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1. Introduction
Clay, noun. Old English Cladg. A stiff viscous earth. of major economic significance, touching virtually every (Blackies Compact Etymological Dictionary. Blackie aspect of our everyday lives, from medicines to cosmetics & Son, London and Glasgow. 1946. War Economy and from paper to cups and saucers. It is very difficult to Standard) over-estimate its use and importance. The treatment of clay in this book is therefore wide ranging to reflect this Clay: The original Indo-European word was 'gloi-" situation. "gli-' from which came "glue' and 'gluten'. In The occurrence of clay is also ubiquitous and diverse Germanic this became 'klai-; and the Old English (see Text Box below) and, with its various mineral spe- 'claeg" became Modern English "clay'. From the same cies, properties and behavioural characteristics, the indus- source came "clammy' and the northern England trial applications of clay are thus manifold and complex. dialect "claggy' all of which describe a similar sticky As well as their traditional major uses for brickmaking, consistency. (Oxford English Dictionary and Ayto's pottery and porcelain manufacture, refractories and the Dictionary of Word Origins, Bloomsbury, 1999) fulling of cloth, clays are now used for refining edible oils, fats and hydrocarbon oils, in oil well drilling and Clay." from Old Greek yRia, y2oia "'glue" 72ivfl synthetic moulding sands, in the manufacture of emulsi- "slime, mucus "" y2oidq "'anything sticky" 'from L-E. fied products in paper and, as noted in Chapters 13, 14 base *glei-, *gli- 'to glue, paste stick together. (Klein and 15, many hundreds of other uses, including medicine, E. A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the cosmetics and, on a larger scale, as fillers, as well as English language. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1967; Skeat many uses in geotechnical engineering e.g. for grouts, W. An etymological dictionary of the English lan- membranes etc. guage. Oxford University Press, 1961; Mann S.E. An In foundation engineering, clay often provides poor Indo-European comparative dictionary. Buske Verlag, foundation support, and can be responsible for slope Hamburg, 1987) instability. It finds extensive use as a construction mate- rial in embankments and in water-controlling structures as an impermeable barrier and in many other specialist ways 1.1. Clay (see Chapters 10, 11 and 12). Given the worldwide distribution and variability of Definitions of clay are given in Section 1.2. The uses of clay deposits, the production of an authoritative text, clay are ubiquitous and diverse. On a world scale, clay is which is the aim of the Working Party, on all aspects of Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
2 INTRODUCTION clay, was considered a most daunting task. The original There are many geological dictionaries which seek brief from the Engineering Group committee, the parent to define clay. These are typically in general accord with committee of the Working Party, was that the Working the Working Party views. An example is given in the Text Party report, viz. this book, should exclude the engineer- Box on p. 4, together with closely related terms defined ing aspects of clay in situ (i.e. not consider it as a founda- in the same dictionary. These related terms are also in tion material) but that other engineering aspects, general accord with their use in this book. or example use in embankments or in specialized It is necessary to state, however, that within the follow- engineering applications, should be considered. ing chapters, where the term clay is used in a general In addition to this particular omission conceming the sense as a material, it implies any fine-grained, natural, in situ use of clay, the Working Party decided that in earthy, argillaceous material. This includes clays, shales order to retain depth of discussion it should concentrate and argillites of the geologists, and soils as defined by only on the principal construction and industrial applica- geologists, engineers and agronomists, provided such tions of clay with the omission of other specialist non- material is argillaceous (i.e. it contains clay minerals). engineering uses, and in order to limit the scope of this Any specific definition of the term clay that depends on current publication to a sensible size. the context, in which it is being used, is given within the chapter related to that definition. This is because, as is clear from the above dictionary definitions, the term clay 1.2. Definitions of clay is imprecise and variously defined. Description of clays is discussed in more detail in Chapters 4 and 8. The term clay mineral is described in the second Text Box on p. 4. The term 'clay' has no genetic significance. It is used for material that is the product of in situ alteration, e.g. by 1.2.1. Definitions of clay and clay minerals by the weathering, hydrothermal action or, alternatively, depos- ited as a sediment during an erosional cycle or developed AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS in situ as an authigenic clay deposit. 