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School of Architecture While the primary objective of the curriculum studio instruction, students complete coursework is professional education, students have opportuni- in structural, mechanical, and environmental sys- ties to explore fields such as business, engineering, tems and architectural history. History and theory Chair: environmental sciences, and the liberal arts through courses in the School of Architecture include a two- Michael N. Lykoudis electives during fourth and fifth years of study. semester survey of the history of architecture from Frank Montana Chair in Architecture: Most states require that an individual intending the earliest times to the present and specialized Carroll William Westfall to become an architect hold an accredited degree in upper-level coursework in selected topics involving Professors: architecture. There are two types of degrees that are the history and theory of architecture. Robert L. Amico; Norman A. Crowe; Dennis accredited by the NAAB: (1) the bachelor of archi- The student is in contact with the practicing P. Doordan (on leave 2002-03); Michael N. tecture, which requires a minimum of five years of professional through collaboration between the Lykoudis; Thomas Gordon Smith study, and (2) the master of architecture, which School of Architecture and the Northern Indiana Associate Professors: requires a minimum of three years of study follow- Chapter of the American Institute of Architects. Richard Economakis (on leave 2002-03); ing an unrelated bachelor’s degree or two years The School of Architecture has an active student Paloma Pajares; John W. Stamper; Duncan G. following a related preprofessional bachelor’s de- chapter of the American Institute of Architects. Stroik; Samir Younés gree. These professional degrees are structured to Assistant Professors: educate those who aspire to registration/licensure as Facilities. The School of Architecture is located Victor Deupi; Barbara Kenda; Dino architects. in the Bond Hall of Architecture. This building, Marcantonio In addition to the first professional degree of the former University library, was thoroughly re- Visiting Assistant Professors: bachelor of architecture, the school offers a first built from 1995 through 1996. The 60,000-square- Braulio Casas; Michael Djordjevitch; Frank professional degree program at the master’s level. foot building contains classrooms, an auditorium, Huderwitz; Ettore Mazzola; Michael Mesko; The degree program is for graduate students whose library, computer lab and studios that are both Richard Piccolo undergraduate degree involved a four-year major in functional and designed in accord with the histori- Professional Specialist: architecture. The school also offers a post-profes- cal limestone structure. The Rome Studies Center Robert J. Brandt; Rev. R.S. Bullene, C.S.C.; Al sional master’s degree in either classical building is in the heart of Rome’s historic center. DeFrees; Giovanna Lenzi-Sandusky design or urban design for the student who already holds a first professional degree in architecture at First Year either the bachelor’s or master’s level. First-year students intending to major in architec- Program of Studies. The study of architecture A concentration in furniture design is also an ture take the following courses: has a long and distinguished history at the Univer- option within the first professional degree program. sity of Notre Dame. Courses in architecture were Required courses for the concentration are ARCH First Second taught at the University as early as 1869, and the 481, Beginning Furniture; ARCH 482, Advanced Semester Semester School of Architecture has offered formal instruc- Furniture Design; ARCH 583, Special Studies in Course Credits Credits Furniture Design; ARCH 584, Special Studies in tion since 1898. The school offers a five-year pro- Composition/ gram leading to the degree of bachelor of archi- Furniture Design 2; and either AMST 258, The University Seminar 3 3 tecture. The program is accredited by the National Arts in America or AMST 484, Material Culture in MATH 105 and 110 3 3 Architectural Accrediting Board, and the curricu- America. (Either of the last two courses will satisfy PHYS 115 and 116 lum conforms to NAAB requirements for the pro- a portion of the University history requirement.) or PHYS 115 fessional degree in architecture. Both the undergraduate and graduate programs and Science Elective 3 3 Since the early 1990s, the school’s curriculum at Notre Dame take advantage of the school’s prox- History imity to Chicago. In addition, all third-year stu- has been based on education in traditional and or Social Science 3 – classical architecture and urbanism. Instruction dents spend the academic year in the school’s Rome ARCH 132G: Graphics II – 3 teaches the skills, cultivates the talents, and imparts Studies Center in Italy. All graduate students spend ARCH 