SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE
Paper No. and Title PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse
Module No. and Title MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
Module Tag FSC_P9_M17
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Forensic Issues
4. Classification of Designer Drugs
5. Some Notable Designer Drugs
6. Forensic Analysis of Designer Drugs
7. Summary
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to know about: The significance of Designer Drugs Classification of Designer Drugs Forensic analysis of Designer Drugs
2. Introduction
Over ages, humans fortunately discovered that certain ingested plants were a source of unique satisfying feelings, beyond satiety. Some were mildly affecting (e.g. nicotine, caffeine), others enhanced mood or altered perception, reduced pain, intoxicated, or produced euphoria (e.g. alcohol, marijuana, hallucinogens, opiates, cocaine). In the past two centuries, consumption of these psychoactive substances expanded rapidly. Decontamination of the active chemicals, distribution by manoeuvres for maximum effect and global marketing contributed to this expansion. Modern chemistry has produced a huge range of variations of these plant products, paralleled by an unprecedented level of adverse biological, behavioural, medical and social consequences. Following this phenomenon, Designer drugs are produced to be similar to, but not identical with Psychoactive Drugs that are illegal to possess or sell for human consumption, unless for medical purposes. A recurring threat to public health, the Designer Drug sub-culture has burst out over the past decade. The rapid expansion can be attributed to a convergence of crucial technological advances combined with deceitful, aggressive marketing schemes.
3. Forensic Issues
Designer drugs are produced in laboratories, the majority resembling drugs legally restricted for distribution and possession. They share one common trait, producing Psychoactive Effects that can range from cannabis like, psychomotor stimulation, dissociative anaesthesia to hallucinogenic. Examples include mephedrone, methylone, MDPV, ethylphenidate, synthetic cannabinoids in “Spice” or “K2”, 2, 5-dimethoxy-4-(n) - propylphenethylamine (2C-P), N-adamantyl-1-pentylindole-3-carboxamide (2NE1), methiopropamine, and methoxetamine. They are retailed economically as bulk powders, and are deceptively labelled as Research Chemicals, Bath Salts, Plant Food, Incense, food, or by other names and labelled as “not for human consumption”.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
The Designer Drug industry is a niche business with a simple strategy to: a) Circumvent existing drug laws and endorse their products as legal b) Create new markets with rapid profits c) Undercut producers and prices of common illegal drugs d) Undermine routine clinical drug testing
The consumers misinterpret the drugs as legal, less hazardous than conventional street drugs and more intriguing. They are more challenging to detect and easier to evade routine clinical drug testing. Standard strip tests do not identify most of these compounds. Nonetheless, most drugs or their metabolites are effortlessly isolated from biological samples, including hair samples, and can be identified in laboratories with standard or advanced analytical techniques.
Designer drugs may evoke psychoactive effects similar to the parent drug, or stimulate a more intense, amplified, unique or life-threatening response. Occasionally, new drugs are designed or discovered that have neither precedent in medicinal chemistry nor a long history of abuse, e.g. Salvinorin A, yet they may possess equal or greater abuse potential or health hazards. Drug traffickers bypassed drug laws by developing analogues of banned opioids as early as the 1920’s. During the 1960’s a rash of new psychoactive drugs were introduced to world. The resistance to drugs and a shift in perceptions took years to penetrate public opinion, when drug use became viewed as reducing natural potential, and the consequences of drugs in family members, schools, and the workplace, begin to take a toll.
4. Classification of Designer Drugs
Current designer drugs can be classified by their chemical structure, by their psychoactive properties, by their known biological targets, or by their source (plant, synthetic, or combined).
4.1 Cathinones Designer Drugs
The drugs most found in “bath salts” are substituted Cathinones (synthetic derivatives of the stimulant Chemical in Khat). “Bath salts” are disguised as plant foods, insect repellent, stain removers, and sold under brand names such as Bliss, Blue Silk, Cloud Nine, Drone, Energy-1, Ivory Wave, Lunar Wave, Meow- Meow, Ocean Burst, Pure Ivory, Purple Wave, Red Dove, Snow Leopard, Stardust, Vanilla Sky, White Dove, White Knight, and White Lightning. The products are sold as powders in small plastic or foil packages of 200 and 500 mgs.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
The structure of phenethylamine, a trace amine found in the brain, is the backbone for most of the stimulant-type designer drugs. These compounds are easy to prepare and can be chemically moulded in a myriad of ways to produce stimulants (amphetamine), stimulant-like hallucinogens or “entactogens”. Cocaine- and amphetamine-like psychostimulant drugs, mephedrone, methylone, and pyrovalerone analogues, including MDPV and naphyrone are some of the chemicals packaged as “bath salts”.