'Clay' can be used as Nomenclature Committees a rock term and also can be used as a particle size term in mechanical analysis of sedimentary rocks or soils. As a The definitions of clay and clay minerals in the Joint rock term, it is difficult to define precisely because of the Report of the AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS Nomencla- ture Committees should be read in full for the complete wide variety of materials that have been called clays. expression of their views (Guggenheim & Martin 1995), A universal implication of the term 'clay' conveys that it together with the subsequent Discussions on this Report is a natural, earthy, fine-grained material that develops (Moore 1996; Guggenheim & Martin 1996). The follow- plasticity when mixed with a limited amount of water. ing summarises some of the salient points and demon- By 'plasticity', it is meant that within a certain range of strates the difficulties in making a precise definition of moisture content the material will deform under the appli- clay. cation of pressure, the deformed shape being retained when the deforming force is removed. Chemical analysis 'Clay' Definition of clay minerals shows them essentially to comprise The term 'clay' refers to a naturally occurring material silica, alumina and water in variable combinations, composed primarily offine-grained minerals, which is frequently with appreciable quantities of iron, alkalis and generally plastic at appropriate water contents and alkaline earths. will harden when dried or fired. Although clay usually A difficulty is that some material called 'clay' does not contains phyllosilicates, it may contain other materials meet all the above descriptors. A glance at any compre- that impart plasticity and harden when dried or fired. hensive dictionary will show that clay has a plethora of Associated phases in clay may include materials that definitions, scientific and colloquial, often steeped in do not impart plasticity and organic matter." history and clearly demonstrating that the definition of the word 'clay' depends on the context in which it is being In the Discussion to the Definition, the Committees make used. The reasons for this situation undoubtedly lie in the the point that, 'The 'naturally occurring' requirement of clay excludes synthetics and that based on the standard many and diverse industries in which clay is used, each definition of mineral, clays are primarily inorganic mate- having developed, over the years, a definition appropriate rials excluding peat, muck, some soils, etc. that contain to its requirements. A summary of the definitions of large quantities of organic materials. Associated phases, clay and clay minerals, presented in the joint report of such as organic phases, may be present. 'Plasticity' the Association Intemationale pour l'etude des Argiles refers to the ability of the material to be moulded to (AIPEA) Nomenclature Committee and the Clay Miner- any shape. The plastic properties do not require quantifi- als Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee is given cation to apply the term 'clay' to a material. The fine- in Section 1.2.1; civil engineering definitions of clay in grained' aspect cannot be quantified, because a specific British practice are given in Section 1.2.2 and interna- particle size is not a property that is universally accepted tional civil engineering soil classification by particle size by all disciplines. They say that,for example, most geolo- distribution (grading) is given in Section 1.2.3. gists and soil scientists use particle size less than 2 izm, Examples of common, non-specific dictionary sedimentologists use 4/um, and colloid chemists use 1 I~m definitions are given in the Text Box on p. 3. for clay-particle size.' Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION
NO~SD~C~":~i:~*:: " :'::": :::: ~' :": :~: :~: ~: :,t :~: :~ :~,.. ,. iiiii i!ii lipidic!i'!84 ;~ :.': ~: t::., ~:, ::.: al~~ :: :: :;: .::~: :,,:;~ :::: ::~ ~:: :~::: ~;:~ :~:~ :. :~7:~ ~.: :.':~, ~ ~:~, ,:~: :';~ :~:~.~: ::.~:::~: z: ::9 ::~ ~ ~:::~::::~ ~:~ :::~