143G: Graphics I 3 – the knowledge necessary to produce buildings that a spring semester there. Some limited scholarship ARCH 144: Architectural use nature’s materials responsibly and contribute to aid is available for the additional expenses incurred Writings – 4 a just and charitable society. The school believes in Rome. Physical Education – – The initial phase of undergraduate architectural this is best done by learning how recurring prob- ————— ————— lems in designing and constructing buildings and study is devoted to acquiring basic design and tech- 15 16 fitting them into existing urban and rural settings nical skills and developing an understanding of have been addressed in the past and adapting those architectural concepts by learning canonical forms The courses listed below indicate the normal se- lessons to the ever-changing circumstances of the of classical architecture and manipulating them in quence for sophomore, junior, senior and fifth modern world. design problems. The sophomore year begins with years majoring in architecture. The goals of the curriculum include developing paradigmatic projects and ends by solving complex competence in the design of individual buildings, and challenging building programs. The sopho- Sophomore Year understanding the relationship between individual more foundation is reinforced in the third year, First Semester which is spent in Rome. There, 2,500 years of buildings and their physical and cultural contexts, ARCH 241: Environmental Studies 3 and recognizing the ethical dimensions of the pro- building tradition provides the context for contem- ARCH 243: Design I 6 fessional practice of architecture. Architects play a porary design problems. Fourth-year students re- ARCH 245: Building Technology I 3 primary role in shaping the built environment and turn to Notre Dame, where they are reintroduced ARCH 247: Architectural History I 3 have a professional responsibility to do so in a to the American context. At this stage, students are ROIT 105: Beginning Italian I 3 manner that contributes to the civil life of society. encouraged to synthesize their interpretations of ————— Their work must also help to renew and sustain the the historical legacy in the context of American 18 integrity of the natural world and promote social urban centers and small cities. The undergraduate welfare. program culminates with a thesis design project completed in the fifth year of study. In addition to 79
Second Semester 244. Design II ARCH 244: Design II 6 ARCHITECTURE (0-12-6) Lykoudis ARCH 246: Building Technology II 3 COURSE DESCRIPTIONS Principles of planning, design and construction are ARCH 248: Architectural History II 3 developed in urban contexts and in complex build- ARCH 256: Structural Mechanics The following course descriptions give the number ing programs. The concentration on classical para- for Architects 3 and title of each course. Lecture hours per week digms as a basis for architecture and urban design is ROIT 106: Beginning Italian II 3 and laboratory and/or tutorial hours per week and continued. Spring. ————— 18 credits each semester are in parentheses. 245. Building Technology I Junior Year (Rome Studies Program) 132G. Graphics II: Drafting (2-2-3) Kenda First Semester (3-0-3) Pajares Exploration and application of qualitative prin- ARCH 343: Design III 6 Instruction and practice in the skills necessary to ciples and theory of building construction to the ARCH 391: Architecture Theory I 3 draw and think like an architect. The course em- design process. Fall. ARCH 393: Roman Urbanism phasizes mechanical drawing with exercises that 246. Building Technology II and Architecture I 3 include descriptive geometry, perspective, and (3-0-3) Amico ARCH 395G : Graphics III: Freehand Drawing 3 other means of representing three-dimensional Prerequisite: ARCH 245. ————— architectural problems with two-dimensional tech- 15 Qualitative and quantitative principles of building niques, including those using computers. The assembly and detailing in masonry, timber, con- course is open to all students. Studio format. Re- Second Semester crete and steel. Spring. quired for those intending to enter the architecture ARCH 344: Design IV 6 247. Architectural History I progam. Spring. ARCH 392: Architecture Theory II 3 (3-0-3) Stamper ARCH 394: Roman Urbanism 143G. Graphics I: Drawing Global architecture from the prehistoric through and Architecture II 3 (3-2-3) Bullene Gothic periods is studied in relation to physical ARCH 396G: Graphics IV: Watercolor 3 Instruction and practice in drawing as a means of determinants, such as climate, materials, technol- ————— exploring and communicating formal and theoreti- ogy and geography. Historical determinants such as 15 cal concepts. Aspects of freehand drawing in pencil, economics, religion, politics, society and culture are charcoal, and watercolor are taught with subjects Senior Year also considered. Fall. from buildings, nature, and the human figure. The 248. Architectural History II First Semester course is open to all students. Studio format. (3-0-3) Westfall ARCH 443: Design V 6 Strongly recommended for those entering the ar- Same approach as ARCH 247. Coverage begins ARCH 445: Graphics V: Computers 3 chitecture program. Fall. ARCH 446: Structural Design for Architects 3 with the 15th century and extends to the present. 