4.2 Cannabinoid Designer Drugs
There are three types of cannabinoids designer drugs:
4.2.1 Phytocannabinoids – Theses are produced by plants. The marijuana plant produces over 70 Phytocannabinoids. Δ9 -Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC is found at much higher concentrations than any other cannabinoid in the common Cannabis sativa plant, one of several plants that produce cannabinoids.
4.2.2 Endocannabinoids - These are produced by the brain and other organs. The body produces seven or more endocannabinoids, two of which are widely distributed and function in cannabinoid signalling: anandamide (2- arachidonoylethanolamide) and 2-AG (2-arachidonoylglycerol), which resemble, but are not identical to cannabinoids of plant origin.
4.2.3 Synthetic cannabinoids – These are developed over the last 30 years as research tools to explore cannabinoid systems in the brain and other organs and to discover the feasibility of developing cannabinoid medications.
Cannabinoid communication or signalling system has three major components: (1) A chemical message or neurotransmitter (e.g. endocannabinoids) (2) A receptor that interprets the message (3) An enzyme that degrades the message
All designer cannabinoids mimic the psychoactive effects of marijuana, with some considerably more potent than marijuana. Their metabolites may differ biologically from marijuana.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
4.3 Hallucinogens Designer Drugs
A number of hallucinogens and other psychoactive drugs have evolved into street drugs: (1) Phenethylamine (analogous to mescaline), rigid equivalents of phenethylamines and benzylphenethylamines (e.g. 2C-Bfly, Br-fly, Br-dragonfly) (2) Salvinorin A (3) Tryptamines (4) Dissociative anaesthetics Methoxetamine, Ketamine, and PCP
Phenethylamine derivative potencies (e.g. amphetamines, mescaline) have been increased by locking the structure more rigidly to produce compounds designated as “fly”. Some are exceptionally potent and one “Br- dragonfly” is related with an overdose death. DMAA (1, 3- dimethylamylamine) is a common ingredient in “party pills”.
5. Some Notable Designer Drugs
5.1 Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine is a powerful addictive stimulant that vividly affects the Central Nervous System (CNS). The drug is prepared easily in clandestine laboratories with moderately economical over the counter ingredients. These factors combine to make methamphetamine a drug with high potential for widespread abuse.
Methamphetamine Methamphetamine is commonly known as speed, meth, and chalk. In its smoked form it is often referred to as ice, crystal, crank, and glass. It is a white, odourless, bitter-tasting crystalline powder that easily dissolves in water or alcohol. The drug was developed early in this century from its parent drug, amphetamine, and was used originally in nasal decongestants and bronchial inhalers. Methamphetamine’s chemical structure is similar to that of amphetamine, but it has more distinct effects on the Central Nervous System.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
Like amphetamine, it causes increased activity, decreased appetite, and a general sense of well-being.
As a Central Nervous System stimulant, methamphetamine directly affects the brain and the spinal cord by interfering with the normal release and uptake of neurotransmitters (chemicals that nerve and brain cells produce to communicate with each other). Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter affected by methamphetamine, but norepinephrine and epinephrine are also affected.
5.2 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or Ecstasy is a synthetic drug that has found widespread use in young adult populations. The compound MDMA was first synthesized in 1914 and originally developed as an appetite suppressant. However, the compound was never used for that purpose, and in the 1970s recreational drug use with MDMA was first noted.
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
MDMA is an amphetamine derivative. Ecstasy causes release of neuroactive compounds such as Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), Dopamine, and Norepinephrine into the Central Nervous System (CNS). Additionally, neuronal uptake of these neurotransmitters, most notably with serotonin, is inhibited by ecstasy. These actions result from the interaction of MDMA with the membrane transporters that are involved in neurotransmitter reuptake and vesicular storage systems. The net result of these CNS effects is to increase acutely the levels of these neurotransmitters at the synapse. These effects on neurotransmitter levels lead to many of the effects that are induced by ecstasy use, including mood changes and thermoregulation and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) dysfunction.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
5.3 Trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine
Trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine or TFMPP is a 1-arylpiperazine and known widely as a new group of designer drugs and are used as recreational drugs for their stimulant effects.
Trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP)
TFMPP are members of the piperazine group of chemically synthesized compounds, along with other well-known examples such as Cyclizine and Sildenafil. TFMPP is typically obtained in the form of a powder, tablets or capsules. The primary route of administration is oral consumption. However, the powder is also being "snorted" or smoked.
5.4 α- Methylfentanyl
α- Methylfentanyl (China White) is an opioid analgesic that is an analogue of Fentanyl.
α- Methylfentanyl
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
5.5 Mecloqualone
Mecloqualone (Nubarene or Casfen) is a quinazolinone-class GABAergic and is an analogue of methaqualone that was first manufactured in 1960. It has sedative, hypnotic, and anxiolytic properties caused by its agonist activity at the β- subtype of the GABAA receptor. It was used for the treatment of insomnia.
Mecloqualone Mecloqualone is faster-acting but shorter-lasting than methaqualone and so was used only as a sleeping pill, in contrast to methaqualone, which was used as a general purpose anxiolytic as well. Mecloqualone was never as widely used as methaqualone and is no longer prescribed because of concerns about its potential for abuse and overdose. It is most often seen these days as a component in purported Quaaludes (resulting from unfinished synthesis of methaqualone) from concealed labs.
5.6 Nitromethaqualone
Nitromethaqualone is an analogue of methaqualone that has similar sedative and hypnotic properties. It is significantly more potent compared to the parent compound.
Nitromethaqualone
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
5.7 Phencyclidine
Phencyclidine (PCP), also known as Angel Dust, Crystal, Keeler Weed, was synthesized in the early 1900s and tested during World War I as a surgical anaesthetic.
Phencyclidine
PCP is an antagonist of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) ionotropic receptor in the CNS causing an inhibition of depolarization of neurons and subsequent interferences with cognitive and other functions of the brain. The natural agonist for this receptor is Glutamate, which is believed to be a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. In its pure form PCP is a white crystalline powder that readily dissolves in water.
5.8 Mescaline
Mescaline occurs naturally in three major species of cacti: peyote (Lophophora williamsii), Peruvian torch cactus (Echinopsis peruviana), and San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi).
Mescaline
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
The drug was first isolated and identified in 1897 by German scientist Arthur Heffter who performed for the first time a controlled mescaline self-administration.
The drug was subsequently synthesised in the early 1900s. Similarly to LSD, psilocin or Tryptamines, mescaline acts through a G- protein-coupled type 5-HT receptor, specifically the 5-HT2A receptor. The drug causes hallucinations, euphoria and many other symptoms. The pharmacologically active dose of pure mescaline in humans is 300 to 500 mg.
6. Forensic Analysis of Designer Drugs
6.1 MARQUIS REAGENT TEST
Preparation of reagent:
For Methamphetamine & 3, 4- Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): 8 – 10 drops of 40% Formaldehyde solution is added to 10 ml of conc. Sulphuric Acid.
For Mescaline: Solution A: Add 8 – 18 drops of 40% formaldehyde solution to 10 ml glacial acetic acid. Solution B: Concentrated Sulphuric acid.
Procedure:
For Methamphetamine: Appropriate amount of the exhibit is taken on a spot plate and added not more than 3 drops of reagent drop wise. Appears of orange colour turning to brown indicates the positive test for the presence of Amphetamine/Methamphetamine.
For Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): Adequate amount of the exhibit is taken on a spot plate and added the reagent drop wise. Transformation of Brown colour to black and then to purple indicates the presence of Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA).
For Mescaline: Appropriate amount of the suspected material or exhibit is taken on a spot plate and added to it 1 drop of Solution- A followed by 2 drops of Solution- B. The appearance of orange to orange red colour indicates the presence of Mescaline.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
6.2 SIMON'S REAGENT TEST
Preparation of reagents: Solution A: 20% aqueous Sodium Carbonate solution Solution B: 50% Ethanolic Acetaldehyde solution Solution C: 1% aqueous Sodium Nitroprusside solution
Procedure:
Appropriate amount of sample is taken on spot plate and added to it a drop of Solution- A followed by one drop of Solution- B and further, few drops of Solution- C. Appearance of blue colour indicates the positive tests for the presence of methamphetamine while appearance of slow pink to cherry red colour indicates the presence of amphetamine.
