The Pershing punitive expedition and its diplomatic background
Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Fain, Samuel S., 1909-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/347634 THE PERSHING PUNITIVE EXPEDITION AND ITS DIPLOMATIC BACKGROUND
by
Samuel S. Fain '!
A Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Department of History and Political Science in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
in the Graduate College University of Arizona
1951
Approved: V / i / J / Director of Thesi Tati
TABLE OF OONTEMTS Page MAP OF PART- OF CHIHUAHUA, ' MEXICOs SHOWING THE AREA COVERED BY THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION - « 0 , . . '»■ «,» . < El Chapter • ' I0 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO, X5IOb“*TS^I5 o O o Q o' O O O O © © © O O O O O , O < 1 H o THE IMMEDIATE ORIGINS, 1915-1916, OF THE' . PUNITIVE EXPEDITION © V © 0 ' © © © © © © , © ■© < 32 III© THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION IN MEXICO © © © © 59 ."IV, • THE- AFTERMATH OF THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION © © © 92
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<*& P* CHAPTER I
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES
. ' AND MQEKICO, 1910-1915
The tense situation between Mexico and the United . ' States which resulted in the United States sending a military,
expedition'into Mexican territory in 1916 was the outgrowth of a number of years of ■unsatisfactory relations between the : two countries^ The punitive expedition was the climax of a period of industrial$, social, and diplomatic strife@ Infiltration by United States citizens had reached very substantial proportions in Mexico by IglO# The railway
builders were the vanguard of this peaceful invasion^ : Mr@
Jay Oould, Russell Sage, .and'E0 H a Harriman werd preminent among the business men who had received grants "for.railway : ' ' ' . / ^ ' - . : construction from the government of Porfirio Diaz® The Santa
. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ' ■ : . v / : a :-; . ■ Ee, the Southern Pacific, and the Denver and Rio Grande were the railroads controlled in the United States which did most
of the construction work in Mexico9 In 1902 holdings by United States citizens in Mexican railways were somewhat over
three hundred million dollars, and by 1912 they were close to . ;; . ■ '• ■ ■ ■ ■ . • T. . :' . "-i-t . - six hundred and: fifty millions^ v // '■ :-
. ■ ^J.e Fred Hippy 9 The United States and Mexico, p» 312» . vv :: ^ ■ 2: ■■■ ■■ '
' Mining Interests also:were in the foreground of this movement' into Mexiodo The Hearst estate^ the Guggen
heim Sg the Anaconda group9 and the United States Steel:Cor poration were among the organisations which owned more than
ninety-five million dollars worth of mining property in ' Mexico by 1902j ‘ nine years later, the figure was two hundred
and fifty million dollars^2 . . ' .. Along with the railroad men and the miners came ranchmen and■farmersQ Sometimes ranching, •farming and timber lands were bought by large companies; sometimes the lands were purchased by specialists in real estate, "ranching or, faraingo
The large holding was the rulet ; • A.similar concentration of possessions took place in oil and other industries0 Money from the United .States poured into various Mexican projects so- rapidly that Mthe estimated value of'American investments in Mexico increased from- ■
#5 0 0,00 0 ,0 0 0 (gold) in 1902 to nearly #1 ,5 0 0,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 by
1912, including ownership of 78 per cent of the mines, 72 per cent of the smelters, 58 per cent of the oil and 68 per.cent of the rubber business, and exceeding the total investments,
of all other foreigners in Mexico011 Oolonists and missionaries also found their way into
■ : . : : . . - # . - ' " - . . ■ ' - the7 country south of the Rio Grandee By 1911 "between forty
y 2 lb Id a:-a . ppo 312°157o ' . \ y " y ;
^IbidoW Po 3131 ' y . ' ' '' . ' ' : / ' i . ' . ;; . - . ' 'James Morton Callahan9 American Foreign Policy in Mexican Relations,. p 0 5190 y"?7- - ■ ■' 3 and seventy-five ihousand Amefiqanshad established their homes in Mexicoa 0 ? In 1916 s in . spite of five years of revolution, there were in llexiGO six. hundred Protestant
churches 0 => • and more than four hundred Sunday -schools,"1 with more than forty thousand participants in their religi- R ous activities,) Thus, United States interests in Mexico were vast
in extent and varied in nature when, in 1 9 1 0 , a revolution ■ ' ' . ' ' ' ' : ■ : . ■ ■ z began against the government of Porfirio Diaz0• This revo™. lution aggravated the already disturbed situation in Mexico and inaugurated an era when governments succeeded each other • with great rapidity0 : . . 3:' ' - The frequent change, in governments from 1910 to 1916' did not constitute a unique period in Mexican history.e;; Since' .v' Mexico had gained her independence from Bpain in 1821 there had been ’seventy”two Mexican governments, . nearly all. of them . . - 6 de facto, and fifty-five- -of -them purely military = ■ - Some acquaintance with the internal conditions which produced this rapid succession of governmental authority is necessary for an understanding of relations between the
United States and Mexico0 / . - - " ■ When Diaz came into power in 1876 there were two . principal classes of Mexicans! the large landholders, or __ - - — —” — ; . - - — ; - : : : ; Hippy, opo clt09 p 6 318b f' ' Herbert I0 Priestley,“Mexican Literature on the Recent Revolution,M Hispanic American - Historiml Review, Vol0 .11, lo0 ’ 2, lay, 1919, P.306* . hacendadosj and the .peoneSe. dtle : haoendados ruled over large
estated 18known as "daoiendas, the mlnlm-um size of vrblohg as ;
legally defined ? wa s 21»94-5 a ore s ^88 ' The communal lands ■
of the/ peones9 csdled e.iIdoa9 were: admin 1 gtered "by' the , v villages in. which the peones lived,s During the. administra™: tion of Diaz - that; id,- between 1876: and 1910 » over one- fourth of the national domain ? in eluding some; of the eommu- / nal land s^ was disposed of to form new hacienda s' or indrease- . the size ' of those- already in existence,, During the same "' \
period "between nine million and ten million of the peones: had lost • their freedom:hpi;h©aome. agricultural laborers In -
■ debh service's,' nr peonehMe/hampb:! /. f i ..f: ' ■ " As ■. had been Indihated ^ -hhi ted States^ inf ersst s : in
Mexico InoreaSed ;rpp idly whil ©"thisre allotment of land s and increasing servitude of the■ poorer class were 'taking• place» Special privileges granted to citizens of the United-
; States' in connection with. landed;;faxes, mines^ and .; -,
rubber were some of the - reasons advanced .for the revolt - -
against'Diaze - ' ' . - ^ ; - Animosifyftoward pebjple aerhs's ,the-border was: i: i-l
evidently an..important, element;in the Mexican .situation^ :: I ” It was. clear■ to all that the mere' existehce of; this . anti- ; American feeling was one of the. strongest asset s ' of the - - " ■
.revolution xMadero. agaiiist Diazjs, The; reydlutibnisfs hoped to embarrass, the zuEazigovermeht in . t he - ey e-s of the United
• ‘ Charles W , . hacket.t j -The. Mexican Revolution, anci, the- United'States, p» 3.40 .p" " - “ • •5:
. 8tattaqks upon odo.sulates * sulW" -to the; flag, ;:v.d . f- 'assaialts- 'upon the persons ^of .ImerCoan ; :;aitlsens and dd" ' ■ ; - struct ion of 'their property' xer-e acts" calculated to hinder ' 'V / the. 'government of Dias^ sine© it could; do no less "than at- -
tempt to suppress such demonstrations9 'ana thus be-'put in - - . -; vthe,position of appearing to;favor s^nd support Americanism _ . - '
' / -in-Mexicd@“p ' - ' i/;.i ; ;.>;1 " :: ; ' .; . ’ ihe,"traffic in mtihitIons' over 'toe Mexican ."border ; ' , ; ' was. signif icant in -this phase' of ;;the;::revolution and;alsd . v ' - . 'laten® n When; the : Diaz - government .protested': against ..shipments .
.... of prm.s :to.,;the Hadero f orces,. the 'Department, of ' 8tato of ; • the. Unit edStates replied that this -trade in munitions was inot a vdoiafion of neutrality^ ;; £tvleasftone writer -felt ; that ■ the-United States j. hehlnd a screen of : impartialityg : , -
was actively opposing D.laz# as witnessVhis statement. that ;. : !Sthe revolt, against him «, » was; planned in the American ;
Department of State,|: <, 6 -1. Ih©; war which hroke put in 1910 P.-
was .hegun prdsustained iy Merican capitaiist.s.$fwith, the . . . f:-; >; full consent of Secretary Knox and President Taft."^ This ■ -
; pr ohahlyrepresent s a-, som ewhat extreme' View of - Anerl.can In- ' I
terference/ln Mexiban''affairs® .Howevers. piiice :there' is no - ' .; Indication' that- Madero was dissatisfied with, the policy of ' ' ; ; the; United States -regardlegMexi co g ; one -may assume ;that he:
- ; v. • •.. John E a MacSohoughy Henry -Lane ¥11 sons ambassador ' ' . to Mexico a 19Q9 to 19151 PP @ 15-16 ^ v: (M g A s the si s y Msc 9 v; -1 University of Jlrizdna lihrary^ 1940) : ' . ’ ' ; "t
.: atehan'Maqueo Castellanos9 quoted in Priestleya opt :e:ifg : 6
felt that' the United States was aiding'Ills eause® Another factor was the presence; of a United -States
army on the Mexican 'border0 Ostensibly to enforee interna
tional laws troops were sent to the border on November 2 2^ 10 • " 1910a On March 12g 1911s all of the armed forces of the ll" United States were ordered to Texas by. President Taft...... Although there ls .no record that any United States; soldiers • .oross.ed;-into Mexico- in force:-before March 9/ 1915g the presence of an army on their northern border led many Mexicans to believe that the United States was intent on armed inter vention, at an opportune moment o This suspicious, attitude concerning the- intentions of -the United States did not tend to.lessen the friction already existing'between the two
countries^ - ' .- ' . -. ' ., . z When the Madero forces captured .Juarez, May 10 8 ; . . ; : . I9H 9 Diaz decided to. give up the fight9 On May 25, 1911» • - - ' . ' .10 tiae: aged'ruler left Mexico and Mexican authority started zon-the unstable course it .was desfined to pursue® : . : In accordance, with the terms: of the armistice _ -
signed b y ,Diaz and Madero8 an ad interim presidency was vested
in De-la Barra9 who served in this capacity from May 259 1911
to Hovember 6 S 1911®'. At the end of this time Madero' took
"^Papers Relating to the Forelgh Relations of the United Statess 19IIIT'pT~473q Thereafter this will be cited as Foreign Relations^ . . " l%acDonoughSi^@ clta 9 p@ 25®
1 2 rbidQ, ppV28-31*. . . 7
the offic© of president to which he had just been eleoteda -
When Maderotook office a,s president of Mexico9 Taft moved to suppoft him® The; Madero government reeeived immediate re
cognition by the United States and a,n embargo was declared ' 14 upon munitions destined for Madero*s opponents®" . . Although President .Taft had Indicated that he wanted Mexico to work out her own destinys his attitude changed as
the ■ conflict' in Mexico- became., more: violent» - In order to ob viate" ;intervention., he advised United. States citizens not to enter Mexico and those already there he requested to leave
the dangerous‘areas0 But when United States nationals and
their property in Mexico.continued"to suffer at the hands of " the combatants, Taft was forced to send troops to the border and war vessels to Vera Gruz®- Henry Lane Wilson had.been. United States Ambassador to Mexico since 1909® Wilson was; displeased with the acces sion of Madero to the presidency ..and the two men were at odds
during the, entire period of Madero8 s incumbency ® Beginning with the criticism of "the election which brought Madero the presidencyg Wilson continually used the prestige of his position to force himself into Mexican, affairs® 18At ; a time when no other country found it. necessary to. advise its
^ I b id as P ..-.39. , ; ; .. ; a • Samuel Plagg .Bemls,,- A. "Diplomatic -History - of the . United States! p s 545* ' ' " 15 " ■■■ .■"■■■ '• ■. v Hippy? opo cltoo p® 352I 8
national s. to leave, ifllsdix, published: la .Mexico Glty a M M
'op ten of the tsentjr^elght states in. Mex.loo; which he^ deemed '
. ; as v3 known. to he; dangerous.®and fnom which Americans /were - . ;i ■ .■ advised to ■ immediately’ withdraw«,18^ . Though-, the .State: he= / : partmen t mor e than " on c e . censiiped - hi s statement s and ■actions $, / ■’ Wilson was^suocessful/ in of eat ;ing: the ■ impression in the-: ' /•:•-' ■ United States that: interventioh was :the:only means hy which American nationais -and interests could:.he' protected® - / '; - ’ ■/, . ... In/ addition to a number'; of clashes with 1?ilson« . Sadero was he set by opposition from, his own. countrymen® o-vy-i
"i: . '/his former .-aiiles/,: Pascual/ Orosco /and,'Pancho Villa, both /'// .: rebelled, against his authoritye / /Until.■.their armies werm// '
/// : ■': / defeated by the Madero forces led-/by' .-Victoria ; these, leaders Caused the Hadero- :g.oyerninen.t a,, good: des/l of
. ... trouble© ' Villa3 s raids ngainst - citizens of the Uhited • States in the. north of Mexico precipitated one of the nurner™ V ous disputes .between.: Madero and Henry bane: Wilson® - , ; ? . Madero ■appears ■to/.have, been sincerely - intent on ; ./'///■ -.improving/ conditions In Mexico*/. 'Believing, the, .fundamental ,' -/ ,,// dif f l/culty/ to be- the' lack ' of opportunity: aff orded the lower /;/;-', classes, /he urged "a reversal of /the relative positions of /
■ / the social ■ classes in the political: and; economic scheme of .
■ 1 " W , / ... :1 8 /: //'/..// V . / ' ' things©- But. Madero was .unable t.o.,"bring-his new order ito
■// h: :■' - -// ^/%lacDonouph*/ opl cit<,/, pp©. tl-61t : ; h/ 1 // / '
"jbW .. W. 57-65. . .///"/;;../ ;/://■• ^Hetbert Ingram/Briestleyl .The Mexican Hatlon9: A /' /.’:/ / History428■// //,./:,_//://,/ ' ''f'::////'t///::;^ ///■://.' .//'//// /; 9 beingo His pov/er-declined- rapidly when be failed to satisfy the 'material demands of the men who had aided his rise to " 19 . ■ : . : ■ ' ■ - powere :- : - Venustiano Oarranza and Emiliano Zapata opposed the. authority of their chief^ but before either of these leaders could gain control of the- government 9:'Vieforiano Huerta : ■ ' '■ - . . ' ' i .■ : ' " / captured President Madero and Vice-President Pino-Suarez on
February 18s,.-1913q Henry Lane .Wilson was significantly close to Huerta both before andafter the overthrow of the Madero government® On February 14 Wilson had arranged a meeting of the diplomatic corps; from this session came a, request that
Madero resign the presidency» Wilson gave no support to Madero sympathizers.who asked him;to protect the deposed ' . . " V president®' On February 22, 1913» Madero and Pino-Suarez were killed "under circumstances indicating deliberate ass- 20 - . . . assination®119 Huerta assumed the off ice of ad interim president® ; ' During the remainder of Wilson1s ambassadorship he strove to obtain recognition of the'Huerta regime by the United.States government® - Despite his ambassador8s impor- tunings, President faft did not recommend that Huerta be : accorded recognition^ Woodrow Wilson was '.soon; to take office as-president and Taft did not wish to hamper the
I Q - ' - - James Brown Scott9 President Wilson's Foreign ' Policy, p® 384e . . . .