144. Analysis of Architectural Writing Theology 3 256. Principles of Structural Engineering (3-2-4) Bullene Elective 3 (3-0-3) DeFrees ————— This course examines concepts of architecture Prerequisite: MATH 106. 18 within writings about architecture. It explores Principles of statics. Force and moment equilib- universal issues of function, strength, and beauty, rium. Area properties. Stress and strain. Beam and Second Semester along with the interactions between theory and column analysis. Spring. ARCH 444: Design VI 6 practice and the tensions between tradition and ARCH 553: Structural Systems 3 innovation. The coursework consists of analytical 343. Design III (Rome) Elective 3 drawings, design exercises, and exams. It is open to (0-12-6) Djordjevitch, Mazzola, Mesko Theology 3 all students. Required for those intending to enter Architectural design relating to the urban environ- Social Science or History 3 the architecture program. Spring. ment of Rome. Fall. ————— 18 241. Environmental Studies 344. Design IV (Rome) (3-0-3) Crowe (0-12-6) Mazzola, Mesko, Casas Fifth Year This course investigates the relationship between Architectural and urban design relating to the re- First Semester the built environment and the natural environ- gional implications of the context of Rome and ARCH 543: Design VII 6 ment. Lectures, readings and exercises explore the environs. Spring. ARCH 541: Environmental Systems 3 ethical and professional responsibilities of the ar- 391. Architectural Theory I (Rome) Philosophy 3 chitect relative to ongoing environmental issues. (2-2-3) Djordjevitch Elective 3 Topics include a survey of the effects of the built ————— The purpose of this class is to examine and debate 15 environment on natural systems, a survey of evolv- essential constituents of architectural theory in ing environmental studies, and design issues with urbanism, architectural composition, aesthetic Second Semester the focus on in-site planning, landscape design and theory, tectonics, and construction. Various trea- ARCH 544: Design VIII (Thesis) 6 passive energy measures for architecture. Fall. tises will form the required readings, and the ideas ARCH 546: Professional Practice 3 243. Design I contained therein are debated on-site within the Philosophy 3 (0-12-6) Lykoudis Italian context. Elective 3 This studio and lecture course introduces students 392. Architectural Theory II (Rome) ————— 15 to design beginning with the classical elements of (2-2-3) Djordjevitch architecture. It proceeds to the design of compo- The purpose of this class is to examine and debate Total for five years: 163 semester hours. nents of buildings. Fall. essential constituents of architectural theory in urbanism, architectural composition, aesthetic theory, tectonics, and construction. Various trea- tises will form the required readings, and the ideas contained therein are debated on-site within the Italian context. 80
393. Roman Urbanism and Architecture I 446. Structural Design 503. Architectural Theory III (Rome) (3-0-3) DeFrees (3-0-3) Economakis (V-V-3) Mazzola Prerequisite: ARCH 256. A survey of contemporary traditional architecture The purpose of this class is to examine the essential The application of the principles of mechanics to and urbanism, including works by Raymond Erith, elements of Roman urbanism, architectural compo- the stress and deformation analysis and design of Hasan Fathy, Pierre Barbe, Demetri Pikionis, Leon sition, and tectonic considerations over time, reinforced concrete structural elements and framing Krier, and Demetri Porphyrios, and concluding through extensive analysis and direct on-site systems. Fall. with the most recent events, buildings, and urban experience. 481. Beginning Furniture developments. Emphasis will be given to works that 394. Roman Urbanism and Architecture II (0-6-3) Brandt exemplify the urban, constructional, and formal (Rome) Students gain an understanding of scale, propor- principles of contemporary traditional architecture. (V-V-3) Mazzola tion and construction of furniture. Lectures and 541. Environmental Systems The purpose of this class is to examine the essential demonstrations expose students to the history of (3-0-3) DeFrees elements of Roman urbanism, architectural furniture, properties of wood and the use of wood- Study of the basic concepts that lead to the composition, and tectonic considerations over working equipment. Fall. design of the mechanical, acoustical, and illumina- time, through extensive analysis and direct on-site 482. Advanced Furniture tion services for the control of the architectural experience. (0-6-3) Brandt environment. 