They also say that 'Plasticity is a property that is Clay mineral greatly affected by the chemical composition of the mate- Definition: rial For example, some species of chlorite and mica can 'The term "'clay mineral" refers to phyllosilicate remain non-plastic upon grinding macroscopic flakes minerals and to minerals which impart plasticity to even where more than 70% of the material is less than 2 clay and which harden upon drying or firing.' lure esd (equivalent spherical diameter). In contrast, other chlorites and micas become plastic upon grinding macro- In the Discussion, the Committees say that, 'Currently, scopic flakes where 3% of the material is less than 2 lure minerals known to produce the property of plasticity are esd' and that, 'Plasticity may be affected also by the phyllosilicates. Because minerals are not defined based aggregate nature of the particles in the materiaL' on their crystallite size, appropriate phyllosilicates of In the Discussion on the Report, surface effects, grain- any grain size may be considered "clay minerals ". Like- size effects, practical considerations and other issues are wise, clay minerals are not restricted, by definition, to discussed in some detail, to which the reader is referred. phyllosilicates. ' In this discussion, Moore (1996) urges the Committees to They go on to say that minerals that are non- state clearly that they are aware that clay is used in three phyllosilicates, which impart plasticity to a clay and different ways in their discipline: as a size term, as a rock harden upon drying or firing, are also 'clay minerals'. term and as a mineral term. 'Users who do not clearly They quote as example,' if an oxy-hydroxide mineral in a separate these meanings provide one ofour most consis- clay shows plasticity and hardens upon drying or firing, tent sources of confusion. Each of these uses has utility or it may be properly referred to as a "clay mineral'. Thus a each would not have survived'. clay is not required to be predominantly composed of Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
4 INTRODUCTION
i ~~ de~ved~o~ ~hemical uetion ::::~ the secreti~h~ Oforganis~:: :i~ase ~ediment such ~ sand~, ~,i! i l, adj~:: (of ~herat grains) ~a~Orted and :as i~edi~ient~ ~bOt:were: deriv~ ,:~om P ~i i::i
i:~era!S ~:~: discussed in de~! in: C~ ~'i ~iliil
phyllosilicates. Minerals that do not impart plasticity (1963), and for the more recent developments, Weaver to clay and non-crystalline phases (regardless if they (1989). impart plasticity or not) are either 'associated minerals' or "associated phases ' respectively '. 1.2.2. Civil engineering definitions of clay in The Committees make the important point that their British practice definition of clay mineral departs from previous defini- tions (e.g. Bailey 1980) where clay minerals were equated When used in the mechanical analysis of soils following to phyllosilicates. They say that the current definition British civil engineering practice, clay is defined as mate- broadens the scope of possible minerals defined as clay rial of particle size less than 0.002 mm (BS 5930:1999, minerals. Code of Practice for Site Investigations). However, some For an exhaustive account of the history of definition clay mineral particles may be larger than this. BS 5930 of clays up to 1963, the reader is referred to Mackenzie defines silt by mechanical analysis as between 0.002 Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION 5 and 0.06 mm. Clay is thus defined without reference to 1.3. Some British clay production mineralogical composition. A practical example of the way in which the term statistics clay is used in context for civil engineering practice, and therefore of importance to this book, is the way that BS In 2000 it was reported that clays represent only 4% 5930:1999, handles the term. It recommends that soils are (approximately 15 million tonnes, Quarry Managers divided into two classes: fine soils and coarse soils. It sug- Journal 2000) of the minerals quarried annually in the gests that as a first appraisal of the engineering properties, UK, but this greatly understates the quantity of clay the soil's nature and composition are described visually, materials actually excavated per annum. Statistics of pro- assisted by a few simple hand tests. "Soils that stick duction (see the Text Box on p. 7) are generally collected together when wet and can be rolled into a thread that for clay materials extracted and transported away from a supports the soil's own weight (i.e. have cohesion and quarry for a specific purpose, say, manufacture of paper, plasticity), contain sufficient silt and~or clay in them to be ceramics, cement, bricks, tiles, pipes, sanitary ware and described as fine