6.3 MANDELIN’S REAGENT TEST
Preparation of reagent:
1 gram Ammonium Vanadate is dissolved in 100ml. concentrated Sulphuric Acid.
Procedure:
For Amphetamines: Appropriate amount of aqueous solution of suspected exhibit is taken and added few drops of Mandelin’s reagent, appearance of green, darkens rapidly indicates the positive test for the presence of amphetamines. On stirring the colour passes through several shades to emerald green and dark reddish brown, which changes to light red-brown on heating.
For Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): Appropriate amount of aqueous solution of suspected exhibit is taken and added few drops of Mandelin’s reagent. Transformation of Purple colour to Brown colour gives the positive indication of MDA.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
6.4 COBALT THIOCYANATE TEST
Preparation of reagents: Solution A: 16% Hydrochloric Acid solution. Solution B: 2.5 gm Cobalt (II) Thiocyanate in 100 ml water.
Procedure:
Small amount of suspected material is taken in to a test tube. Added one drop of Solution- A and one-drop Solution- B. Blue colour indicates a positive test for the presence of Methaqualone or Mecloqualone.
6.5 FISCHER-MORRIS TEST
Preparation of reagent: Solution A: Conc. Formic Acid (88%) Solution B: 5% aqueous Sodium Nitrite solution.
Procedure:
Appropriate amount of suspected material is placed in to test tube. Added seven drops of Solution- A and five drops Solution- B. Allowed it to stand for 1-2 minutes, then added 15 to 20 drops of chloroform. Shaken well and allowed to stand. Observe the colour of both layers.
In water layer Methaqualone and Mecloqualone do not give any colour while they give yellow colour in chloroform layer.
6.6 MECKE’S REAGENT TEST
Preparation of reagent:
0.25 gm. of Selenious Acid dissolved in 25 ml of concentrated Sulphuric Acid.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
Procedure:
Take appropriate amount of the suspected material or exhibit on a spot plate add to it few drop of Mecke’s reagent.
The appearance of Orange changes to brown colour indicates the presence of Mescaline. The transformation of Green colour to blue and further to purple indicates the presence of Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA).
6.7 FROHDE’S REAGENT TEST
Preparation of reagent:
50 mgs of molybdic acid or Sodium Molybdate is dissolved in 10 ml of hot concentrated Sulphuric Acid. The resulting solution should be colourless.
Procedure:
Take appropriate amount of the suspected material or exhibit on a spot plate add to it few drop of Frohde’s reagent.
The appearance of brown colour indicates the presence of Mescaline. The conversion of Brown colour to purple indicates the presence of Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA).
6.8 LIEBERMANN’S TEST
Preparation of reagent:
5 gm. of Sodium Nitrate added to 50 ml of Sulphuric Acid with cooling and swirling to absorb the brown fumes.
Procedure:
Take appropriate amount of the suspected material or exhibit on a spot plate add to it 2 – 3 drops of Liebermann’s reagent. Occasionally it is required to carry out the test in a test tube and heat it in a water bath at 100°C. The appearance of black colour indicates the presence of Mescaline.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs
7. Summary
Designer drugs are congeners of active compounds that have been modified from legitimate pharmaceutical agents, and are used for recreational purposes.
Designer drugs are usually stronger and cheaper than the parent compound, and can be easily synthesized in clandestine laboratories. The term “Designer Drug” does not include new forms or new dosing routes of old drugs (e.g. cocaine used in freebase form, i.e. “crack”). It also does not include legal drugs which are abused (e.g. ephedrine, caffeine, phenylpropanolamine, etc.).
Spice and K2, especially as they are widely used by high school and college students, are emerging public health challenges. Their rapid rise in popularity, ready access from multiple sources, production of acute psychological distress, toxicity and potentially long term harmful effects, ability to evade standard drug tests, require an integrated national response.
Not all cathinones are the same, with each deliberating a different set of health risks. Nonetheless, use of cathinone analogues is increasing rapidly, especially among youth and in the face of mounting evidence that they engender unacceptable risks and adverse consequences.
Globally, of the various substances abused, alcohol and tobacco head the list, followed by sedatives and tranquillisers, cannabis, opiates, and cocaine. Amphetamines and hallucinogens are less popular, though newer recreational drugs (“designer drugs”) are increasingly being abused, especially by the youth.
Designer Drugs have become increasingly popular among adolescents and college students as a recreational drug to be used during “rave parties”.
FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 17: Designer Drugs