395G. Graphics III: Freehand Drawing Prerequisite: ARCH 481. 543. Design VII (0-6-3) Piccolo, Mesko Students construct furniture of original design. (0-12-6) Smith, Stamper, Deupi, Kenda Freehand graphic communication with pencil, pen They learn to understand furniture’s relationship to Integrates the students’ previous study of building and charcoal, drawing exteriors and interiors of architectural context. Spring. design and construction in Thematic Studios. Fall. architecture. Consideration of light, shade and 483. Introduction to Carving Classical Elements 544. Design VIII Thesis form. Fall. (0-3-3) Brandt (0-12-6) Smith, Stamper, Stroik, Bullene 396G.Graphics IV: Watercolor In this introductory course, students are instructed Required of all students in architecture. Students (0-6-3) Piccolo, Mesko in the fundamental uses of carving tools and the devote the semester to the preparation and presen- Freehand graphic communication with watercolor, physical properties of wood. The emphasis of the tation of an independent architectural project. painting still lifes and exteriors and interiors of course is on the design and shaping of classical Spring. architecture. Spring. architectural ornamentation. 546. Professional Practice 423. Greek Architecture 484. Intermediate Carving Classical Elements (3-0-3) Stroik (3-0-3) Rhodes (0-3-3) Brandt Lecture and assignments covering professional In this course the development of Greek monu- Students continue the exploration of design by services, marketing, economics of practice, pro- mental architecture, and the major problems that sculpting classical architectural ornament. Relying gramming, design drawing development, contracts define it, will be traced from the eighth to the on tradition as a paradigm, students are required to and project management. Spring. second centuries B.C., from the late Geometric design and create original objects that relate to 547. History/Design: Forms, Values through the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic their personal direction in architectural studies. and Technology periods. Among themes to be treated are the rela- 494. Survey: Greek Art/Architecture (3-0-3) Doordan tionship between landscape and religious architec- (3-0-3) Rhodes This course will provide a historical perspective on ture, the humanization of temple divinities, the This course analyzes and traces the development of the development of industrial, product and graphic architectural expression of religious tradition and Greek architecture, painting, and sculpture in the design in the 19th and 20th centuries. even specific history, architectural procession and historical period, from the eighth through the sec- hieratic direction, emblem and narration in archi- 553. Applied Structural Systems ond centuries B.C., with some consideration of tectural sculpture, symbolism and allusion through (3-0-3) DeFrees prehistoric Greek forebears of the Mycenaean Age. architectural order, religious revival and archaism, Application of structural systems in relation to Particular emphasis is placed upon monumental and the breaking of architectural and religious architectural concepts meeting economic and art, its historical and cultural contexts, and how it canon. building-code requirements. Spring. reflects changing attitudes towards the gods, hu- 558. Teaching Concepts/Principles 443. Design V man achievement, and the relationship between the (0-12-6) Marcantonio, Amico, Stroik of Structural Engineering divine and the human. (ARCH 256) Study of building types related to towns and cities. 501. Architecture Theory I (3-0-3) DeFrees 444. Design VI (3-0-3) Westfall Teaching assistants aid professor in grading exami- (0-12-6) Pajares, Amico, Crowe, Staff This course reviews, through lectures, discussions, nations, assigning homework and preparing lec- Study of building types related to large urban cen- analysis of signed texts, and the writing of research tures. Spring. ters. Spring. papers, the intersection of the religious, civil, archi- 559. Teaching Concepts/Structural Design 445. Graphics V: Computers tectural and urban characteristics of the built world (ARCH 446) (3-0-3) Marcantonio, Huderwitz within the Western tradition. Fall. (3-0-3) DeFrees Study of basic skills necessary for the analysis and 502. Architecture Theory II Teaching assistants aid professor in grading exami- representation of architectural form through the (3-0-3) Deupi nations, assigning homework and preparing lec- medium of the computer. Students will study This seminar explores the philosophical, historical tures. Fall. drafting as well as three-dimensional modeling. and literary background of traditional architecture 560. Teaching Concepts/ by probing within the curious domain of architec- Applied Structural Systems tural theory through a careful reading of primary (ARCH 553) sources in their original languages and in transla- (3-0-3) DeFrees tion, of Vitruvius, Abbot Suger, Alberti, Serlio, Teaching assistants aid professor in grading exami- Palladio, Vignola, Claude Perrault, etc. Fall. nations, assigning homework and preparing lec- tures. Spring. 81