soils. Soils that do not exhibit these other clayware and take no account of large volumes properties behave and are described as coarse soils ". of clay materials excavated during the course of civil The actual soil name 'is based on particle size distribu- engineering projects and reused within the construction site. tion of the coarse fraction and~or the plasticity of the fine fraction as determined by the Atterberg Limits. These For example, also in 2000, a comprehensive survey of waste generated by construction and demolition showed characteristics are used because they can be measured that this activity creates 24 million tonnes of soil (uncon- readily with reasonable precision and estimated with suf- solidated material) and 15 million tonnes of mixed soils ficient accuracy for descriptive purposes '. It is suggested and demolition waste requiring disposal (Environment that where a soil (omitting any boulders or cobbles, i.e. Agency 2000). particles greater than 60 mm in size) contains about 35% The quantities of clay materials excavated and reused or more of fine material it is described as a fine soil ('clay' internally during construction must be many times greater or 'silt', dependent on its plasticity). The Code goes but no national statistics are recorded. It has proved very further and says that 'the effects of clay mineralogy and elusive to obtain the actual quantities of clay worked in organic content are significant. Fine soil should be heavy civil engineering; no statistics have been found but described either as 'silt' or 'clay', depending on the from the Working Party members' experience, it was plastic properties; these terms are to be mutually exclu- considered, as a rough approximation, that some 15 km of sive so that terms such as 'silty CLAY' are unnecessary new major highway in the UK required the handling of and not to be used'. some 3 million cubic metres of clay material, i.e. for the It should be noted that many geologists call all bedrock approximately 100 km of new major highway in the UK material 'rocks', even if their behaviour is 'soil-like' (cf. per year, in very round figures, some 20 million cubic the Eocene 'London Clay'), whereas engineers tend to metres of clay material is handled, the highest total being call bedrock clays 'engineering soils'. Clay rocks (e.g. a in England. Similarly, the Working Party estimated some strong mudstone) which ring to the hammer would be 10 million cubic metres of clay material was handled in called a rock by engineers. Current civil engineering all other engineering construction per year. thinking on the term 'cohesion' and the divisions between 'soil' and 'rock' are discussed in Chapter 4. 1.4. Geographical and stratigraphical 1.2.3. International Civil Engineering Soil distribution Classification by particle size distribution (grading) Clays are widely distributed both geographically (i.e. across the surface of the Earth) and stratigraphically Figure 1.1 shows some of the most used soil classifica- (i.e. over geological time). The outcrops of the main tions by particle size distribution ('grading') by various formations containing clay material in Great Britain are countries, determined by their national standardization shown in Figure 1.2; similar maps could be prepared for institutes. An important point in this figure is that the all countries that have been geologically surveyed. Maps boundary between sand and silt is 0.06 mm in European of this kind show both the areal extent and the outcrop of countries and 0.075 mm in the USA and Japan. These the clay formations at the present time. Chapters 5 and 6 numbers have been used since the beginning of the stan- contain maps from elsewhere. dards in each country and both values are in use around The stratigraphical positions of the main clay the world to identify the boundary between sand and silt, formations in Great Britain are shown in Figure 1.3; which can be defined differently in different countries. again, similar stratigraphical columns could be prepared The current ISO Standard 14688:1996 placed the for other countries. The column shows the geological boundary at 0.06 mm. Japan has recently proposed that periods during which the main clay formations were ISO should reflect the two values 0.06 and 0.075 mm. deposited. See also discussion in Chapters 5 and 6. Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION
USA ASTM:D422-63(90) (Uniform soil classification) 0.001 0.005 0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 19 75 300
Co~oids Fine I Medium [ Coarse Fine I Coarse Silt Cobble Boulder Clays Sand Gravel