.-°ftiLppy, up, olt,.,. p# 333* . 10 ' ' ■
new executive8s^actions8 - In facts even before Wilson8s in- ■ auguration; President Taft allowed him access to government .'records and correspondence which would prepare the new. president for his duties> . : ' ; : President Wilson was antagonistic to_the Huerta government 9- principally, because of the method by which; It
had come into power9 and Henry Lane Wilson was unable to : . move the president from this stando In July of■1913 the ambassador was recalled to Washington and instructed not ^to return to Mexico^ His.resignation was accepted^ effective
October 4? 1913e22 : h f : , t f : : . Argentina^ Brazil/ Chile/ and Uruguay;had followed
,the non-recognition pollcy of. the United States0 However^ G-res-t Britain accepted Huerta as the head of the Mexican
'government'and this mpve led to similar action, by Germany,
Spain svPrance, Russia;, Belgium 9 Italy, Portugal p. Denmarfcy ' t ' ' ' 23 ' ■ - ' : : ■ * " ' ■ *" . ' ' • • and Japano This;foreign support encouraged Huerta in his _ resistance to efforts by the United States to.remove him from
powero Although in May9 19139 Huerta had requested the United States to recognize his regime, In June? 1913 $ he stated that United States reoognitiori; would be welcome but it was not essential - . ' -
The British recognition of Huerta occasioned .critical
' : • on•. . .\' ' " ' Ray Stanndard Baker9 Woodrow Wilson9. Life and Lettersj, Volo 1 V S ppo 238-40o : 1 ; OO , - ; ■ ' ■ *. .. MacDenoughs op0 c.lt0 9 pp0 110-11 p
2^New York Times Index0 Vol@ I, Ho0 2 9 p 0 1920 (The • Index is cited where the newspaper Itself is not available in the University of Arizona libraryo • ft " ■ - , 24 ' t ' - ' t ' MacDonoUgh® oPst cit.t n„ 1 1 0 . - . . 11
oomBient in contemporary-.periodicals^ Editors of newspapers : .In' the United States accused British diplomacy of ..protecting the Pearson oil interests In.Mexico 'because this concern had a contract to furnish oil for English ha111 eshipsa^^ JL Literary Digest poll of leading European newspapers indicated ■ . 25 that this opinion was not confined to .American publications© Since the international situation was growing more.acute daily, it is not improhahle that England based her Mexican policy, on her need for oil©; ■ ■ . . , ■The Mexicans themselves were not unified in support . of Huerta„ The opposition centered principally around Venus- tiano Carranza,0 After an. encounter between his troops and those of Huerta, on March 10„ 1913» Carranza ha-d proclaimed himself provisional president of Mexico0 In statements made on May 10 and June 17 of the same.year, he.recognized claims of foreigners for certain damages, promised, to, set. up a com®. mission to deal with these.claims as soon as he assumed executive power in Mexico Citys and commanded his followers
' - ' 27 to cease unjustified seizure of the property of foreigners©
Early in.August of 1913$, President Wilson sent John _ ■ ■ ' ' ' .. - . : ' : ' 28 -- Lind as his personal representative to Mexico* ._ Mexico did
; : 25Literary Digest, Volt XLVllh No. 20 ,r pp. 955-56.: ■ ; : : ' 26 ■ - . , - ■ : " Gurrent Opinion8 Volt LV, 19133 P® 231V ■ : ■ - ^Foreign Relations, 19139 P® 818® - ■ 28 . ‘ ' • ■ ; Lind was not the first somewhat, unofficial emissary whom the. president had used to represent him in Mexico.* Shortly before his removal from the ambassadorship, Henry Lane 1111 son had complained that "the dignity of the embassy had. been 12
mot cweloGme Lind with \open'. arms* : El 'iBdepeadlente 9 a news- paper published In Mexico Olty^.. expressed the Mexican resent
ment hy naming, Lind 18a; scrutinlzers■ .an Inquisitor, an open .eye up on- pur doings without the previous consent 'ofour ' -V.-vttt:'''. . 09 liar , ta-l ■ s' 1 ■: V- d.,: : ; . ■ /chancery/ 8 - , a. - ;p/n ; a/./... .'-; . ■ In his instructions to John Lind, President Wilson had - listed four points :as essential to a: sati'sfaetpry solution
of the, situations M: (1 ) a definite armistice^ scrupulously.
ohservedi (2 ) security;for an early and free .election in which all agree to partiPlpate.; (3) .consent.,of^ .General;; Huerta to . hind'him self not to -he a candidate for:,the presidency ,at this
election|. ard 9 (4) agreement^ iof aall parties to;: accept: the results of the election; and;to-cooperate In the organization
and Support of the newaadmlnlstratloug88 In his, reply to : ; .
; Lind8 s: pro sentation Of; thef pres 1 dent-3 s rec pmmendation's 9 ," a . a Gamhoa> Mexi can ..Secretary of a Foreign. .Affairs g- refused, to :■ ' ' ■ : - ; ' : ' - . ;a- r “l-a' ' 'aa;; /Va .v... : pa'"''" consider any of the,:four points .suggested® •.■■p'V^' . . : a..
- :va ;; It appears that Lind had. used the prospect of a loan . ,a.s a>means of persuading Huerta to accede to the proposals ;,
made by the United States, for Gamboa wrote 1 "When the
dignity of the nation is .’at: staked 1 believe : that-'there/ are ..
not loans enough to induce those charged by the law: to pv:
lowered by the recent;,,;presenee of:persona claiming to he .: . . . representatives of the president0,f Gallahanfl bp® clt*., Po 539B
a;; - 2^Literary Digest, Vol0 XLV1I, pp® 235-36. - '
1 , . Oallahan.g. opt- cit ®, P P ® ' maintain it to permit It to "be lessened_ . Stating that he wished to maintain a neutral position
while the Mexican situation, adjusted itself9. President ¥11 son forbade the exportation of arms or munitions of war from the United States to Mexico© Soon after this actions Huerta dis=. solved theMexican legislature for an indefinite period of time- and assumed the legislative powers himself© He allowed the. judiciary to remain unhindered,, but only if its decrees did - •. "%2 hot conflict with the decrees, of the executivee'''
■ The Mexioan electiong, October 26thg provided, more grounds for President Wilson8s opposition to Huerta„ Although the Mexican Secretary fdr Foreign Affairs had stated that 'v
Huerta could, not be a candidate9 and the ad interim president himself had substantiated this pronouncement? the election \ returns showed Huerta, to have been, chosen for the .executive • office. The voting was very light and there was evidence that
the election had been manipulated for Huerta8 s benefite The
United States withheld recognition and asked other countries to follow the same eourse0. Only.Germany and England hesitated
to follow the lead of the United States0 England changed her stand when given a hint.that President Wilson was opposed to the advantages which ships owned by United States citizens had
over those of other countries. by being exempted from the, pay! ment of the Panama Oan&L tollSoon after this the
j ^ Foreign Relations^ 1913s PPo 8l8^35s passim© ' :
; ‘ 3 2Ibid©, p© 6 3 8. ' : : 33 . ; ■ ■ : ■ ■ ■■ ■.■; :- Hippy , - O p e C i t e » 'P» 336 ® „ , .' 14
European diplomats In Mexico City advised Huerta, to accede to the proposals of the Unifed States® Huerta nevertheless continued, in office and the United
States3 attitude becaniemore foreefule .In. a .communication of - November 24, 19139 Secretary Bryan wrote? !8fhe present policy of the government of the United. States is to isolate General Huerta entirely s >- „•d If General Huerta does not retire by .force of circumstances.it will become the duty of the United States to use less, peaceful means to put him out. e ♦
On December 3 s 1913» the Mexican Ohamber of Deputies declared the elections of October 26 to be null a.nd void0 : . Until the new elections/ scheduled for July, 1914, Huerta was to be' president ad interim® . This move influenced. President . Wilson to abandon all hope of a fair election under Huerta and Wilson soon decided on a stronger policy® ■ Oarransa had requested Wilson to raise the embargo■on shipments, cf:munitions frcm the United States^ This chieftain
claimed tha t Huerta3 s decline would be very rapid if only the . Carrancistas were.permitted to secure arms from the United 35 ’ . ' '' . ' States,concerns® Evidently hoping to bring about a speedy ■ elimination of Huerta9 President Wilson9 on February 3 ?. 1914g removed the embargo on shipments.of arms or munitions to Mexico^ :. . ■ -
34 ' ' - " ' - , : Foreign Relations^ 1914P p® 443® ^% e w York Times Index, Vols 1$, Ho® 14? ppQ 238 and 2410 • . Huerta was unsatisfactory to the UnltedStates on . / more than ideological grounds,, Mexican cooperation in con
trolling the waters of the Colorado River m s v del&3r.e tion-formal .reoognition? he refused to consider.: this, matter^; ; which was so important to the welfare ofthe imperiai ValleT@ : . ^3-t iitf ^5 ^ were- in 'He-xica,n:waters . In order 'to 'provide' protection f or . ■ ■ Vi.;'i •■■■ ' ■ ' '36 f ; .. 'iiV ; /i'-V: - ; ■ . United - States nationals^ . . fhe, fampico. Incident was:the ■: .climax of a "series, of: ©ccurrences -.which 'brought, felaf'iohiS?i v ' : i3etweeti the :twov oox^rieBiclnsestd ;the- freaking point.® 1 i.r ' The. affair .at Tampico ddcurred on -April 2;i; iSld.® i Some . United: States marines who were' hshore in Tampico" were."arrested1- and marched into the town hv their captors«, However ?v,when the party ehcouhtered •..a-'Mexica/n. officeriof 'higher ranltithan their : own leader they obeyed his orderVto, release the captirest' . -Wilscm, re-spdnded .rigorously- tp. the hrrest. at:' Tampico,,. As he.: . ..i :, •stated V to . Congress'i 18 It .'Is .hot. hn isblated case ®landj the United States 'government was feeing singled out® i' :f:forV slight s V ''': ;v v:-!:,"-iV'" ' i :i -:iviii .v-::'; . il:: - and affronts - .because Huerta had not received the desired ' official: recognition from the.United;.Stateso vrv;\ ; ■ • -X-'' , v t/v- i'v . t i' . ■ Foreign Relations, 1915, P® 993» - 57scott, op, cits, pp» 34-35® It is somewhat question- 1ahle:whether Huerta:wa s ,incit ing the Mexicans t o .ahuse.people,- . ■ from, -the United' States in particular^ The lackVof stahle p./i-v governmental ‘authority in' Mexico, permitted acts against all V- . - foreigners; the Papers Relating:to the Foreign' Relations of ' . the United St at e sV indj cat e the. general- nature of-violence . against - naf ional s of other c ountr ie's @ V' -y.'/Vi 15 The United. States demanded that Huerta submit a formal. apology and salute the £merlean flag® Huerta responded that sueh a procedure would seriously lower his dignity and powers He suggested a simultaneous saluting.of their respective flagss which the United States refused to'approvee The' same answer was given to his Idea of a reciprocal salute in which Huerta said he would salute first0 Of this controversy on the salute, which overshadowed the real issues, A 0 B@ Hart.in The Indepen dent made the following disparaging '.comments i8Bnt are we to tell our children, in years to come that in 1914 the people of the United States had no better reason for entering, a.neigh^ boring country and killing its people than dispute about a _ salutef11 ' ' . ' His patience exhausted. President Kilson asked for and received authority from Congress for United.States armed forces to enter Mexico, and by April 21., ,1914, United States sailors and marines were fighting Mexicans at Vera Oruz, Some "58 . writers indicate that the military forces of the United States were sent'to'Vera Oruz in order to prevent the delivery to Huerta of a cargo of munitions from the Ypringas- a German steamer„ HThe result was the severance'of• .diplomatic rela tions by order of Huerta «, 0 and the immediate retirement of 08 Shaughnessy from Mexico (April 24) accompanied by a large Callahan, op® citc „ p e 43 and. Scott, ope cit® a p a 54?@ 17 - 39 escort a,nd by, 8-eneral Huerta - s son as a guarantee of safety©*8 0s Siaughnessy had been -in charge of the United States legation in Mexico after the recall of Henry Lane Wilson and seems to have continued the former ambassador8s cordial relationship with Huerta© Secretary Bryan; had suggested to . 0- Shaughnessy that he 11 should not be foo: cordial with Huerta in public e 11 ^ The consideration shovm Shaughnessy at the time of his leaving Mexico might be explained by the friendly relationship or the official position of Mr© 0 8 Shaughnessy with its as- . companylng prerogatives© Howevers Huerta later provided special accommodations for other United, States eitiaens who : ■ ' 41 '■ • wanted to leave Mexico© ' - : ■ - ' Argentinas Braziland Chile offered their services " as mediators and their good offices were accepted, but Vera Cruz, was, captured by the United States forces before the peace ' conference convened© During the mediation proceedings, hos tilities were suspended in Vera Cruz® The Tampico affair and the casualties at Vera Cruz : resulted in agitation for war oir Mexico0 Henry Lane Wilson . again voiced his opposition to President Wilson*s Mexican ■ 42 : - ■' . poliojs The president, however, adhered as closely as - Callahana jog0. cit©g pa 547o . .. . 4 0 rbidoi: pa 545. : ' i . . 41 : - Hew York Times Index, Vol0 I, Ho® 3s passim© 4? ■ • - ‘ ■ il© -B® Hart in. The Independent s Vol® L5UCV1I1, p Q 196» . - • possible. o$ a s s i s t bnae: wi to out: d le t ai> 1 on ® ''v^iren " .'in suGb.. ;a as the = bwial States soldiez^^teilleb -at . Vera G m z g -WoodnowrSilSon^ said:;. ,!rWe do n o t . .: ■ want t6 f ight- the Mexibanst ' -We want? to serve the. Hexicans if: . we -oane ’ > -? : ■ . - /--While the peace conference being held at Hiagara Falls " < was trying to; mediate the quarrel between; the IJnited States • ." and Huerta^ the 'Constitutionalists;, led by Carranza$ achieved -a’’ strong -military/position? in- Mexiee® - ■fhe:;United States- there- „ ; upo;n; .adyised the mediators ‘ to - prepare ■ ah agreement which would . be ao cep table to the Constltptlphalist s and. also -provide , f or': ' . /i the' elimlhatien?: Of Huerta^? ' / illations -between- Carranza - and / ■ . the Niagara Falls. Conference had been: far,_frpm equablee ./Ehe Constitutionaliat leader at . first refused to•/send representa-: .- tives to the confer ere eo The emi s sar ie a/; whom he finally / / dispatched told the. United ;Sta,tes commissioners that 15the ■/; . mediators "ought to stop attempting to .-settle internal, affairs.. ; of Mexico'-. and. "under no' consideration would? Carranza accept the result of the - mediation, no matter how much it" might be . ' in hi s' favor e" ' Despite Bryan Vs- support' of. the Carranza ' delegates^ the mediators' for' some time refused to admit the , Oarranciste;s.. ; t o'/the.-?c'onf erehoe ,;- -claiming- that . Ca,rranza want ed . to join in the proceedings only because. he. was running low - ,.. ' ? - - - -■ Booths? op® Git a > p® ^Os-.