561. Teaching Concepts/Drawing 581. Grecian Architecture and Furniture I Student Awards (ARCH 143G) (3-0-3) Smith (2-2-3) Bullene Students explore Notre Dame’s holdings of British and Prizes Assist professor in critiquing student work. The and American architectural books that introduced assistant may be requested to deliver a presentation “Grecian” architecture to the English-speaking on a relevant topic. Fall. world. The American Institute of Architects Award. An 562. Teaching Concepts/Reading 582. Competitions and Independent Studio annual award made by the School of Architecture Architectural Writings (ARCH 144) (V-V-V) Staff on behalf of the American Institute of Architects to (1-4-3) Bullene Students have the option of selecting either a na- the senior who has the highest average for the com- Teaching assistants aid in studio and provide guid- tional or international design competition or a plete course in architecture. This medal is given by ance in drawing. Spring. design project of special interest to them. Spring. the American Institute of Architects to each of the 563. Teaching Concepts/Building Technology I 583. Special Studies in Furniture Design I member schools of the Association of Collegiate (ARCH 245) (0-6-3) Brandt Schools of Architecture. (2-2-3) Kenda Prerequisite: ARCH 482. The Amico Architecture Scholarship. Established in Teaching assistants guide second-year students Students pursue specific interests in design and 1997-98 by Bob Amico, design studio professor taking ARCH 245 in developing technical solu- construction of furniture. Fall. and chairman of the School of Architecture from tions to architectural studies. They assist in evalua- 1978 to 1989, to be awarded annually to a fifth- tion of submitted work and prepare and deliver 584. Special Studies in Furniture Design II (0-6-3) Brandt year student to assist in the support of the student’s short presentations on current building techniques. study of architecture in the professional degree Fall. Prerequisite: ARCH 583. Continuation of Architecture 583. Spring. program. 564. Teaching Concepts/Building Technology II (ARCH 246) 585. Advanced Studies in Computers The Noel Blank Design Award. Founded by Leon (3-0-3) Amico (0-6-3) DeFrees W. Blank in memory of his brother. This award in Teaching assistants guide second-year students In ARCH 585, students pursue specific interests in architecture is designated for excellence in fifth year taking ARCH 246 in developing technical solu- computer applications to architecture. Spring. thesis design. tions to architectural studies. They assist in evalua- 586. Grecian Architecture and Furniture II Chairman’s Award in Design for Excellence in Archi- tion of submitted work and prepare and deliver (0-6-3) Smith tecture. Overall excellence in fifth-year thesis. short presentations on current building techniques. The development of Greek-inspired architecture in Chelminiak Architecture Award. Awarded to a Spring. the United States between 1820 and 1860. Influ- graduating student who displays excellence in thesis 565. Teaching Concepts/History of ences from abroad are compared to the distinct design. Architecture I (ARCH 247) American cast of the movement. The related move- (3-0-3) Stamper ment in furniture and interior decoration is also James E. Childs and Associates, Inc. Scholarship. To Teaching assistants aid professor in grading exami- studied. provide tuition assistance for racial minority student(s) in the School of Architecture. nations and preparing lectures. Fall. 595. Frank Lloyd Wright Seminar 566. Teaching Concepts/History of (3-0-3) Doordan Computer Award. Awarded to the student who Architecture II (ARCH 248) This seminar examines critical perspectives on the displays excellence in digital imagery. (3-0-3) Westfall life, work and influence of Frank Lloyd Wright. The Brian J. Crumlish Memorial Scholarship Award. Teaching assistants aid professor in grading exami- “Critical perspectives” means that we should try to Awarded to a fourth- or fifth-year student in the nations and preparing lectures. Spring. be conscious not only of the subject under exami- School of Architecture. nation (Wright) but also of our method of studying 568. Teaching Concepts/Graphics II: Drafting The Andrew F. Kervick Award. Founded by Prof. (ARCH 132G) this subject (formal analysis, social history, biogra- Francis W. Kervick, former head of the Depart- (2-2-3) Pajares phy, etc.) and the implications of selecting one ment of Architecture of the University, in memory Students in ARCH 568 serve as teaching assistants approach or methodology over another. of his father. Awarded to the student of the school in the course ARCH 132, Introduction to Com- 596. Architecture of the 20th Century whose work in the entire course of freehand draw- puters for Architects. Students enrolled in 568 (3-0-3) Doordan ing is of the highest merit. work with students in the computer cluster, assist- A survey of the many facets developed by 20th- ing on specific assignments and advising on the use century architects. Ferguson Shamamian and Rattner Architects Undergraduate Prize. Awarded to a fifth-year stu- of the computer with respect to software programs. 