USA ASTM: D653-90 (Standard terms) 0.002 0.02 0.075 4.75 76.2 305 l__ t (Clays) ] (Silt) Sand Gravel [ Cobble Boulder Fine Particles I I 0.005 0.05
USA ASTM:D3282-93 (AASHTOM 145) (Soil classification for road construction) 0.075 0.425 2.0 75
Fine Coarse Silt-Clay Gravel Boulder Sand
UK BS5930:1999 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 60 200
Fine I Med. ICoarse nelMed ICoarse Fine ]Med. Come Clays Cobble Boulder Silt Sand Gravel
GERMANY DIN 4022 1987 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 60 200
Fine ] Med. ] Coarse Fine I Med. [ Coarse Fine Med. Coarse Clays Cobble Boulder Silt Sand Gravel
SWEDEN 1981 0.0006 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 60 200
n Fine] Fine Med. ] Coarse Fine Med. I Coarse Fine Med. Coarse Small [ large Small Large Clays Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder
ISO/DIS 14688 1996 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 6.0 20 60 200
Fine [ Med. [ Coarse Fine [ Med. I Coarse Fine I Med. ]Coarse Clays Cobble Boulder Silt Sand Gravel
JAPAN JGS 0051 2000 0.006 0.075 0.26 0.85 2.0 4.75 19 75 300
m Med. Coarse Fine Med. Coarse Fine Med. ] Coarse Coarse Rock LargeRock Clays (Cobble) (Boulder) Sand Gravel
FIG. 1.1. Soil classification by particle size (mm) in various countries. Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION "]
T~ foltowiagi~b!r ~!is~::r ~m:: ifif6~ati6n~: p~a~lished!by; the:British :~oto~ea! i~S~r !I(B~S i~I9~ii8;ii! ~861, ~oo!ti:;i!~el fO'r Natio~l Stafisr 2005)
Mineral:i~:statislic: I~85 I994 I999,!': i:: ~:~.~ :~ ::i: : :::i,2004 ~o~mo~ da~ ~d s~ie i ,i ::i ii i::~i~ ~i:i:i ~Quames t:78 t76 ...... t93 t:::i80 Pto~ti0n:(~Uion !~oml~S) 19 I:2 tl H:
1.5. TheWorking Party This trilogy is part of a series of Working Party Reports on engineering geology topics produced over the last four decades by the Engineering Group of the Geological The Clay Working Party was convened by the Engineer- Society. ing Group of the Geological Society to produce a Report The clay book is intended to be practical, authoritative to be published as a book. The published book is now the and informative and to be of use to a wide spectrum of third of a trilogy produced by the Working Parties on readers in the UK, Europe and around the world, from a Construction Materials. Together the three books cover diversity of backgrounds and employments. the complete range of particle sizes of natural geological Each member of the Working Party is knowledgeable materials (geomaterials) used in civil engineering in some aspects of clay and it is hoped that their combined construction. The two previous books are: expertise covers the full spectrum of clay from its geology Aggregates: sand, gravel and rock aggregates for and mineralogy to geological, chemical and engineering construction purposes Collis & Fox (eds), 1st edn properties, investigation, testing, its practical use in (1985); Smith & Collis (eds), 2nd edn (1993), reprinted construction and as commercial products. in 1998; and Smith, M.R. & Collis, L. (eds) 3rd edn. Members were largely from industry, together with revised by Fookes, Lay, Sims, Smith & West (2001). some from academia, and included geologists, engineer- Aggregates: sand, gravel and rock aggregates for con- ing geologists, industrial geologists, geotechnical struction purposes. Geological Society, London, Special engineers, laboratory specialists and industrial chemists. Publications, 17. To achieve the maximum possible breadth and balance 'Stone: building stone, rock fill and armourstone in in the report, advice and constructive criticism were can- construction' Smith, M.R. (ed.) 1999. Stone: building vassed from a range of individual specialists, professional stone, rock fill and armourstone in construction. institutions, learned societies, industrial associations and Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 16. research bodies. Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
8 INTRODUCTION
FIG. 1.2. Map of the UK showing major clay-rich solid-geology formations (more detailed UK maps are included in Chapter 6).
Thus it should be clear that the concepts and techniques diverse fields in a common theme and as such will inevi- described in the report are drawn from a wide scientific tably be used by persons of widely different vocational spectrum in which the Working Party sought advice from backgrounds. Consequently, basic material which is beyond the confines of the committee. The report links included in one section might be considered by an expert Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION 9
FIG. 1.3. Stratigraphical distribution of the principal British structural clays (ages after Gradstein & Ogg 1996).