-/: v ??-;':, ;-?.- / - '--"?- / ;' . : : : ■-’ ■? v ' '^"Foreign Belations, 1914/, p p v 4-#8-588, passim® / : - ■ 19 on ammunitlone. - , ; ' : •Vo/■ ■ -: r . '' / . ■ The o bnf erence enabled - if 11 son to withdraw the United : States: :f oroes. fnom Vera Gruz without humiliation s. but it did , . t..: ■' L ^ ' - tty V / :: - Ag not arrange for Huerta to ;sten„ aside in favor :of- Garranzd* Of . Huerta1 s, position^' Priestley; say s-i .: ; - :■ t \ Y . - 'It.was evident that there was no help through intervention by .Hirspanld-'lmerioan national'-nd;rb=» . ' V- oognition'from the United States, no loans’ from any souroes no funds of any kind, no .hope of escaning ultimate defeat at the■hands of his enemies :, : :Hot until the middle\of the year did Huerta feel ■ - that his posit ion - was completely .inadermined® ; , ;Qn :: duly'.. IE? . : . 1914, "without ■ having 'apologizedif o' the. United. States- or ■ saluted her flag«' Huerta resigned1 as ad interim' president .of Mexico .and" left for Spain®. Francisco Carbajs-1, Minister . f or Foreign Affairs* heeame Provisional President., and repre- - ,sentatlyes of Carranza,.and- Carbajal met to form a new govern™ ' ' mentThe eonference. doliapsed.. When:: Carranza .delegates;; .. ^ ■ demanded ;the 'uno ondition&l surfendef.' ofthe; Hherti sf :S.-e..:pn' ;: ' August 1 3 V 1914., Oarba jal' dissolved.his. governmenf land on "." l'Y’:' ' ' t :Y-llY-Yil . - ■ ' ' ":--Y August 2Q, Carranza took' charge::in Mexico Glty#; / y '. - ■ .. . AC , -■ ■■ . . ; ' ■ , . ' ' . .. ■ ' ‘ . - V- .,.; : . ■ Y . " Callahan, op® cito> pp.i; 548-=*49'd ". -I--v' y ■ Y ' RibPVi op. hit, t P. •v357^' " ' V .: -1 -44 . l-: - '; . ■; 'Priestley, The Mexican Nation, A History, -p0 424® In April, .1915*> Huerta left Spain and took/ up resi-^ - denoe in fho United.States® Rumors that he.intended to reenter Mexico ahdl'head', a • "movement ".against: Carranza "led to:: his arrest- and" imprisonmente , Huerta died at 13, Paso, January 13$, 19161 ' Callahan, coi. clt . p® 559 and A r i z o n a '- Daily - St a r ,. January 14, 1 9 1 6 , P® if . / ' I;;-:. . : " y-y:'Y . ' •. Y 4 ; . ^ Foreign RelationsY.19149 pp® 448»5885 passim® ' so. I : ;-' ' - . / ^ ^ President v¥llscm, had Mopea" that the Oar-rsxtza : ' adminlstration vould. bring' order to, Mexico9 but these hopes / i ' ‘ ; were . not'-1 o - be ';realized@ / The Constitutionalists,, who had i ■ ■ ' / -cope tO'•power' imder, Oarranzas soon began' to quarrel .among , v : tiaemselvesc,- 'Although greatly dibappoi#ed at-the new, turn . j' ;':'A:'bf affairs s’ Preside2it:Silson' .still opposed those who advised . intervention.50 . : . ' . .'.Oarranza;- balled a convention 'for the purpose of : eleotiug a president,, but,when the delegates .ohose G-eiienal . • / Ouiterrez to be president..^ Oarrajnza proclaimed the' election . .’' invalid®.: . Zapata - and Villa leagued against. Oarranza and 1'mediation was only temporarily eff ectiver On November 19 ; ; s;; war' was, deelared; against.' .Villa by Oemeral Obregon, 'head'"of ■ -' the. Oarranza army e The Constitutionalists evidently felt'. 0 ':'r i: . that,, they obuld-not defend Mexico City, for early in Deeemberf ' ;; they left the bapital,' and. ©stablished;'themselves at gah Luis;,-:; • V-potdstg'flater moy Vera druz®^ : Sow began a' period-; / f during which governments rose and fell in bewildering, sue- ' . . .- ; ■ f . cession® Zapatistas 1 .Vllllstaef and.'Oarranolstas moved. In ;x , - i p and ' outof |4ex.icb-'■C'i.ty'.^hmid ''Shoptihgi, ih-ill ln.gj.. cand -.general ■ i11'. ', - -pdisordero ,.. ' . ' ' f - : ' i "i ;uv'- ..--i"-', ; i V , • , ■ dardozo/deCdiveira^ the Brazilian'Minister, to; Mexico, .: : V frequently c pmmunloated the " state of .-affair s in the capital p;," - - "u;:-.... - V' - - ^Baker « ■■' op@ ./bit * 9 Vbl@; VI» - p # '' 56 «. .;p ;, p - ,,: , -. . / % . ^ During 1914 aid 12,15'Garranzs, moved his capital: - ^ . / ; .: ifrequently$ . :.san Luis' Potosi9 Vera Grazs Saltillor MontereyVl:. - : - Quer&aro: and^ .thefQonstitutionalist. . ■ : ;. I 'napltai':at .varidus::tiffies;* Blsbee. Daily Review, November 19#- - ' . - 191b, P. 3® •• • ' ™ 21 city to the.. Department of Statd:./ ip Vashliigtoti #; particularly when Consul Slllimap >fas ip Vera CrUE@' -Oliveira reported.'' .. . that many people were suffering from hunger and thirst | .. - : ' looting’ and holding fop ransom .were.': common'the : clergy ®ere: ■ ': strblectel; tb>tiiu;ch:’ a/buse$ . there, was", no governmental /authority ; - existent0 Buring :it leash one .phase .of this' period -there . ■ " - a : were ’ three . varieties of fiat1 money -.in oircUiatlon#^ ' ' '/ / ' -■ In'a puhlie statement on June; 2^: .1915s Pneaident ifil's . indicated that- he. was considering, intervention in order to help Mexico "become adjusted:® : Villa replied that :.:he had , - ■- " parted with Carranza because .Carranza wished- to .be a rdictator r : while he (Villa) favored a free 'election by the people®. 1 Villa then-, attempted to unify the tiohatitutionalist ■ factiohs$. main- ’ taining that otherwise’the United States would intervene®, . : Garranza; however, , refused to treat, with. Villa and Zapata$ .’tahin g the .stand that they must - submit ;tb-;military:-trial or ' leave : the country.® Evidently loathe t o take .direct - action, '. even though the' revolutionary leaders showed no :.lndl.cation' ; ' i- of settling, their differences^ ’Wilsonvauthori'zed. Se.eretary - ” ■ - : iahsing; -to ask the -South American, countries- to- arbitrate. - h . r - : _ - / ( : ; This ’ seo ond att atipt ht : c otic illation by Mexico$ s; ' .. : neighbors .accompllshed littlee. The qone 11 iation:(eommittee$, : .' .composed of Secretary of State Lansing-and repre sent atives • i : - .- : . : 52hew York' limes Index, ,Vbl 0 J11 9 .tfh®; #,,' 'p® i256t i .; ; 1.1 ' u..: ' 1 M E b r e l g h •Relations:,' passim® :. v firob . Argentiiia> • Bra,011»: Mi l e r 'Bolivia^ .tlriiguay ^smdv -Matmala '' requested M e various .contestants meet. W ; 111 ^; 1 ; ■ : neutral:::territory to • discuss;: the situat io n ;.. ■Garranaa alone :., 'obiectedvto. thls .proeeMre$'offering - a.s an alternatiye-- Mat' - - the cOEimltteex conf er' with. :hlm- In a dlstr 1 ot: he.:^ oontroiled 'onL ; "the' Bio ■ Grander' tlie meet Ing t o : hel^% to .detemilnlhg:. :, ;;; whether Carranza' was in, executive :control of a de facto govern®. ment„ The . conference rejected:;Carranza.$ s; Suggestion ands ;; d ; .after -In term It tent, meetings^, finally arrived at .a. decision ■ M vOctoher vlS -the..United' .States recognized- Qarranza: as chief ;; executive of the de facto governmentof Mexico and on the -following dayPresident ■ ¥11 son restored the embargo on ship«“ ; ment s of arms and munitions. Within a few -days . the -..other ; • .If... .■conferring .coimtries gaye; foimial recognition to the Oarranza :. : government, ' ■ . , . . . . ■ : . ,.; Garranza5 : Md: was now: reepgnlzed as the executive., power ,,, had 'been a .leadin g per sonality '■'In northern . Mexico« ■.; ■ ‘ In 1910 . with the sanction . .of ’ Porf Irio . ;Piaz,? he .had 'been a - : 'candidate for the governorship of- the. state of 0 oahuilabut ' Diaz later had. repudiated his support, of Carranza« :, G a r r a n z a .:..' = : then'; Jpined MaderQ; .s :revolt y ;recelying' a military Command«, .. i n .1911 he became. Madero*s provincial minister of /war and waaV elected governor of . 0oahuilao -. j'When:. Huerta, attemptedifo ...;...:h - ; ;g,'y; 'pp® 735-y2v passim® :; ... , :> - :_i ^%acbonough, op®, cith ^. p® .IGd^ ; ' - V ' I;. .,:' I;/ .' ; seize control of the government«, Garranz-a resisted .h.tin I ■ ^ sucoully,,: GarratiSa:?:sy ntilef" allies.- opposed his - own - actions 'atid': lea.gu.ed again st -htint' - , .. '\t ' a,/ . : - -- v ; t 'V ;;t h - ' h tEarly; iri ;ttiis period :of .-dispute with Villa and Zapa,ta$ Carranza issued his f^ons.-agrarian :deOree.s January 6 , ' 1 9 1 5 ' ®’ .Th i s pronounc em ent - prpvlded- f or; :th e, return.; of. ;all' -' . ' lands, waters^ -and ..f orests : to ^he' vlilagess^.and: c-dmmuntitle& ; from which they -had been illegally;-alienated» . Later Carranza clarif ied,; this stateaetib. in order- ' to make it - plain - that the - commune - of ,the; town' was not to.-hwh the land-; instead;Ifwan-: ' to 'be distributed among the' pe.opi e of ^ the c ommunit le s ^with.,/ however., the neGessary 1 imitations to .preyenf .avid specuia^ tors,- particularly foreigners„.from, monopolizihg. such property too. easily»,e56 . ■ ' ■■ 1,; 'The ptiblioation ^ of his; land'Policy-was" at least h'.- .:h;i ' partly re sponsibie for Carranza3 .s - later sucehss,' f or it ” h - ■ strengthened his. position with the "body of'Revolutionaries© :;he';,may., .'however,--have bee^ for;She decree was issued in the:very month when it looked % - as if President Wilson was going- to recognize Villa as the . strong man of Mexico®85 ; -' ; ..-V:'. . : ; ' ; Ever since the:'fall of -Diaz, Mexican-, companies .owned by ■ hnited States 0 it Izehs had been complaihing .of. unfair 1 . ^ Mexican Year Book , 1922-1924 $ pp6 228-549 ; ' '; : i. ' y. '5%ackett'9 .- opJ citp» .344^ .. ;': ' :y yly'\;'y; ; - ■■■ ... 24 r ^ treatment*; gome ' of 'the ;Oil o ompaiiles.r par11 tiularly „ plalnied/.m; 4 : that thelf; :ta,xes' were: hi ^iery-.than those ' of:' hompanie a evmea -; •; ';; ■ by; Sexloans *-. Investigatipp; revealeE that all . oil/ cdriipanies . ; ; -' ■ ■ ;". ; in Mexico, Were: taxed/ aliite, and. the:; majority -of . the": opmpanies. ■■ ■./;; , had .paid" the-; fax without protest - but the complaints oon- / ' /;h/;i' : - tlnuedP8 " ' . ■ " • ■ ,' ;:: ihe. hhampion' pf/;these' eonoerha/in /the..United States ' t;/ V I ' .. Senate was Senator Albert. H0.'Pall- of New-'Mexicp. Before his '/I; eleotion. to ,the Benates 'Sh/ll .had: been engaged' -ln: mining.,: :: - ■ : f ; ' - lumbering s and /railroading - activit i'es.. in; thP dnited/; States: - . ;; ;,i ’ -. : and in' Mexio.o a - /He; /wa s/also the owner A of "a. large": seotioh Of i: ;; // .i p ' ' /land/ in Mexio.o and during: his: sehatorshlp he /Was: donheoted t ;: / :- ". ’' with mining-, operation s.: theret- t -. grnoe 1913 Pall..had oonsis-.;' :. / ' : tently; opposed President : Wilson11 s Mexicah" :pollby.»’ When Ifil-sbns,:-.;-' :while working to remove Huerta from .Ms' diotatorial position,' V :;. ;had.;-:prohibit:ed' the exportation; of arms and munitions from ■, ; . -: t': the. United; States to Mexico.,,. Fall had oiaimed' that. this ;aO” " . . ; . :" tion; Was aiding/ one Mexloah f aotl'on at the expense - of the ^ / .- i ,/:/ / ' other and; thus;' oontributihg^to Mexican dislihe; of the United . : " : ;. " States e Speahing a t ’-great length ; in the Senate ,' Pall main- r-; / : /tained' that: The federal .government had, ho;, right to seise; hr' /v; ; : arms and. munitions; per’sonS along the/border needed the . - . • protection -of theIr :own;arms:beoause the. United "States gov-' V-.p-;;:.'-;. ^ -MaoDonough.,: dpi cit^r"p'o-'Tlai'::■ /'-,: t;":.'-: i; _; .//..; ;I." 5 9 Qphgresslonal Plreotory,;, 64th / .GPngress, /l-st..Session,/ 'Pp6 ";; ; ;; : -./" ,.//" ??06nkregs.ional Hecords" 63rd.,Gongress:r: 1 st:;:SesSionp* Stif : ; : ernment did mot' provide p.rot'ec tion $; mim 11.1 ons mapufac.tiire^s ;: ; v :. ■ ’ in; tpe:'.United, States should 'be idUowed tQ; .sell' to Mexicans h . h ■ e /, : the majat^aotunens' wdre/Mlling tn-\tatee:ttie' risk, of IdssV^hV ; . xby xseisure; Mexicans had shoxm. little antagonism. towards -\' ' ' i :;_ United' St at e s' m t ional s. until the - enactment of the policy of ' " .... . favoritism; ■and'sr finally? there was no suhstance in the current ■ b • . i - j ..rumdrs;^that':united ;:Stath&:Wainess. m had. financed' the :l9iO: • ' . revolt against Diaz® Early in 1915 Senator Pall had stated' \ d It hat i$ neitherthe •-i^esident of ..the ; United State s5 . or jsi c| the v . Secretary: :of 'State, und.erstand th® * Mexican conditions or % i h-;::.realise their" menace » to the peaoe of thls, oountry@ ivhv y'PaiX.' was’ Certain that,;.there.:!mshsrave 'danger of the European .•" ' - .war , comlng to - the.United.; States 'through, the gateway provided ,. < • - '.h. . : an -impotentSex.lG:o»v;^ Be. advised ■.:tliat# in view of . this V T 1,:'.../:- threatening eituation^, thd.; Uni ted 'St a t e;s iihould;. intervene,; in;- in . .vdMexiQO. as soon as 'possihle#h or y . , v v ; .cy; y h y , .::;.-y - ... During t h e :::f if teen months When. governments - came- and"':, '■ " ■.■"f\’'-yihh;went;yin rapid snccesSidhv" industry.and ■business had- good : j". v,iy:": ;Xy ' ' y -• cause.' to-complain®: • Eahh. '.government.. issued .decrees.:, .collected, : y taxes, and in ■general , administered affairs ..according to its " . ' own precepts; and; as each ;passed; on. its successor; issued' ' . . y. new deereesV assessed - new taxesi 'and expected' submission to;. : y ; , its; dictate8:@; Plrms that" resisted-'paying. tsxes w the new yyl' 1, y t.'-'t- ' •' ■ . - - ■ • '' ",-=' ■ 'y ■'■■■-'-'.y..- - ' y. -' - i;!;. y- v- :: 62lbid*$ PP. 427^75»8ii'.y -.y;..i, - y-. i; - ■ ■: ;y;i. y .goferjment' were . accused;: ^ penalised' in various ways. fdn'their: adislGyai-ty ■ ■Some; ' : admlnl st rat ions g/; .in; aeed of readyeashs, got; what: they 'Wanted ■, hy asses sinent frop hu sihess men or . seized' their property in : % leu - of payments, Each ■ government- Is sued it s.. own paper money ; "andinai.sted;:: that: it he accepted„ : ;laturaliy : the ' value- .of : this currehcy fluctuated ' wl as ;ghvernmental; authority : - ; ■ . changed ■hands$' ' ^; Carranza-, made;'a', popular,hid: for; support 'hy declaring, ■ "- on; July 29 ? 1915, that: the- Qonst itufciomlists : would .‘not .'end’ : force their decrees putside of their own)territory and;also ’ did not'intend to collect;faxes which had already heen paid ) :: : ■ ' ') -■:''") : ^ 3 - ' ' : : ) i;o to 'another government,, ;■; ■ - ..p./ : ■ - ■ ■ - ' Foreign management;of railroads' was- a sensitive point to the Mexican's,, 11 In 1912, under' the presidency; of.Madero „ t," « :a decree :was-dssued :maiing) compulsory' after a fcertain’date; the. use of the 'Spanish language I n , all: husiness, oonneCted. with the Operation of the roads $. this.virtually forced the resign) nation of ; a .large pert: of .the: American; emplpyees':» ■*:; ' _ ■■ 'fhi s actlpn hrought; many pr01esfs frpm the people affected and: was later advanced as) h.,reason for the ' ineff ioieney of - the:'railroadse : / p.; .. =' ■ ■ ' d )) )'•)■;■)" ;.); :.. ) - - :f -- ■ dhls hrief resume ' of the' relations of government and ; ; ■ : Foreign Relations^ 1915;rm^929~3V* :'f ) ) f . W :»- Donly In Mexl00 and the Oarihhean',) p.