected your athletes? 15. Any thoughts or comments on how our elite athletes transition into retirement? What help are they given if any?
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