in that particular field to be oversimplified. However, it is As part of the extension of the work of the Working thought that this approach is justified in order to serve a Party and its specialist corresponding members, a consul- wide readership and it is hoped that elementary facts tative seminar, ' Clay materials used in construction', was might assume a new significance when presented in held on 19 April 2000, in Manchester, at Geoscience relation to the central theme. To help this, text boxes have 2000, the major biennial conference of the Geological been used to discuss a topic or part of a topic in specialist Society. In this, the preliminary drafts of chapters in sum- detail, or to give a simple basic background on some mary form were made available as preprints. The chapters aspects of the subject where the text has assumed some were then presented during the session and wide-ranging prior knowledge. discussion, for each chapter, held with the audience. This Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
10 INTRODUCTION
ii!i~ii!i~ii!i~iiii!iiii!~iiii
authoritative, up,to.date :~d eXtensively @ported by:data: ~d eollat ~!~[l!!be minimise fi and necessary specialist terms wi!L~ defim ~op~:~Uustrationsi many Of which :wi!t!~eiOriginal, and:: ::.good ~6:: ~#i[llbe collective responsibili~ ::f6~::~e whole repo~ii!~$oug dra~g~author or co, author o f one, or more~. chapters, all members wil
praet~eat~ of applications. There will bel aa endeavour to identify likely: directions of 1 ptei~it :~e developments. Based principally on UK experience and practicei the CW] of the subject throughout Europe and worldwide,
uses ofc!ay ~i~ i:i cons~etion will be fully assessed, including a range of direct applications, plus other processes in which ii :/!il igi~ ~tial raw material.
procedure produced valuable feedback for the Working detailed information on deposits around the world, test Party and many ideas and suggestions developed at this methods and a glossary. The intention was that, with the meeting were included in the Terms of Reference (see the appendices, repetitive information, factual information above Text Box). and details which would hinder the flow of the text but were otherwise necessary in an authoritative book, would 1.5.1. The report be included. Each chapter is thoroughly cross-referenced to the Based on the objectives outlined above, it was decided to other chapters, as appropriate, and contains detailed structure the book round its sequence of chapters. The references for further reading. chapters have been subdivided into three main thematic Attention is drawn to the implications of the use of such groups: Geology, 2 to 6; Investigation, 7 to 9, and terms as 'weathering' and 'weathered clay' throughout Application, 10 to 15 (see Text Box on p. 11). the text. Near surface clay is usually in a weathered condi- The Geology chapters begin with fundamental tion. This weathering changes the characteristics of the scientific aspects, composition, formation and alteration material and most sources of clay around the world are of clays, and continues with discussions of their basic weathered to a lesser or great extent. Therefore the form properties and reviews of clay deposits around the world and influence of the weathering on the characteristics as well as in Britain. This approach was designed to of the material must be taken into consideration in its set the scene for the following Investigation chapters evaluation and use. Often, reported test properties are evaluating clays, their exploration, composition, textural those of the fresh material, whereas the material as deliv- analysis and their testing. This book is completed by ered may be weathered to some extent and have different the practical Application chapters concerning clays in properties. Users and specifiers must be aware of this. See earthworks and engineering situations, in buildings and in further discussion on weathering in Chapter 4. industrial use, principally bricks, ceramics and cement The four Appendices (plus a glossary), together with and related products. parts of the text, have been assembled mainly from data of It was considered that extensive appendices would be which the Working Party have no first-hand knowledge of required to provide mineralogical and property data, the provenance or the reliability, although every effort has Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
INTRODUCTION 11
Strueture:,~Of thei::boo~repo~ Brief notes:on scope of:ctlapter Te~s ofimf~eneer scope:::!ofreport; ~fmifions; ;:~tiStics;d~s~bufiort of clays in t~e and space; outlier:of Chapters.
C ta~ ~::"ehe~e~~mposifion, and: atomiC: s~e:mre~!:ofelay ~e~als~i Non e~ay!min~a] !Phasesi Swellirig and iOn.eXch~ge~ fl~ids ai~d goses::present;:: ere:; Mode.::o f~tion~.:Of e lay~al s and !their al terafio~: ~ tetation:::to their i~ar t::;:Diagenes~si:ithifieafiO~: and: lo~ia~, me~m6~hi~m,,
pa!ar h!~ !!arid~l~ie;~S:~iaffe~i~g'{ehy~:.ii! :i::~i~! iii i~i: ~:::i: :::~ i~i i: ;i::i:i i::~ i!