@) 8d .) "business In Mexico.' Indicates. the nature of the situation - Into which- darrauza projected ■ his- decree of Hovember 7sv 1915® fhis pronounQemept required",all producers of cotton to'sell; their prop to the: government at a price-^determined: by the government* : Hefusal to accede vms.: punishable by ■ ' ' expropriat lon&r - 8bme;:bptton ;men?;: olainiing.• that-.the price . was too iow:9;:' refused; :to' "sell to the government^: and the: .' - : /government. retaliated •" by seizure of their lands. The con-' suls of various countries protested vigorously^ with the : -result that' the. expropriations were halted on January; 27> ' 1 9 1 6 ,65' ■; •' i. ; :y''^ ; ; ; : ' ■ - The taxes which Carranza levied on other forms of - enterprise broughtsimilar response from imerican :-Bneitlng;LBiS:7Sof inlng; Qcimpany, the Mine and • • ' " ■ Smelter ' Operator si'; Association of EllPaaoV Te&as.,, andvd . number of other'mining interests .maintained- that; the: taxes " on mining operations were confiscatory«,' 'Oil producersntook a similar stand, .and- the :Oompania Petrnlera Marltima com plained that .the Oarranza;government planned; its taxes to faoilltate, eonfisoation« - 0 orrespondenqe "from..this ‘company . to Secretary:ianslhg stimulated him to seyere/.chiticism, of - 66 . ' Carranza'^ , - v:'-- ; : p, ; ' - ■ ' - '-:.... ; . ■ : Prederlck:Kellogg,.;:the General Counsel of the Pan™- American Petroleum and Transport. Company, pictured the - 28 ; sitoAation-as; follows: ;1 \ - . .„.■■■■■: ' '>v v ’ v- : Buring *he BreBidency of Pprf ipr*io Diaz, all, went ; . wellj, and it was not until Oarranza @ o «, Beoame w w,- 7" diet a tnf ;t1aat: :a ^ r' change in-:i the. ,'splr i t.: of, t tie -. ;; : , ; •M.exiQan legislation concerning' petroleum fee came. y1- fe ' ::v manifest» As .soon ' .as - 0 0 % he,.:fead, been recognized > ■. ■ de. facto fey the Amerlean goverhment 0 he; set . . • ' ■ - .''f'fe ' himself / e: f: to; drlye Ampnlo^ and v':’v";: ' ' .• take even „thein';proper,ty;60/: -7 : v ' : ifefe hi , :' v to at least some Mexicans the oil- companiesappeared to.;fe© a h • vicious influence» Grie writer stated; v. 7 .;h ;■ if ' h : • The- Association pf : Dll ■ Producers , in Mexico feecfeme - v - i :-j" , a- soviet , -capafeie. of exercising t vmore, powerful v- ' : ' ' : pressure upon, the, governments of the 'fenlted .States ^ ■ , h : and Sex-ioo than many a foreign power® The oil in- ; ' • terests, in Mexic© .pursued the: course of an independent; . \ i e n t i t y T h e y ;;ey■ehic■a?eated;:;■thelr.;Q.^..■.aCT^y, * • In the UnitediStates they ;¥fere/perxiiltted- to conduct; : v., . /an incessant newspaper eampalgp,;against .llexic-o /andg-- : ,/;:. ■, ; its government6° ' •' '." t. ■' ' h : >■’ _ :w, f1,: The attitude of the Mexiean •populace toward foreIgh-: er-s was an important • featufe ' of this periods. "fhere seems - to, ■ ’ ‘ fee general agreement that all f orel^ersf: but /"people from ’ the;, ;:fh; United States in part 1 cular, were not peloome in .Mexicoe : ■ ; ; This feeling was not newy for Manifest Destiny had left n// - pefmanent mark on Mexican public opinion. '; Time had hot; ■ ■ - ‘ - •' 6 7 ■ - "■ ‘ ' ... ■ ■ ' : ,; "Pvt , : Frederick, By Kellogg in Mexico and the :/Oa.rlbfeean, p. 5f.@/ ' ; r A profeafely. .more': ippartial - contemporary /had: the ' foil owing r pinion / of the .Diaz, regime .of which; .Kell oggap- . .; ' proved. so- cfempletely i; ' '“But' atiybody; who cfeoo ses may 'sati sfyv ;,:;' •7: himself that pfaz .for years remained: in power• only,Py, the ;::;/-:. . despot* s'.favorite method' of closing •the- mouths': of those ;who -.:/'/. f: v; criticized the/,goverim.ent. 31iportant men :• were-;feahished or' ::v ' ’ , ' reduced ,to liapdtence; ;the: less ’ significant: Weht to prlson |:::' : and a good many, literally went to the wralira", ; Mfeert Bushnell;;; Harty The Fostulat® of: the ^Mexican Situation^11 - in The . . ,: Inf ernat.1 onal .Relations, of the':United- Statess, Vol@ hi.V, The : . Anhals, p, 13 7 s . July $, 1914» - y • f > ', . • .; f.-.ft Vyplt;’--; ■; •. ^%oises 8aehz in Bome -Mexican Problemsgfpa-^-gQe, .': ; eradicated the Mexican .conception of Vthe 'United. States as ' ' ''. ' - r ' gg:' - : ' - - ^ ^ ‘tbe Col os sue of- the Uorthg t . , . ' ■- ; ; ; , ''' . ■ file' ac11 pns: of' some United /States cltlzens' .evidently: ''contributed td/ tW geners-1 , disllke ;'df foreigners® .. Mexiqans.; ■ felt tbat/strangers, .banie to their countrymerel/y■' to/make a, . 1 liirlng$. not; t o. beooni e. permanent : pesldent s f /;rFetf of the /non« ./ Mexicans/:lfearned/1lie. language /or-taade /an effort ; to; Understand./ : the nature of the Mexican eultur&g,;; The: foreigners/tended to f orm colonies' of ; their. nUn/ people and . ha^e only such; nontact; / ; with the natives as ■ was ■ unavoidable or. necessary to their hsimas.Tf %;;/'/;://;;; ; ^ / /;//'/::/-//■: / / / : ; - / :: / i The Secretary/ of the Interior of the ■United States; ;- / ;; -0 orr Oh or at ed the above indictment .of' United /States/net ionai s® ,: Even-: when/ the pxmltiye;: expedition:. was bn Mex 1 oan mil and . q; Phblic oplnldn ^ /the' United . States : was strong; against her ' ;//' ; neighbor to the southg. Secnetary.lahe: said;, / /; . . / '/ " ../'•/ / .la tin Amerlea; has/known the American chiefly as/'. ■ ;; - / a seeker after/concessionsj a land grabber. and a n / . / = . /.. , . exploiter® Even. Were, the Tlmericans hare/ bought . ■ ' / / property legally; they are absentee landlords® /» ® * ./ . ' - / The Mexican feels that the American goes there . . - / - . ./ oniy to get' rich out of the land and labop„ of /Mexicoj : . that he comes to, exploit/ not to develop*!-! ; . / / /. / / / . %Uot oniy business peopie//felt./the impact of Mexican. .hostility 0 : The . reiiglous orders/ aisO'were subjected; .to - / / ■ ■ / ;/ // ^m p p y / ; M < : ^ ; h P. #%'/ f ;' / /./^ -v ;' / '. ;;/.;;':// : : 1 70Baenzg; ^ ^ as::p^ 2 2 ; . ^ /..;.;; '//_:,:. /./ /_/■ '■../;../f / / ‘^SCOtt, OP* 'Cit e , PP® 404-51 ; : / '/.. ^' ../ . ' / -//. /t . ■various forms of opposition and ill treatm.ente In some districts, churches were taken over by the local government<, nuns were subjected1 to abuse, and some murders were oom« mltted among the clergy0 There was wide variation in the treatment accorded the different religious groups and the , Mexican attitude was not consistent throughout the country@ The Catholic church in the United.States claimed' that their clergymen in Mexico suffered severely, :especially at the hands. of the Carranc1atas0^ There'was some variance of;opinion among Catholics in the United States - as to the nature of the opposition to Catholioism0 The Catholic World said that the Catholic. church had suffered from 'Hthe laws of the land and the. temper oflthe:.dominant factions" of the last sixty, . yea rSo^. Catholic, churchmen who complained to Secretary of State lansing late in 1915 maintained that decrees issued by . ■ - . . : " . ■ • 74 various state governments were the source of the difficulty! The clergymen alleged that this demonstrated the weakness of • . 75 the Carranza government^ Luis, Cabrera, Mexican Secretary of the Interior, defended the Carranza religious policyo- Cabrera stated that Constitutionalists were not antagonistic to religionj in 72 ...... Foreign Relations, 1915s PP'o 1004-30#. passime ■ . , Dudley S 0 Wootens '’Mexico for the Mexicans,*1 Catholic World, - Vol. C, Mo*. 595, Po 807:0 Judging from the variation in treatment in different districts, this appears to be closer to the trutho ^ Uew York Times, December 15a 1915s Po 9o ' 31 fact, they Intended for Mexico to have complete freedom, of religious thought and practice® The Hexicsm government9: he said, merely wanted to correct the abuses which had been committed by the priests® According to Cabrera, the clergy- had-been more active In politics than In religion, and more concerned with foundlrBchurches than with educating the people® Therefore the priests should cease meddling.In politics and not oppose,the conversion of some of the churches 76 Into schools® .. . . The unsettled conditions in Mexico and the unsuccess ful attempts of the United, States'to .assist Mexico to become stabilized engendered an increasing tenseness between the two counf?’iese Qy the end of 1 9 1 5 the feeling of hostility between Mexico and the United States was very strong. ^ New York Times, February 24, 1916> p s 8® CHAPTER II THE IMMEDIATE 0RIQIR8,'1915-1916, OF THE PUNITIVE,EXPEDIT101 :/In the background to the punitive, expedition there were some factors which were of particular importanceo These were.partly the result of the revolutionary conditions which _ had existed;in Mexico since 19109 and the accompanying border .outrages* But several of the signifi'c.a,nt forces were only Incidentally related to the conditions along the southern border of . the Unit ed Stat e s.0/ As is not unusual in international disputes^ the : situation was bound up with national ,t!honor0M k Senator Borah , (Republican), of Idaho demanded Intervention in Mexico because of Mexican insults to the flag of the United States» Senator Borah ■ conceded, that ^protection of United States .citizens in Mexico was part of the intervention he proposed9 but.his:principal cpncern in 19 1 5 was with "peace*” "honor*” and "the flag0" . ■ ’. The Republican senator from Idaho was not alone in , ■ his plea for action0. An official publication of the United- States armed forces maintained that.a protective Invasion of :' ' . ■ - I 2 - . . ■. - Mexico .was unavoidable0 . Former President Theodore Roosevelt also felt that military action was the only means of adjusting \ ■ ' : : ■ ■■d'- 3 : ' ' : 'd d d . .: d . : ' relations with MexicOo Warren Harding* Senator=»elect ^Congressional Record9 63rd Congress* 3rd Session* p 6"iBOOff p , ■ ' ‘ . - ", : "We Appeal to the President to Save Mexico | To Save his ■ 'PartyV To Save Himself *” North American Review* Vol0 0X0IX* April* 1914V PP* :481-501 o ■ . V dd' % e w York Times* December 6 * 1914* Magazine Section* Po.l> from Ohio9 maintained that Hexloo- had much to gain by coming ; ' - ' :: " : . . . ' 4 ; : "under the civilizing influence of the American flago" On January IT, 1916, • one week after one of the more serious border incidents, Senator Gore of Oklahoma introduced in the United States Senate: a resolution authorizing the president to negotiate with the government of Mexico for the establish ment of a neutral zone along the northern border of Mexico, this district to b e 'policed jointly by the two countries0 When life was secure.along the border, the.United States was to withdrawo' Although :Senator G-ore8s resolution did not emerge from the Committee tin Foreign Relations, its fate did • not discourage other .legislators with even more’: radical sug- ’ gestionso On January 29 Representative Britten^ of Illinois presented his solutioh^-a. resolution authorizing.,the president to negotiate for the purchase of Lower CaliforniBo Britten . claimed that this would give Carranza the money he needed to establish his government, rebuild-the Mexican railways, and ; establish military policy in every Mexican state or province0 At the same time the acquisition of Lower California would give the United States Magdalena Bay, an excellent site for a naval base halfway between 8an Francisco and the Panama Canalh Thus. Mexico would be able to become adjusted without U 0 So Intervention and the.United States.would improve Ibido , January 20,' 1 9 1 5 , p Q ,4V Congressional :Record,■64th Congress, First Session, p e her; naval a.efeMses@^ : - % ;L - ■ '' ; : Representative Britten’,s reso^utloh^^aha : similar ones.; IntrocLueea;.tor/'ReE^esentat-ive Fiandal,!.: ofi Califhmia .j did. not . receive much.attention but they indicated-a viewpoint which ;wa s ho t; c onfined te ■ Gongre s s e .liill iam;:: Hand elph .'Sear st _r s h '; : - , : campaign f or, Ihtervehtioh etill retained' its; aura of . interest, in Mesclod;; for; the:" sake of 'o 1 viliza.tion:r>;but1 thnnore ■. practical aspect s -somef imes;:to.ofc; the center- of the -'s#age« ;. $wb .weeks. . after Villa: had.raided .Chltim"bus.9. ffew Mexico ^ (March:;;9v 1916)-, Hear st8 s New f ork Evening J ou.rnal stht ed t ' ^ Calif orn la; and : : Texas were, part .;of .Mexico- onee» *' ^ »..'.«\.#iat has been .done in ; California and Texas by the United States can be done' all -. } the way -down th; the southern bank pf :the "lahamd Uahal;and';a ; few mlles bdyoniJ'B ' ' ^ ' . - hdkt: lehst^cme; newspapbr-rman -f elt ;that many - of '.the. reports of outrages, that were being dis-seminated.. through. 1 the press were dellberafeifaisif.ication.s,,-':prepared in order : to provide fuel for the -expansionist sentiment which- was ■ v: 1 r/g::- ; ' ... . 1 - '1 .' .-f • ' ' - f . 'V'f' now rampant % from early in November, of 1915 to at least: .March 2,. :i916.$: Lincoln ‘-Steffens$. an: Snerlcan writer9 was in. close contact with the govermert;. of ; Carranta@ Throughout . much of thi s. time - Steffens was. actually: a member of the • .: - party ^vhlch accompanied Carranza ,on- his trip;s about Mexicoe ■ ■ . ' , bIbid®, .Appendix9 pi;.215.0 . . 7lbldar; p:a 24-39* ' ' ‘ ■; : : . f,, .h-:h'v t;,i tv' - : ' ■■ ' ‘ - 'Thus he was abl e t e % obaerve'" at f Ir st lian& the activities; of-, - ’ ; ; \ United'.: States husines&. men: seelcing the favor of the govern-; ; . -/ •; rnent> By ; ga in i ng-ttie f ri end ship of Carranza 5 Steffens , heard■ much from him regarding. Mexican .relations with the .df ■' : : ' • ; .. United States, ,Slso:$; ;as. a member: of the University Club dV ■ . : in Mexiep City „ Steffens came into direct .contact With • ;. •r.. a ’ hi UnitedlBtates. buslhess men' who. frequented the Qliib@;' In ; ; g i i;' . ... ; : his 'autobiography« his letters^ and ' in magazine articles,:. hgd;: ' .Steffens told :of a number of incidents which demonstrated . :; 1 / ■ the influenc.e that: capitalists, from the United States were d d.'; 'h; :V. .