598. Directed Studies dent in the Bachelor of Architecture Program for Students in 568 assist as well in the evaluation of (V-V-V) Staff overall excellence in classical design exhibited assignments and examinations in ARCH 132. Directed studies in special projects in architecture. throughout the course of study. Spring. Focus on specific topics and their relationship and 570. Teaching Concepts/Graphics V effect on the design of buildings and the physical The Nellie Wynn Kervick Award. Founded by Prof. (3-0-3) Marcantonio, Huderwitz environment. Offered to fourth- or fifth-year un- Francis W. Kervick, former head of the Depart- Teaching assistants provide instructional support to dergraduates. Individual or group study under the ment of Architecture of the University, in memory students in the computer cluster during class and direction of the staff in an undergraduate subject of his mother. Awarded to the third-year student in help with grading. not currently covered by a University course. the School of Architecture whose work for the first three years in courses of architecture has been of the highest merit. Frank Montana Rome Scholarships. These awards are made for educational purposes in connection with the Notre Dame Rome Studies Program. 82
The Gertrude S. Sollitt Prize for Architectural Struc- Student Organizations Advisory Council ture. Founded in 1931 by the Ralph Sollitt and Sons Construction Company of Chicago and South Bend and awarded to the student who sub- AIAS, Student Chapter of the American Institute of JOHN H. BURGEE mits the best work as a solution to a special prob- Architects. Students begin to engage in the profes- Montecito, California lem in structure assigned in the scholastic year. sional activities of the national AIAS by attending ALEJANDRO CARDENAL Ralph Thomas Sollitt Award. Founded in 1931 by meetings and conventions and structuring activities Managua, Nicaragua Ralph Sollitt and Sons Construction Company of within the School of Architecture. The AIAS spon- Chicago and South Bend and awarded to the stu- sors educational, professional and social events in ANTHONY GOLDSBY New Haven, Connecticut dent in the School of Architecture who submits the the school. best design as a solution to the thesis architecture Tau Sigma Delta. In 1961 the Sigma Chapter of MARTIN G. KNOTT problem in the fall semester. Tau Sigma Delta, the national architectural honor Owings Mills, Maryland society, was established at Notre Dame. The con- The David M. Schwarz/Architectural Services KEITH MARRERO Internship and Traveling Felloship Award. This stitution of Tau Sigma Delta stresses as its sole Greenville, South Carolina internship and travel award is open to fourth-year function the encouragement of high scholastic architecture students at Notre Dame for the sum- standing. Election to membership is limited to the HOLLY L. MIZELLE mer between the fourth and fifth year. The award top 20 percent of the students in the School of Chicago, Illinois involves two months of a paid internship in the Architecture who have completed 60 percent of their requirements for the professional degree. JAMES A. NOLEN III offices of Architectural Services in Washington, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania D.C., followed by one month of travel involving independent research and study. Selection is based TIMOTHY I. PANZICA upon scholarship and design ability, plus a written Cleveland, Ohio statement describing in detail how the candidate FRANCIS ROONEY III intends to use the travel stipend funds. Tulsa, Oklahoma Ray Stuermer Memorial Award for Excellence in JAMES R. RYAN Design. Awarded in memory of Professor Stuermer Minneapolis, Minnesota on the basis of design work through the fourth year for overall improvement and design excellence. CHARLES J. TOENISKOETTER San Jose, California Alice Wesoloski Scholarship. For her decades of ser- vice to the School of Architecture, an award was MATTHEW M. WALSH established at the close of the school’s centennial Chicago, Illinois celebration on behalf of Alice Wesoloski. The award is presented to a student of particular ability and need. Pella Prize. Awarded by the Pella Window Co. for the best design in a studio devoted to production building. St. Joseph Award in Furniture Design. Awarded to the furniture design student best resolving issues of concept, design, and craftsmanship. 83