and~al
m~d te~te~i ::::;i:~;:
:! !!'i:i:~:!.:~:~84 been made to check the authenticity of the data sources. will have similar properties: they may or may not. Instead, The quality of analyses and reliability of the information reliance should be placed on comprehensive sampling, will vary considerably around the world and therefore testing and quality control at the original location. data assembled in the appendices (as well as chapters) Appendix A calls for a special comment. It includes should only be used with considerable caution and it must new and valuable clay mineral analyses of over one not be assumed that similar clays from different locations hundred clay samples spanning the stratigraphic Downloaded from http://egsp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 2, 2021
12 INTRODUCTION succession of the British Isles, collected, or provided, by DIN 1987. Classification and Description of soil and rock. DIN members of the Working Party, during the period of its 4022, Part 1 Swedish Geotechnical Society : 1981 : Soil work. The samples were divided into two sub-samples: Classification and Identification. Laboratory Committee of the whole clay, and the fraction less than 0.002 mm Swedish Geotechnical Society. ENVIRONMENT AGENCY 2000. Construction and Demolition Waste particle size. These were analysed by automated X-ray Survey, R&D Report P402, Swindon. powder diffraction methods at the laboratories of the GUGGENHEIM, S. & MARTIN, R. T. 1995. Definition of clay and clay Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Scotland, all at mineral: Joint Report of the AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS the same time by the same method and the results Nomenclature Committees. Clay and Clay Minerals, 43 (2), analysed by the same person (Dr Stephen Hillier). These 255-256. studies provided a self-consistent set of results for the GUGGENHEIM, S. & MARTIN, R. T. 1996. Reply to the comment by mineralogical composition of the clays, both the clay D.M. Moore on: Definition of clay and clay mineral: Joint minerals present and non-clay-minerals. The samples Report of the AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS Nomenclature were also analysed by X-ray fluorescence at the laborato- Committees. Clay and Clay Minerals, 44 (5), 713-715. G~a.DSTErN, F. M. & OGG, J. G. 1996. A Phanerozoic time scale. ries of Watts Blake Bearne and Company in Germany. Episodes, 19 (l&2). This study provided information on the major elements ISO 2002. Geotechnical Engineering--Identification and classifi- and supplemented the results obtained by the X-ray cation of soil--IS 14688 Part 1 Identification and Description diffraction method. ISO/TC 182/SC 1. This appendix is considered a most important piece of JGS 2000. Method of classification of geomaterials for engineering work: it is the first comprehensive analytical study of this purposes. Japanese Geotechnical Society 0051-2000. kind carried out in Britain. It follows the pioneering work KLEIN, E. 1966 & 1967. A comprehensive etymological dictionary of Perrin (1971) in the 1960s, and gives an authoritative of the English language. 2 Vols. Elsevier, Amsterdam, conspectus of the mineralogical composition of British London, New York, 177 p. LAPIDUS, D. F. 1990. Collins Dictionary of Geology. Collins, clays using modern methods of analysis. The results London and Glasgow. should be valuable in both the academic study of the MACKENZIE, R. C. 1963. De Natura Lutorum. Clays and Clay Min- origin and nature of clays and in the application of clay erals, v. XI. Proceedings of the Eleventh National Conference mineralogy to practical uses. on Clays and Clay Minerals. Pergamon Press, 1-28. It is hoped that this book provides a fitting third mem- MAYN, S. E. An Indo-European comparative dictionary. Helmut ber to the geomaterials trilogy. Improving and/or updating Buske, Hamburg, 1984-1987. XIV, 1682 S. comments for possible further editions are welcome. MOORE, D. M. 1996. Conmaent on: Definition of clay and clay mineral: Joint Report of the AIPEA Nomenclature and CMS Nomenclature Committees. Clay and Clay Minerals, 44 (5), References 710-712. OFFICE FOR NATIONAL STATISTICS 2005. Mineral extraction in Great Britain, Business Monitor PAl007. ASTM : D422-63 (90), STM for particle size analysis of soils. PEterkIN, R. M. S. 1971. The Clay Mineralogy of British Sediments. ASTM : D653-96, Standard Terminology relating to soil, rock and Mineralogical Society, London. contained fluids. QMJ PUBLISHING, 2000. Directory of Quarries, Pits and Quarry ASTM : D2487-93, Classification of Soils for Engineering Equipment 2001/2002, Nottingham. Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). SCOTT, J. S. 1991. 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