■■■-■'.’'d: " 1 ■ d;: dd ' V V :'- : ; 10 i .. ; ' rh ; ■d=d;: A::i'':-d' : :;d : wielding iln:;Mexi;eanrAmBrloa,h relation Se ,; , ; .. . rrd , The Carranza government was for a long time 18a ' . -' ' government on wheels;” Carranza and his advisers travelled ’ about the c o m try. and cohdueted ..the husiness of the govern ment on a railway train® This governmental train would -' . . : stop in :a t o^m. f or a-: time and thehgf or-no apparent reason g ; : ; Garranzg would/abruptly. anhbxahcellhat:; the government: was to.v ,g d move ortg, Steffens a,sked Carranza what prompted these - ■ sudden departures and/was' told, that the 'government moved - ' : when Carranza.1 s advisers began to reflect the ideas : of the : . •: AmeriGan 'business men who besieged;, the train each time it ; ■ • . . ■ ' ' 'V ... . 'dl': - W ''f/V:;: - d . ■ d ...t - ' • :-f;d;- came to rest* During one 'orislSg Bteffens went tov the State Department- .ln -Washington and observeds in the hall d- ; .:put side ef the:''Seoretary^ s off icej the - same: persons whom ' :; : ;: : ...... :d d‘d: ; - .Lihcoln Steffens■ The Autbblography of Lincoln Steffens.' I'd . . .. ; hh:7iT;a;nd .!The Lefters.; of :Linceln: ,Steffens^ Yol® : 1;, p.*' 36^1 ''; . . dd'; :;;y ■ : : Evehfbddy-ta: Magazine^ l#ygi9 1 6 'f . p% ^ % 0Y ^ g .. X-d -f ‘ X : ; ’ d v . ■ , ; Lincoln Steff.ehsi: Autobiography< p* .YSf» d. ; hlyf-Vd he had. seeii lobbying Meziop' Glty arid ' f Qllpwia,g Cahransa1 s ■■■;• train about the count-ry® In Sheffens8. attteblography is a description of a .■ celebration by United States business;: men / ; ^fbllonih# the/.massaehe'bf eb’renteen;-United; Btdtep> citizens: •by , a grohp' of .Mexicans $.: Ihls : pant y to oh place'. In the American, ■Glub in Mexico Gitya : When Steffens asked why: the club mem- •.bers. were^ delebrating /the violent .death, of their, fellow : p . i- citisbhs; .he.; was^,tdldithib^ these; murder s . madbtintervention:'•. '-a oerfalnty; that thbs©;.Mpaeifiats in the Wilson adxainistrs,- '. V • _.t - /•. • - . ' .'v '■ ■ " 13 ' :• tion cani.^io^ refuse now to send the .armyt i .*. i" ■. f; • '. .According to Steffenss most of the business men from: ■ ■- ■. the United'States who were in Mexico wanted. Intervention ■ . because they believed, that the .land and the .business, con- • cessions they had obtained would be 'much & or© valuable in Mexico vif,.th^r were governed, by a "friendly" government; ■that Is ? by the United'.States; government 6 One toil magnate. , ■ . • told Steffens that merely the "presence of at.United States. ' . standing army on t he .■Mexican border enabled the ' oil. companies to evade the Mexican .oil tax® 1 .Steffens8 •observations:led/; ; ' him to; say that during all' the time he spent in-Mexico there was; no •’’.simple:, revolutiong counter revolution^ or rend across h ; ' o ; 1 ; ■" . f^ibld®, pe .735i;■' Steffens: does, not ;giye the date; of either the killings, or the celebration® : However^ knowing - ; , ■ when: Stef fens .was in Mexico,;. and con s id ering the number of ' people killed^ : it seems that. it was the massacre at Santa; . '• ;;Y sab el/which wa s: /be Ihg / applauded^; .;/ ; : . / 1 ;;.'•': :•'/;.'. './. •' our 'border toy'. Mexicans that was not engineered- and paid , f or ’ - . >. ■ V i; -: ,: -,:,::' i'- r- :.' -: \ b toy Americana . in. Mexico : Robert LaFollette, Republican - : ' Senator from .¥lsC0nsin»: -•ua.s- certain- that'. Uni t ed State a. f In- anciers. and touaineas men: were using ^theIr money ? - their' .-newspaper s. s their magagines.^ and their 'Political influence to cause intervention and thus remove the freqxientrevoltib -. :tiohs,j inseeureiprdperty;-rights$; and'rlBk to •ih^estments::' .;'"":. which aceompanl"ed the.- weak governraent in^Mexioo.*: , According to some observers .Of the- scenes United - = . . States . capitalists had.. in mlhd more thmc merely -■ the ■ acquisi^ . . t ibn pf Mexico'd ■ Labor,:.ieaders:: in' thp;.tlnlted Statesr had■ 'toeeh : in frequent . conflict:with: imerlcan industrlali'sta oyer hows; of work^; wages and working, c ... In a ..c.dntroyersy . ivhich had centered in Hew' Mexicor the.’iaihe- operatbrs had ;■ brought Mexicans across' -the border to. take the places of the 16 - . ■ . - ■ local workers9 , . The' friendly relatiohs;which existed be- • tween the American Federation.- of Labor', and the Carranza . ' ; . government ' - and the growing co operation between .unionists - in; the .United States and prgan.is.ed Mexican labor probably. - . -was :;not pleasant; to the f inane ier s':and-: industrialist '■ The: / fall; of .Carranza's, with the; resultant freedom .from restrictive laws and access to; a :cheap labor : supply which , wodld."be : - J used 'against unions.. In..the United gtate^ was ■certainiy, a ;;-.b prize' worthy of much effort and. expense#. . ; - .:, ; - v;;-: ' ; : ' Ibid« , pp. 734-36 , : ' ‘ ; : ...;. l' h b.r d:- : : d; ^ . ■: : , ^Gongressiona.1 Record® 64th Congress., 1st-. Session'® . PP.s 1739“41© ' m 'I ' •' : ' : : - ; Ibid. , pp.: 14639^140451. passim© - y .. - ; 28 „ Senator Fall was greatly concerned over.,the activities of the Merican Federation of Labor@ . "Bind© the5 Industrial Workers of the World was in disrepute ;as a labor : group« Pall fried to attack the American Pederatiori of Xiabor by inferring that Samuel' Q-omperSg president of tke Federa«= • tion9 'had allied himself-with this unpopular 1 6lfsW$ and - : - : ^ v ' ‘ ; 17 •' its counterpart in Mexicop the Mason-=Villareal juntaa; ••• By ' ■ ' ' ■ . ' ' " ' I . ; ' ■ : ' ; , Introducing evidence that , the %agonlsto,s were stirring up ' trouble along the. Bex lean border.> Fall Implied that. the Amerlean"' Pederat,1 On of Labor> and not United States capital, . was implicated in the border incidents which had caused the - V 18 - " ■ ‘ loss of' lives and property's- Steffens believed that United States .financiers had not confined their activities-to merely Greatlng an ' intolerable situation on"the boider0 Control of the Mexican' .goveriment would, suit their purposes. Svnd . they had made efforts, to acquire this authority©- As ..early, as. 1914 some finaneiers from the United States had contacted.both Villa 'and Carranza and attempted to pureha.se their, friendship a, Villa, appears to have been more sjaenable to briberyy for the capitalists said that he was 15 all right” while Carranza they described as Mobstinatetr and "narrow mindedia" This explains' to sqme extent1 why Carranza was unwilling to estab-' ; ' 1 7 lbldSff; ppa 14043-44. , / i- ' , ■■ ^Ibld., Po 14045. ■■ : 1 0 : . • ■ ■ ■ "■ . '''Lincoln Steffens, Jutoblography 9 pp» 71 b- and 733-34; and Collier* 8g November 25$ 1915$ p«; 6 «. - ... . ; - lisb, a formal governmental structure in Mexico® When accused of wanting to be a dictator^ Carranza answered that if some of his followers, obtained, precise offices in a .regular gov- ■ ' ‘ . 20 ernment„ they were likely to sell out to foreign bribers® . The earlier actions of his "lieutenants had given Carranza ■ ■ pi ample cause to expect such a fickle loyalty®'"" / It '&&&*> appeals that the people interested in causing trouble with Mexico were arranging that officials at Washing- ton receive only such information as would lead them toward intervention® According to Steffens this was done by influencing the .United States .Foreign Secret' Service to transriiit to Washington only news which would stimulate dis satisfaction over the Mexican situation® In.his conversa tions with President Wilson-,. Steffens found him comparatively. uninformed on Mexican affaire® The president seems to have,; known that he was not being;given accurate information! through the regular government.channels for he frequently resorted to sending personal'emissaries to Mexico to provide - 22 .. him with more, trustworthy data® But even the reports of these men were not sufficient to give the president a complete picture of the situation®/ It is interesting to note that while Steffens felt that John Lind had brought the president an accurate account of conditions in Mexico,' Senator Pall Lincoln Steffens* Letters, p® 359® 2 1 Iblda; ppa 365-66. p p Ibid® 9 pp® 735-39« 40 23 .. .. maintained that Lind -had misinformed ifoodrow Wilson0 ' - The increased tension between Germany and the United States which developed during the Tatter part of 1915 had a counterpart in relations between the United States, and Mexico0 Officials of the United States- government, evidently felt that Germany was trying to influence Mexico against the. , United- States0: There was a noticeable change in President . Wilson1 s remarks to Mexico as the year 1915 wore on0. While ' early in 1915 the president had stated that he wanted Mexico to work out her own salvation? in the middle, of the year he warned her that she must settle her. affairs;quickly or the ^ - < ' -1 24 Uhlted.. States might feel it necessary to give assistance^ This change in attitude acquires increased SignlfIcande from . the,fact that- by August 1915 Woodrow Wilson was quite 4 1 ; / 4 convinced that the United States would - be l!unable, to keep ' - me? out of the great waro11 The Central Powers probably stood to profit from a war between the United States and Mexi.co0. With the sympathies of the United States becoming more pro-ally each day, Germany had little prospect of receiving American - aido The resources of the United States were going to the Allies for use against the Central PowerSo It seemed logical for Germany to embroil ■ - 23 - . Congressional Records, 63rd Congress, 1st Sessions Po 4282o ; . ' 4 _ -4'-,: . - - '.; 24 ' ' : ' . .. nThe Reversal of. Our Policy in Mexicos and Its Relation to the War in Europe/ 1 Current Opinion9 July, 1915? PPo 3“5o , ^^William E 0 Doddy Woodrow Wilson and his. Work, p 0 1 8 0 e 41 the United States and Mexico in a x\rarg thus keeping the United States so concerned at home that she would be unable ^ to assist England and France on the continent 0 The 'Secretary of the Navy of the United States was convinced that Germany was actively conspiring to cause war between the United States and MexicOo He also felt that German propaganda was responsible for "a part of the pressure on Mr.* Wilson to • 25 intervene in Mexico® As was to be. expected5, the majority of the French newspapers were certain that Germany was inciting Mexico against the United States.,, while the German press*, denying any such activity#. maintained that the diminution of munitions going.to the Allies which might result from a war between the United States and Mexico would be too trivial for the 2 ? .effort required to produce the war* A reputable historian writes that "the Kaiser# Ambassador Von Bernstorff# and the German minister in Mexico did what they could to disturb the relations [of . . Mexico and the United States] in order that the United States might have trouble enough at home and hence not be ,28 able to ship so much ammunition to Europe® ■* ■ , A con temporary newspaper wrote that•travelers had provided information which indicated that foreign powers were trying Josephus Daniel s. The Life of Woodrow Wilson# p e 187 c ^Literary Digestfl July 8, 1916, ppe 61=62® 2 % o d d 9 opo cit8s p® 155» . .to arouae tb# Mexicans against theii-5: northern nelghbors.s2^ • ; y^he famous Zimmerman note tend's to .substantiate the : ■ opinion'that Germany was arouslhg Mexico against, the United . States* This German communication9 dated January 169 1917s ■was reported to have been intercepted by the British Intel!!? gene® Service In Mexico '-and through Lord Balfour 'and Walter „ Hines Pages the United'States AmbasBador to England«, the . note reached President ¥ 1 1 son ■ on February 24# .1917» In' this ■ . telegram to the Mexican governments Germany, indicated that ’ on the first of Februaryg, !917f she Intended to start a ' campaign of unrestricted submarine. warfare„ She hoped that this would not draw the United States into the war in Europe*. Howevers if the United States did enter the oonflibt^: Germany' proposed that Mexieo. ally herself with Germany* payment. : i for her aid, Mexico was to receive. M genera,! f inane la! support^ ; and 51 the lost territory in Hew Mexico, Texas, and Ariaoha0!f- It also was suggested that Mexico .. should try to interest ' Japan. in .joining the alliance against the United States®^/ - Secretarjr of .State L'ansitig and President Wilson felt that the Zimmerman Note was an authentic government - y dispatch from. Germanyy, In-,response to a. Senate, request for • investigation^ . Secretary Lansing stated that, a note’to the• . Mexican government from the .German Secretary for Foreign: ■ ■ Sffairs, was in the possession of the United. States government ■ ^^Literary Digests Vol® Lils Ho, 13, p« 802®y - ^°¥, Henry Gbofce and: Edith' P* Stlokney, Readings in European International Rela,t!onsa. p* 505, 43 but nothing more about It could "be revealed then®')"L On. June ' l4g 1917@ President "Wilson referred to the ■"Zimmerman Hote as - proof that the German foreign office had tried to Incite ’ 32 Mexico to take arms against use11 : It seems Impossible to avoid the conclusion that Germany had been working-to Intensify the strain on Ameriean-Mexican relationse It was to Germany’s advantage to divert the atten tion and resources of the United States from the war in Europe®; Contemporary observers reported .they had seen German activity directed toward Inciting Mexico against the United States® An ' offer to dissect the United States for the benefit of Mexico probably had some previous activity.or negotiation as a base® German responsibility for the Mexican raids which. immediately preceded Pershing*s pursuit of Villa is another1 mattere Proof of German- complicity-- in these particular attacks has not come to light® 'Therefore it Is not possible^ on the .. basis of available Information^ to accuse Germany of instiga ting the particular events which culminated in the punitive expedition® • , Indian activities also contributed to the tenseness of relations between Mexico and the United States® On November 11 some'Yaquis killed one United States citizen'and kidnapped five others in Mexican territory® In February of the following 31 ■ - State Department Senate Document 728 a 64th Congress9 Second Session® ^Joseph P-a Tumulty9 Woodrow Wilson As I Know.Hims up* 158- 160» 44 year more Indian attacks• oocurrede ^ Official, complaints from Washington to Mexico Qlty elicited reminders of past outrages on Mexicans committed by Indians from the American side of the borderg ■ '. A, succession of border incidents occurred in the last half •^Foreign Relations9 1915? P®- 816S ' . . -^^Francis R s Taylor in Mexico in the Caribbean<, pp® I3 0 -I3 I. 45 Born October 4 s 1877» 1b Rio G-rande In. the Hex lean state of Durangos Villa spent much of his youth as a homeless wanderer0 He acquired a reputation as a leader of thieves and cattle ; , • -v ' ■ . v -■ ‘ rustlers, and in 1910 President Diaz placed a price on bis , head, About this time. Villa changed his name from his real on©9 Doroteo Arango, to Francisco (Panoho) Villa, that of 'a bandit once.notorious in Mexicoe . " ■ ■' - / Villa assisted Madero in his revolt against .DiazQ After being captured by General Huerta, he escaped to 'Texas® In 1914. he joined with Carranza In his fight against Huerta, then president of Mexico® Huerta finally left Mexico, July 15, 1914, but international recognition of Carranza as head of the Mexican government prompted Villa to oppose his former. . chiefe'^ Howevers instead of attacking Carranza directly. Villa sought to involve him in difficulties with the United - Statesa By seizure of the property of American citizens, by abuse of their persons, and by raids, into United States territory, Villa evidently hoped to demonstrate' the ineffective' ness of the Carranza government and thus bring about its 35 downfall* As is not unusual with a prominent man. Villa has been called both saint and sinner# One Contemporary writer said:" - . : . . - - ^^Bnojclopaedia Britmmica, 19459 Volume 23., P» 150* ^°Hackett, op# cita? ppe 344-346® . 46 ■ flie real story of his pari la Mexican affairs has not "been told, X am Inclined to. doubt the many tales told about him and I-know that,.misguided as his methods are, there 'is a real love for his people in . his heart0 His hand is against society - "because of the oppression and cruelties practiced by the privileged caste toward him and his fellows»57 Toward the middle of 1914 Villa was quite popular in the United Statesa There was a widespread feeling that he was. the "strong man% capable of controlling his fellow Mexicans and at heart "more good, than bad," Some editors.then, believed that President Milson was inclining.toward support, of Vllla*?^. .'Sohmutzs, one of the American consuls to Mexico, reported to the Secretary of :Bta.te that Villa merely pretended to be idealistic, as-a screen for his "tyrannical and brutal 39 acts," A reputable contemporary historian wroteg Villa8 s habit of killing non-combatants., men, < - . womeng and children is nothing else but plain, despicable murder, , s One of his recent achieve ments has been to order the homicide of two hundred men (who had thrown down their arms) on the plea that unless he shot them they would turn " .up again, automatically arm themselves, and attack ■ him in the r e a r , 1*0 ' As to the supporters of Villa, there was a current J 0. Vavasour Hoel in Mexico and the Caribbeang p 0 135® For a romanticized version of this concept, see Edgcumb Pinohon, Viva Villa, . - . terary Digest„ May 23$ 1914, pp@ 1235“1238® Villa - understood the value of support from the United States® Until American recognition of Carranza and the resultant.embargo on munitions (the Carranza government was excepted from the embargo) the Villa Confidential ilgeney had offices in Ha shin gt on, Hew York Times, October 21, 1915$ P® 1® . Foreign Relations, 1915$) PPo 709“10e B 0 Hart9 op, cite a Vo3. 0 LiV$ PP@ i40»-4le - belief -that the' hacendado s, •: feerful of-the" loss of their lands f / /under Carranza? were supporting his strongest opponent» United States Special Agent Cobb believed that* Villa1 s commercial . ■ ' ' - ■ : organIzation,, whichr conducted a ■ trade: in ; stolen property : 1 ■ -V.: .■> " - .between El Paso and Juarez./was the financial backbone of the ■ " . rebel causee Cobb also suspected the smelting company in-El . Paso, and similar concerns., of giving .aid to Villa in.order to ■ ; . . embarrass the Wilson administration .in ItSvEexlGah relafiohsP ; - .; '. i : 1 : ■ : - Villa8 s army seems to.have been rather indefinite in / " number o' Toward the. close of 1915 he said -there were seventeen 1; v •'thousahd^.urfted- -men loval'' t.p his" oaus e -f ive . thousand under ■ his. ". 1 a: - , .1/ immediate poiBmand and; the others 'rdlstrlbutedi aboutIthe ;o:bu n t r y • ;S©Weverg: when he left Chihuahua on December 20 he .had only . w 7 eight te With hime .ihis . would: seem: t o:; indl oate >either. /y - - ..'.-. that Villa's previous statement was an exaggeration or that . :' ..many of his men -had deserted him® ‘ It is not likely that many . - Villistas stayed; in Chihuahua to -accept ^ the amnesty that had " - / .. been proclaimed: by. Obregoh®\ 1 p-tr - -1 ." ' "I .: ’ i ; i; " ..Three - days bef 6re:;: the United States; recognized Carrahga ; .. /" :--'1-1;as de facto .head; of;.the goverhmeht^ Consul:; Cobb.: advised:- . . ' . : ■ V-severing •rela tions; with Villa- and " taking; the chance - of Villa" I;- - ■: /. retaliating; with possible increased depredations for a while^-® :;; :-Thls^ agent evidently knew his many for Villa." responded’ asib , " ;; - -;. Cobb had predicted® \ ' ’ , " - . . . .i;-:; : ; . /- International - hews Service report , in the Blsbee^ : /-Paily. Review^ Hpvember 1?, -1915^ ' P«: 5=: ; \ - ’; ; • '- V: - ; -Ori October*. 26 .'Yill^;.Qori£'i'6catea\/tb'^..:.0bibuaiim;:plant..;\bf! : tte .Smert can \Sme2,tin^ and .^Refining: -GOTpany^ :. pto© Qngg©$i-=:. - leitlae'hs', who. were ; empl:oye.e:s: of the Kadera dMmher .Oompauy as ' ■: f hostagea for "parent of van assessment he ;haid; leyled-xagainBt' ' r ’ ^ .tha opmpany e fllla eiaimed thls^ m o n e y w a s .’ forf■: sala;rd,e s • which : the concern owed, to Mexican mployeea®' ; hhl'ess' this: ,8deht”:;:arid ,.6 ah additional .three hundred thousand pesosp were paid soon.,; - Villa: threatened complete destruct loh. • ;of ■ the ^property * V . ■;; _; ■ ’ ; Pecemher -17^ Viila :prdm.lsed Avila^- the Millfary>;Q-dwernpr of; the Btate.'' of Ohlhuahua.,' that he would leate ;Mexicd . If; :the ; United States offered, him full guarantee of a safe refuge®:: - Washington '■responded rfa wrahly: t.O: thlB ;:plan$ and on December 20;'Villa' left Chihuahua; With: e Ight. hundred, of hi s; f ollowers e ; ; ; Although ' hdlhad' proclaimed; an amnesty f o r : Villa1 s; men,; Ueneral;v .Obregon considered ; Vil la an outlaw and:, set ; out; after him® ' ; .: i. Villa - and his: eight hundred soldier s eluded capture by". Gbhegon' •. ; V. h ' h # l ;. . : ; hu-.-h; i- U:: and dropped out of ..sight:®;.; ' ; ;; ; ; v:;- -v tv ‘ c: fhree weeks jlater, January 10, - 1916, /the:'ma'ssabre .of.; ■ - Santa Ysabel took place -at 'Rancho Uaesai I about five miles ' : ;- west of Santa • Ysabel'® Villista soldiers _commanded: by . Golonel s ,' Lop e z . and : Bel tran,; and General. Re yna 9. hal f ed, a; train carry ing : eighteen (■some, aocounts give'■"seventeen) ;'Unlted'-States ;hatlozials ■; : ;Hew York limes,. October 2'f i 1915®- -P® ; /1 - ; : I . ^ Bisbee Dally ;-Rey lew» Dec ember .'18, 1915, -p i 1« . ^ ■ ' W 6 r e i g n : Relations,. 1915$ ;;h : 49 ■ ; - . \ from Chihuahua- -City® The Vllllstaa shot and killed all except , one. of the party, Thomas Holmewho escaped to tell the story of the affair® One of the murdered men was 0. R» .hatsons chairman.of the Mine and Smelter Operators' Association of Chihuahua and general manager of the Gusihuirlaohie Mining Company® The others .were also United States citizens.en route to their mines® ■ Santa Ysabel was in country which had been controlled . - ' ' ' " ' y ' by Villa5 but since he had left Chihuahua and General Obregoh had occupied the city j, it had been assumed that Carranza, had the district in hand® "Many Americans had already returned to Chihuahua to resume operations with the consent of the military . . 4b ■ authorities of the de facto government a Carranza • issued a decree declaring that because of - . . . ' ‘ / - •the Sa,nta. Ysabel massacre^ Villa5 Castro.^ and.Lopez could no longer claim protection as afforded by Mexican law • thus any citizen could arrest and execute them after making sure of their identity® The de facto government 9,1 so sent troops in pursuit of the murderer-s =, Evidently feeling that it was. necessary to defend his administration^ Carranza voiced the difficulty of guarding all places along the route of the 46 ' . ' •.■ . '. railroad® v The government troops pursuing Villa were not sufficiently. 45IblAo, 19l6a pp® 65253 and Arizona Daily Starg January 5$ 1916, p* 1® - ^ I b i d ®, 19 16 , pp® 654-60. 50 1 aetlve- to please t tie Un 11 e& -St a "be § s and Oarransa received' . odmplainta from . Wastiingtotfe UnitediBtatea yOonBiil -Edvard 1 adraitted; -bliat the-chase was iireakg: 'but he esccused. it on, the. ' : - grounds that the Oarmnza government., wa,s financially embarrassed and. therefore .did not'have a competent soldierye Gdrranzala: , : position .wap .evidently. none.; too ::-seoures . for Edwards also , .maintained that; Oarranza .needed to keep hi s., troop a. In readiness , '■ . - - ■■■■■... . : ; y. Ag ■' ■ - ■ ' ' ■ '; . / for def ensive action* ' ; . ; : y; One month a;fter the Santa Jsabel a,ffa.ir. Secretary • : . Lansing submitted to President ¥11 son a;'report of the. nvjaber ; of, deaths among United. States citizens due to the, Hexican . - . ’ situationo 'During 1910 s 1 9 1 1 ? and 1912 s forty-;seven had lost :. their lives in Mexico| during: 1915 s 19l4? and 1915 the total- ■ , was seventy^six® in the letter period twenty civilians and / sixteen soldiers l®d been/killed'oh United States sell near the . boundary of Mexico$, while ' approx±matelir ninetyd'twb vMexicaiis . had suffered a, similar f ate ih; the - same territory Prom . : ; 'this report it is - .evideiit -'ytteat' ^ .6,1 though • the -Santa -t sab el - ' According to an Ilrizona newspapers eleven Mexicansp y: . said to be Villista; soldi erS j, :-were ■ killed with in two'day s by - the •Oarrancistaso, Arizona Dally Star, January 18-^19 <>.1916* ; ■ , ; ...2,6 ' , “ ' ; - g : ,;7 ■. ' . : . : "Foreign, Relations, ■1916', p®. 65.5® Oarranza had not :. ..received similar support from' other Un 1 fed St a t e s con sul s m ; ', Early, in 1914 he had clashed with Consul. Silliman and even ' ; held -him prisoner for a time* - hew York i.llmes^ Index Vol® 11,, . y .-/. Hot 2, p® 257 b Later in the same 'year Oarranza complained to; ■ ; President Wilson that Consul Oarothers. had ^ sold out"; to ' -' 'Vill8,Q Jkt the same, time Carranza inveighed agains.f the Hear.st papers and the GuggenMm' interests., ;claiming that . they :.8,1 so were aiding .¥illa0 . Hew York Times, index^ Volt ill Hof: 2 g p® 2h2> Shortly after the massacre at Santa' Isabel Consul v.Canada'was. ' .unwelcome a,f ‘ Mexico -Oity® - Arizona Dally ' Sfa,r r February 167 1915.* - . : 46 ' ..’ ' ' . •' : ” ■■ -- - ' ' ' . ■ : ' : , Foreign 'Relations, 1915'$ pp.® 472-73^ ■ ; 51 massacre provoked a good deal, of indignation in the United . States it was only one. of; a number of similar episodes which .had occasioned much less resentment0 The large total of deaths also indicates the animosity on both sides of the border toward people, from the other side of the boundary line The United States was still urging Carranza to 'capture and punish Villa when news came of the raid on ColumbuS9 Hew ' : : ■■■■ - . : ■ ' 51 /- ' ' . ■ ' ■' ' ' ■ ■ ■ ' ' ; Mexicor March 9 , 1916o'-, /In this raid Villa led a force variously estimated at from four hundred to fifteen hundred meno : ’ ■ ' . 52 Three United States soldiers were killed and some of the - principal buildings of Columbus were burned down0 Leaving : twenty^three, of their number dead9 the Vllllstas crossed into • ; - : ' ... • • /'■ '■ ' . - y ■ • 153 / ■ Mexico9 followed by a force of United States soldierse / u Ibid o'9 19i6 s- p o 480-o ' In July P 1916 9 Franklin Ro. Lane „ .United States Secretary of the . Interiorg admitted the responsi bility of the United States f or - some of the border trouble0 15There has never been a time sinee 0 o 0 Guadalupe Hidalgo when raidss small or great $ have not taken place across the borders and sometimes Americans have been the raiders - we may as well acknowledge the facto15 Scott, opo clt „ 9 "p0 405 0 For other reports, of border incidents see 1 Bisbee Daily Review9 August 31, 1915s September 3, .19151 .November 1.8, 19151 also Arizona Daily Star9 January 14, 1916, January 203 1916‘0 '■ 51 The day before the attack a telegram received at ,Columbus had warned that Villa was ten miles below the border© Bisbee Daily Review9 March 9, 19169 p 0 1© v A. revised list of casualties gave the United States dead as eight civilians and nine soldiers; wounded, three civilians and eight soldiers© Hew York Times9 March li9 1916', p©2« - ^^Foreign Relations, 1916, p 0 4800 A United States army report states that on March 10 United States soldiers were fighting Vllllstas fifteen miles south of the bordere Bisbee Daily Review, March 10, 1916, p© 1© . .'/President i?ilson immediately ordered that an armed ' . - . ’ : force "be sent Into Hexico to capture Villa and prevent -his - followers -'from-making • further raidss/: Even • in this tense mo ment , however^ Wilson was-.:concerned oyer "the 'independence of : -Mex 1 coifor ■ his dif:eGtion;s. stipulated • that the":-expedition was ': 4 to. take' action only aga.in.st .Villa, and show H scrupulous regard \ ; to the soyer-eignty . of1 Mex-ieb6w The number -of soldiers -was to V: be suff ioieiit to .attain ' the statbd . purpose but not " so large / that, the "Mexicans' would . suspect “any other 02/ larger, ob ject ' ; In regard to .Villa,-s responsibility -f or .the .ra'id'- 'on /■:/.. Oolurflbuss there were varying opinions„ Major."general .Hugh, L» / ' .Scbttj,. Chief of. Staff :of the.' army at the" time: of' the CblumbUB- V./ .raidj., beli.eVed that:Villa .'did not make the attack willingly and: did not take part in the actual fighting«, General Scott . stated, thht Villa had come.to .the border in response to .an. offer . to be Coiiducted tb' Washington9 D 0Ce for .negotiationse '. '.This arrangement had- been Bade by a, 1 member of the Associated Press hut was cancelled by -Melville .'8tOne^ director -of the .■ Associated Pressa Villa was not aware of this change ;in the " . situation "until he had a,rrived near Columbus with his men® .. General Scott felt that - this unfavorabledevelopmgnt_ caused"; .. ; Villa,8 s f orces to' get out of control, and; that; they started to loot the town against; the will .of their leader6 ; This view _■ was Substantiated.by &,Mexican boy who.stated.that he held -'¥il3.a8 s horse during the entire raid and; that neither: of them 1 :'.:r - : ■ 55 - v ' \ f : , ' . ' : -■ \- • went Into the to>m0 : v -;; v : - ‘ - ' Colonel' fonipklns was of; the opinion that Villa, had- used the prospect of a csonf erence . with"' PEesldent ^ Wilson In. Washing- v top to conceal' Ills true intentions P sln'ce y saya. Tompkins g, ^hls private papers* found; o n •the Columhub baf11 e field,- proved that tie: h@-d . planned as . early as January .6 flSlq] to ma,ke .'an . ; ' : V - - :-5 5 .f t - lit " I . ;:;" < : - ; attaok op .Columhusa 16 - n ■■ .. . ' . ; Mrsa -Kaud Hank W r i g h t ,%if e of an Amer lean ranch owner ;; ln:Meiieps;;wS' :a- prisoner of the. Villiatas. from hnrgh, 1 to : Ma-roh lO j. .19160 . According to 'Mrs® Wright*, Villa5 e; sen freely , discussed the Intended raid. on Columbus and Villa, ifa© with the : : ' h: I - ' : ih " 57 ■group shortly before Columbtis was atfa,clced:@ , . ; . ; ■ 'SoMe observers believed that the military foroes -. stationed at Columbus had, been negligent in their /duties and • - - that there might■ even.rhhve been some collaboration ■ with the : raiders» , However* It' seems; -that' the troops a,t. Columbus cannot , be accused of- any aotion- idhlch aided the Merioanso. ; There were only 266- men stationed at Golumbuse The United States policy ' of avoiding irritating-the Mexicans had1 limited the - soldiers’ facilities to a degree which made it Impossible for them.to patrol -the border 'effec.tively* ,: The- inadequacy of. the equipment can be: seen"from the fact-that two of the four maohine; gtins .;; ; ' 55 ■; ’ '■ -v: ■ . -- . - - ; • - ■■ .; - ■ . : Oolon'el Frank Tompkins9 ghasing'Villa,a p;» 11 < Se th is ^ An 54 used; by the , soddiers■ at ■ OQlumbualjaamed 'and could no#; be 'used • " af ter a few shots©*’’®':. It Is ;df no^bigndfioance that #he garrison : ' had been warned of ' the Kexicans8: approachs f or. ' with . the strained situation „a,lons the border there had. been many warnings which had not resul ted in an attack© The. Golumbus detachment . was as .prepared - as .it could be for opposing the onslaught of; the;; ; .Vill 1 stas • and::foufeht;bravely ".and successfully- asainBt Its"foe.se^ ■ ; 'f . " ghdrtly /before the raid"; on .OpltinibusNew MexlcoV; Senator: Pall of New" Mexico had requested; the president to submit to the Senate a report on .the Mexican situation^ This -report. had been presented through .Secretary of State:;|jansing5, .but. no- action : - - , - had been,- taken6 r Oh March 9»-' 1916» the; Til 11 stas attacked Golumbus and on March 10 Senator Fall introduced, a resolution authorising - ■ the president to use the land and naval forces and to call five hundred thousand volunteers into service to protect the .border, and to assist .ih the establishment of a constitutional . government in Mexico© The United-, States f orces also were to " open a m d . maintain- dll lines of . oornnunicat ion between Mexico .. City, the Mexican .seaportSg and the border, as a' necessary . \ preliminary to the protection of. lives.and property© . However^ this comprehensive, plan did not receive favorable action from :. ■ . . ' ' ' 1 ' . " - 60 : : -. ' ' ' ; the Senate.. Gommittee .on Foreign Relations0" ' . . Senator Ashurst of.Arizonay... Senator Smith of .Texass and Representative Hernahdez'of New Mexico demanded vigorous " Ibid©, pe 1663o . : : '. ' ^Tompkins, , op© cit 0, pp0 42-47© • oQ0ongress 1 onal Record, 64th .Congress, 1st Session,. pe. 3884, military ;action agalnst^Wl'lla;• Senator ilshii^Bt/iree.oiimended the use of: 58 grape-” shot Instead of grape= juice11: and'-RepresentatlYe / ■ Smith '■wanted the; Ylillstas oaptured and hanged at :Goltya"bus c v ■ - r It appears to he bWlous that President if 11 son was : asincerely interested . in'aiding Mexico to become adjusted0 .From his .public statements "it:is clear that, he was under constant ' .pressure to - .order Mexican ^affairs for. the benefit,.of:.United /'' Sta.tes interest s . Iklthougb he required Oarrania to gua.rantee ..protection of f oreigners and., payment of damages ca,used by the revolution^ Wilson avoided dictatiug-‘Carranza*'s. govefnmental policieso In times of unusual stress the president'advised : United States nationals to withdraw from: Mexico- and even pro- ■ - vided avssl stance for those who wished to leave the noun try ® : : ■ In .''general,. Wil son evidently wanted Mexic o to work",. out - her... own saivation 9 alt hough he desired, that it be democratic in v . 6 2 ■ /' tor-- ; v ' . : .■ ■ Character0: - - / o ; 1 :) 1 : . 1 - : 'if ; 1 Except for the temporary occupation Of Vera Cruz9 Presid.ent Wilson had adhered to his policy of assistance without military interventiono hit various times the president . ^^Ibido 9 ppl ;3862"39069; passim® . - .. : .''For Woodrow Sll son8 s .own'. stat effi @nt s- in; regard to '■Mexicos see t . Ray gta'nna'rd-.-Baker^. Woodrow Wllsony' Hls. Life: and Letters^ Voli IV9 p> 21-j James Brown Scotts President Wllsoils' Foreign" Polloy9 pp. 239 '291 30> 60p 6I 9 13.69 1179 128 • '#10'.. These ' sources includeg, among others9 the- address at Mobile, Alabama.) 'October 271 19139 - various messages to ' the Congress of the United States, and a reprint of Pr^.dent 'Wilson\s article In the Ladles9 Home Journal, October9 1916® :Had been--subjected -to strong pressure to revise his-Mexl08,22 .pdli-Cy, / - Congressmen had spoken .agaiiist' Wilson5 s a-otlonsg * Wall.,Street bad expressed its/resentment 9. and a publication :;-l - ' - ' ' / ■ . ; ' ' " V ■■ - It.,' - ' ' : ' ' 54 ’ : oi* the armed/forces had advised a prdtectlve Invasion»- . il' digest of •;editorial opinion during the Huerta regime: indicated that the majority of newspaper si n the United States .favored recognizing Huertap the "watchful ...waiting5-. policy xfas: Considered . ' .651. .. : ■ " ' . ; . - ' ; : . : /- - : . ■ . .a •-failure» Fonner president flieodore Roosevelt .blamed President Wilson for the prevailing/sltuatiCn ial Kexlco stating / that' While Wilson snouted ideal sy his 'policy im&' Contributing' / ■" - ' 66 •- : / ■ w./- . :' v ,///. 4-;:.,', : : . to murder* Warren d,, Harding^ then. Senator-elect .from OhiOs, -i, recommended- bringing Mexico. ,Munder the" civilizing influence of the American flag fin order to' give f the magnificent re source b V of Mexico" to mankind 'and help-Mexico . to M come into its own*" After the Sdnta Isabel' affair, former' Anba-Ssador' Henr-y La,ne ' : - ' ■■ ■' 4 - ; ' 4 ' - / 1 , / : W 4 ' 4 . ... 6 8 ' :: Wilson demanded war on Mexico* 'Senator Fall, of New Mexico . , (later 'imprisoned in connection with the Teapot Dome oil investigation) advised the.policing of Mexico for the. protection. of United !States eit 1 zeris9 and histbrian. -Il,* B® Hart ,r.eepmmended ;; military . preparetion. in antic 1 pa11 on of German, .expansion In. ^ N e w fork Times Index9 Vol.* -I, Ho. 2 S p $ .19-1 and : Voi$ i9: Ho— ™~ : ; : -4 ' . • A ' ; . : - ' 64Ibld*W'Vol* li No q 5«> Pa 224-and .221 w : ' " / v 4;'\../ ■ - , /g_ • . ' " , ' ■■ ■ : : . .' ■■ ./ - : .4 , 4 jorth American Review^ op64ci'feg9 pp* 481^ 50lW 2 ' " ■4 '' - ' . 66 ' ' . • - . : '" - : • ■ . - - ■ - , / ' ., '"New York Times9 December 6 g 1914$, Magazine Section9 p e - 67 ^ ' ' ' : . : - ■ ■- . - . ’ IM d 6£, . January 20 9 .19151 p* 4® .. / / ■ 68™ ■ ■ - • ' ' - - " .' ' ■ ' . . ulbidg *. Januair 13, 1916 9 p.* 2 and.-March 5$ 1915S p.. 15® 5 7 , ■ 59 Hexiob at the- conclusion of the war in Europe»' . . Acuna5 who was In charge of the Mexican Department of Foreign Relations., presented Oarranaa8 s regrets over the ' . Oolumbus raide He also reminded Washington of the destruc™ tive' expeditions which.Indians from the United States under Geronlrao.and Victor had made into Mexico from 1880 to 1685c M ' ' ■ ' - . . Acuna requested that Mexican troops be permitted to cross into the United States in pursuit of Villa. and in case bf more raids on United States territory Mexico would grant a. similar . •* privilege to United States troops^: , j : : : Gn March 12 Oarranaa dispatched another note.which was read to Secretary Lansing by Mr 8 Arredondo of the Mexican legation® After expressing the hope that the Columbus episode would not cause war between the two countries, Carranza wrotet Ifvthe government of the United States does not take into consideration the mutual permission for, American, and Mexican forces to cross into the terri tory of one another in pursuit of.bandits and insists on sending an operating army into Mexican soil,:, my Government shall consider this act as an invasion of national; territoryo‘' This communication was evidently interpreted by Lansing as granting permission for United States troops to enter Mexico, for on March 13 he sent Consul Si1liman a message to be communicated to Acuna which stated: The Government of the United States ® > readily grants permission for military forces of the de facto government of Mexico to cross the international boundary in pursuit of lawless, bands of armed men « » «, on the. understanding that the de facto government of Mexico 0 9 Ibid®s Vol. I, Ho* 2,. pp.; 190-192 70 Foreign Relations, 1916, 'p. 485© *71 1 Thlrt 7 Q1 A -a Afifi . 58 grants the reciprocal privilege that the military forces of the United States may pursue across the international boundary into Mexican territory lawless bands of armed men * „ The Government of the United States understands e that the arrangement is now complete and in force and • the reciprocal privileges thereunder may accordingly be exercised_by either government without further interchange of viewse' ■ - ; Apparently based on the information furnished by Lansing; a Congressional Resolution of March .17 .reads,. in part s “Whereas the President lias obtained the"1, consent of the de facto government of Mexico for this punitive, expedition «•.. = and then proceeds to sanction sending United States soldiers into Mexicoo M r 0 Arredondo complained to Secretary Lansing that Mexico had not agreed to allow the United States to send 73 - ■ soldiers across the border and referred to the note sent by Acuna (in which it wa,s specifically, stated that Mexico would allow United States troops, in Mexico only in the event . of another raid into United States territory) <, But the puni tive expedition was /already south of the.border In pursuit ' of Villa* 7 2lb.idca 19 1 6 ; pp. 487-488. 7 5 ibid0.9 1 9 1 6 5 , p.. 492s : .. ■: ; CHAPTER 1 1 1 ' - V ::. V THE PTOITI?E'"E^EI3ITI03;I III MEXICO % - Villa1 s attack -on .Qolxiiiibus 'b.ad "begun -a.t approxirnately •a quarter past four on the, morning- of March 9.,: 1916, By dawn ' .. the attackers bad been repulsed'and Colonel JV , Slocum«, commanding.1 officer of the; United States troops at OolumhuBs, authorized Major Tompkins: of his command to form a troop to. pursue Villa* into MexicOo ' Major Tompkins' organized, thirty-two men,: and led them over the /border« This force contacted, the- retreating Mexican hand of about: four hundred9 Inflicted a loss of-, from' seven tv-five ..to one hundred killed without one - .casualtj In : it s;: own;, ranks 9 and returned. to Golumhus at 12150 - - p.„m0«, March 9. This/ 'action was in violation of a #ar Departm.ent order then in effect prohibiting sending, troops across the .borderg but.General Funston$ Colonel.Slocum*s superior offleers felt that under the circumstances the disregard of Orders was. justifiable®*- .. ■ ; ; - : ■ ■. -h it’ War Department order dated .March -10, 1916 notif ied: , ■ General Funston9 Commanding' Genera,! of the southern department, - that President Wilson had directed that an armed force-, should , : be sent into Mexico®. This official, communlcation ordered General Punston to take no overt steps Until he had received' ■definite orders from the War Department* On March 17V 19169 as previously stated on p a 58, the United States Congress ^ - ■/. ’ 2 ' -- approved sending a military expedition into Mexico^ : : ■ ;•), ’ / ' ' 1 ■■ . . : ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ -■.. '"Tompkins9- op» -cite9 pp8 55“57r'passime ’ ; ' ' ' 2 , : ■ . ■ . - ■ . ’ ; " ■ ' ' . - . ; . ■ ’ Foreign ■ Relations, 1916,* p. 483® - ’ ■ . ■ • 60 General Jotm Jo Pershing was placed in charge of the military forces assigned to the pursuit of Villa* Pershing . - .had an excellent background for this commando Immediately upon his graduation* in 1886* from the United States Military Academy, he had seen service against the Apaches in Arizona and in 1890 he had fought against the Sioux in Dakota0 In .1891, while military instructor at the University of Nebraska's, • he■received his degree in law* He had.then become instructor in military tactics at the United States Military Academy, and ■ in 1898 had served in the campaign at Santiago^ Cuba* In 1902- Pershing received special mention for his work in pacifying the Moros in the Philipp in e,s and.for. this achievement had received an unprecedented promotion from the rank of captain to that of brigadier-general* He had: just-recently returned to San Fran cisco from his: post as'governor of Moro Province in- the Phili ppines when he received the order directing him to command the 1 : '' : ’ . : '■ 3 ■' . - ■' '' ot ■; ' . . ' - expedition into MexicOo ' The force was to consist of 5$920 men: Two.cavalry . brigades, one infantry brigade, one ambulance companys one signal corps detachment and. two wagon companiese The expeditim was. divided, into two columns, one to use 0blumbus9 New Mexico as its base and the other to make its headquarters at Haotiita'g New Mexico,. about forty miles west of Columbuso; The two columns ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ y ' - ... = ': - ■.■. ' '. - ' : ■.: ' r : were to meet at Ascension, Mexico, but when word was received that ' ^Captain B 0 H* Liddell Hart, Encyclopaedia Britanhica, 1945, Vol0 17, Po 546 * ' ; ; ' ' 71. '4 ; Villa was already at least fifty miles below &soenclcm,fand moving south, it was decided that the Hachita colnmn .should • proceed directly to Oasas Grandes*. - . ' - ;/ v 'I ' ■ According to Colonel (then Lieutenant) Browns who was a member of . the Hachita column9 the- men in this group were so certain that they would1 not cross the border that, 'wher they left Columbus for Hachita at twelve midnight on March I6.5 no provisions, were taken for an extended expeditionoAs a result, they did not have kitchen equipment5. bedding rolls.g .and'similar paraphernalia for the first six weeks'o . Shis information is ef ;particular; interest because it indicates that the IJnited States.torces on the Mexican border were not in constant readi ness for an attack on Mexico a s :was claimed by some prominent men in the United 'States 0 . - . : ; ■ : 1 ■ : r: - . The fact that it .'required, a week; to equip .the expedition .for active duty: isrfurther; evidence that the United. States was ; not prepared for military action.against Mexic0 0 :& reporter who was with the punitive'expedition for a time gave the following picture of the United States forceso ,In his;opinions - the hospital and sanitary units9 the signal corps and the engineers had been In readiness for active duty = The7 aviation , branch had been unprepared0 .At the beginning of the. expedition^ \ :■ Tompkinss, op0, clt09 ppo V2?74-0 ./ _ , : . \ ''Colonel To Browns unpublished manuscriptQ . •' . 6 ■ ■ ■ ' v.:. ' ■ ■■ ; 7. : ■ ■. .Literary Digest, Vol0 LiI, p c .8869 62 eight 11 old»faahionedg undersized9 rickety11 planes were available,, Each plane oould carry gaseline for only four. hours8 flight and only one plane could carry a passengero ' .Hone of the planes were equipped for machine-guns or bbmbso . Within a month only two of.the planes were in usable.con~ 7 v b .: ditiono . ■ • > . , : ; : The report of Gapto Benjamin Do Poulols of the airplane detachment of the expedition.is of considerable value in ap praising the.activities of this branch of the'United States forces.o According to Captain Poulols, this was the first time in the history of the United .States army that an aerial force had been used in active field services and this lack of ., experience 'hampered, the work of •ihe .detachment0; The. airplanes were in poor condition and were of an unsuitable type'. The .low motor power and limited climbing ability made it difficult ■to operate them with any degree of safety in the mountain area So Jk number of reconnaissance flights were made and some of these resulted in information which' was of value to the ground force So However,,' many of these flights resulted.'in • forced landings and the total military value of the airplane ■ ' . ■ . . - 8 ■ - ■ / " ■■ ' ' detachment was very small0 - : .... ' , The transportation department also was unprepared0 . At first trucks had to be improvised from various vehicles V secured along the border0 About March 15 twenty™seven trucks . 1 Gregory Masons, f,The Dough™Bdy and the T r u c k Outlook,, ■ Vol o CX1119 pp o 281-82 o : . ' ■" . - • . q b ’ . .■. ' ' ' ' '' - b'" Tompkinss op9 .clt0 9 ppo 236-45, passimo ■' ' . 6 3 • . . ' arrived "by train, but- the bodies had not been attached to the chassis and time was lost in fitting the parts together0 The lack of drivers made it necessary to use volunteer civilians and these men were, of varying ability and reliability0 When 1 breakdowns occurred it was found that many of the replacement parts would fit only particular cars and were useless for the truck which needed to be repaired^ Since the extremely;rough roads and deep mud made breakdowns common, transport was delayed 9 ' - V ; ■ ■ : : : ; considerablyo : - ;; The .United States government learned that the commanding Officer at Las Palomas, Mexicodirectly across the border from ;Golwbus,*’Eew Mexico, had received orders to prevent any United State's: troops from entering Mexico® . In response to communications from tlie United States, this, officer maintained ■ ' : ■ ' ■ %Q . that he intended to carry out his orders® Despite this prospect of armed opposition, the United States' troops entered Mexico, but when they reached Las Palomas the Mexican garrison • ' ' 11 ' . ' hi" • - - ' " ■■ had vanished® . The Hachita column crossed the border at about 1 a:®m@ , March 16, and arrived at Golonia Dublan at 8 p 0m 0, March:18® The Golumbus column entered Mexico at 12s13 a0m o , March 16® Shortly after noon on March 2 0 9 the Columbus column united with / ' ^Ibldeai ppo 246-54, passim® ; 10 Foreign Relationss 19169 p® 490® - - TompkinsV op® cit09 p® 74® 1 : . 64 1 r I O ’ " ■ " ■ " , the Hachlta c plumn at . Oolonia Dut)4an0 • ■. Although the supplies were ^QTlhgtery slowly9 the oavalry was covering ground at a good rat e0' Gap tain Yule claimed that on the road to Oolonla Dublan his force set a number of United States and world records, for cavalry operating - 13 ' - in that type of territory0 Captain Yule8 s- opinion of the - ■ 14 cavalry was supported by other;observerse . General.Pershing requested the general manager of the El Pa so 5, Southwestern Railroad to send a'train for the use of the .United: State s troop s0 The ' train arrived: at : Oolbhia Dublan on March 19s .but the cars.;Werevdnivery ^poor conditiono The oars were principally box oars and in order to secure adequate. ventilation holes had to be cut in the sides0 Many mechanical repairs, had to be. made before the train ,could be used0 When finally in operation, the train took seventeen hours to travel 15 twenty=*seven mileso - ' While the punitive expedition was organizing.for action, the Mexican government was seeking means for keeping it within certain definite limits, A note from the Mexican government dated .March 19, 1916 s: proposed the foil owing plan for the reciprocal crossing of borders'in pursuit of banditsr ' 12Ibid09 ppo 7 3 -7 7o / t i u \ , % b i d c, p, 77o , ^ t - . : , - ^Gregory Mason, "The Man Hunt. in Mexico, 11 Outlook, Vol., CXII, p®- 906& ' ^Major Eo L0 H 0 Glass, History of the Tenth Cavalry, Po 70o . : ; : "- - ' - '65 ■. ■ TrdbpsV.were' to cross tTae /boundary ; 1 Isef .only^^between;;. ■ - ' ■ ’ ; : v ;;;: j : ' the .Colorado River and. Pi ear as Megras and, /except in;' -; '' : ■. -r;,: ; 5 ;nnnsuaR caWs,';were, t.o ^ cross onlj/ in. nnpopuiated or 1 , ■ ’ , . ■ / ^ ' isolated areas0 The military command concerned was ; : ’ v also; tp- send; a copy " of his . intended .route . to /'the civil .' v. ■- : " ' or militaryhauthtiriiy close to. him and was in ho; case; '; - ; 5 ; -. to proceed further than sixty kilometers over the border y " - ;-: . ,xJor stay ;more: than :flye; days®. No toms or camps were to u ; y •, I ; ;; ;;v ;; '.he occupied and. there was to be no seizure or sale of . : . private property^ ; The forces must total no. more than : ; '; ;i;;-; one thousand...men and. they must leave immediately . af ter ' . / ■ the;hand-its were dapturedo If accepted'hy the United. I'/-■ .;, ■ ; 1 States8/ these 'eohditions were to be in effect f or ;orie ;;1; ■ .year and. could be terminated by giving two months' notice0 y In. case the-agreement was not rescinded: at the: end of ^ the' yea,r it.was automatically extended for' another year6 On March 20, the United States responded that it ; .I -agreed ih principle with the Mexican plan but' that some modi*-..- • : f icat ions .. would :have to. be, made .and. these , ,were h ow, being ' considered»' ' Luis Oabrera5 Secretary of 'the Mexican treasury, explained that political .conditions in various sections of 1 ■Mexico made-' it necessary, to include the various limitations on military.activity which appear, in the•suggested plan„ ,; y’.However 5 no. agreement wa,s - reached and the. two ,goyernments; y ' ; Ji;!.; were not able to compromise their- differing; attitudest, ;; Dur- .I; .ing the.diplomatic exchanges the Mexican government was : . reinf orcing - Its; miiltary establishments9 ■ At Matamoros, ... ;: y > l vJuarezy and, other border points the garrisons were increased ;vl -It;Xi; . General Pershing, decided to send three cavalry columns yl;, yto’ the. east, west, and south in order to encircle Villa and : y; I-. ;. 1 6 ' : ' : . ' ’ ■ . ... : . ■ - ■ ■' ; . ' . , Foreign Relations, 1916, p» 4950 37 - - - ■ , ' .: 1 ; '' * . Ibido, p e 499o . X -I; . 1 18 - : ' - •-" : ■ '; - ': ; ; Ibid,, po 56I 0. , . y; ; ;_y cn1 .prevent MsVe3a'eapee ; B for cold temperatures and, thelr71mdequate 'rato-ons, these .- troops suffered a good deal of discomfort0 '' They had "no ~ .. baking powder, .sugars, Goffee^ .fruitsjams, or sweets," Few eggs were to be had and dhese were,very; expensiveThe almost • constant. diet of beef , and frijoles produced a good deal o f • VV>. ' : . i-g 20 • ■':/ :V.’, di digestive discomfort e ' : - b vi. ' i: :: ■ V , - ;' ;: / ; : During the two weeks when Tompkins9 contingent was in the field, about half of the soldiers of his .column and' the ; ' . other three columns based at Casas Grande's'had deserted0 - Tbmpkins belteved this to be due to the extreme rigors-of the campaign and/,the,acute shortage: of food, : ; , i : ;; On March 22, when passing by .El •.l/adle’with his troops Colonel Dodd was no-tif ied by Colonel,'Salasp :a: Carrancista ■ leader, .that .Villa was probably at hamiqufpd» \.0olone! Salas stated that he had been defeated by. Villa^neaf -Crapes a few days before and that Villa had then gone in the direction of ' Wamiqulpa0.tiodd moved.towafd Hamiquipa,. 'intending^tov remain":' concealed near that town on the evening of March 23 and to attack at daybreak on the 2dth0. however, ion the evening :-of d the :23rd,' Colonel Dodd; wds hnf©rme'diby his ! seouis" t h a t ;:after . Villa defeated Colonel' Salas he was in turn routed by . ■ -. CarranciStas, led by Colonel ,Cano', and Villa had then fled ■ .from the hamiquipa areaa These evidences of .activity.-by' the ' 20 " \ " - Class, op, : oit. , ' pp. 36-3 7O ' ■/ ■-h.h'-; : i .I:'' ' Tompkins, 'op. cit. , - pp.a 124^44,.'pahsime;;:':::: .. .: - , ■ . : : , 67 ■ v / ; . , . Hex!can government troops seem to indicate that Qa-rranza was " • - 22 • aiding the United States troops in their pursuit of Villdo The columns led "by Colonel Brown and Colonel Dodd combined under Dodd^s command and attacked the town of Guer rero on March 29 when it seemed likely that Villa was there„ The United .States forces numbered 25 officers and 354- enlisted .men, while the Villa hontingent defending the town approximated six hundred 0 The Ataok began at 8 a*Hi, and lasted three and a half hours * 'At the conclusion of the engagement the Mexican' soldiers had been driven from the town with a loss of at least thirty killed,. while the United■States casualties were five ' wounded0 Villa, himself had probably been at Guerrero the day 2 3 before but had left early on the morning of the 2 9the The Villistas displayed considerable bravery during the battle at Guerrero for, according to an 'American reporter who observed the engagement, they charged the United States troops three times before deciding to abandon the. fight'o However, they made use of the subterfuge of displaying a Carrancista flag in order to expedite their escape, a trick . , - ' . :" . 24 which was used at various times, during the hostilities,, The third column, under Evans, also had been unsuc cessful in capturing Villa, and united with the rest of the command on March 31 at San Diego del Monteq ; 2 2Ibid0 , ppo 79-81o 2 3 lbido, ppo 84-880 24 : - Literary Digest Vol. LI I, pp0 1082-85 o 68 False : information, which had delayed the exp edit ion 5, may haye heeh the deciding element in this phase of the pursuit<> It appears that General Pershing would haye been able to capture the bandit chief iff, he had not been diverted from the correct course by information, supposedly authentic, which was provided by Mexicanso Later it seemed obvious that the information had been intentionally falsified to mislead the United States forces 2 R ' and allow Villa to, escape* . More than one observer felt that Villa1’s bold actions had attracted the admiration of the Mexi can masses and that they were anxious to assist him to escape from his'pursuers0 One of the United States officers felt that much of the false Information was given by Mexicans who were afraid to help the expeditionary forces for fear of : :■ ■■■ ■ ■ \ yV. 26 .. ■ retaliation by followers of Villa* While the'three principal columns mentioned were , following the trail to San Diego del Monte, other smaller detachments were scouring .the Mexican oountryside0 False clues and lack' of adequate equipment were again vital, elements ■ - ' : 27 : ' ' ■ . in the unsuccessful chase* : On April 8, United States troops avoided a battle . with a Oarranclsta force numbering.250* In a dispatch to General Funs ton j General Pershing, claimed that this Mexican group had made a deliberate attempt to provoke a fighto On April,10 $, near Lajoyay and April 11 near Santa Cruz8 Mexican . ^^Tompkinss opo. clt* 9 pp* 78-101* , ■ . 26 ^ " " ' , , -■ ■ ; ' ' - ' ' ■ . : - ' : , : ' - J ' • -. Glass 9 op* -,clt * V pp*. 123-24* : ’ '''‘V .^^lompkinsg op * clto3 pp0 110-18 * ; \ 69 and. Unit ed" States t r odp^ s;, el a sh ed-0 The: qasnaitlas t gtalled .■four United States soldiers:, and six -Mexican soldlerst: But all of this activity did not result in the capture of Villat - ■- ■ Acting on reports and rumors whioh seemed to give promise of a successful pursuits various detachments :6f the expedition made sorties over the' countryside® ;■ The Thirtesnth Gavalry, oommanded by Major Tompkins9; entered Parral on ;: Wednesday:,:. April . 120; iThough :they had expected a-■ friendly, . .' reception, they were warited to leave immediatelyand shortly after passing outside the - confines of the town were attacked by the Parral forces, Garrancistas numbering abdut; six hundred® Tpmpkins was obliged- td retreat-: about - flfte to Santa • Gru& de Villegas0 Here he joined.forces with' Colonel Brown0 • In the'-fa.oeyof this, increased ■opposition, the Carr an cl Stas 'retiredo,' The United" States .casualries in the Parral engage^ ' ment were two dead, six wounded and one missingo ^ ;. ; . As is not uncommon, the contesting parties both were quite certain that they were in' the right» General Pershing felt that the entire Parral incident was the result of deliber ate planning on the part of some of the Garrancistas.at . Parral,' though he did not believe that the commanding officer,, ; : General.' lozano, wa s aware b f .. the plot® The ^United States ;■; ' forces had been ■ attacksd:despite the effort s Of ’General Lozano; to : quiet his followers 'and' the townspeople,;, which Pershing felt- ln6.icated a prepared plan® According to Pershing, the ~ Foreign Relations, 1916j- pv 53®:» 70 United Staten soldiers .had entered Parral in order to purchase ■ -v 29 supplies and had done nothing to provoke the Mexicans0 How- '/f • ever9 General Ohregon, commander in chief of the Mexican array,. believed that the fight at Parral resulted from Pershing*s failure to keep ObregonV Informed ■" ■ : of the movements of,the ' - United: States troopsa . Obregon inferred that if'/the United States ' ■ . •/ 1 ' ’ ’ ■ - 30 would trust him,■ friction with the Mexicans could, be avoidedo In a- dispatch to General Funs ton on April I?., General Pershing summarized the existing situation,, Though the Carranza forces had given some cooperation,.Pershing felt that their general, attitude had been one of ob struct ion „ Local, officials had criticized and Interfered with the United States troops and the populace had circulated false information designed to create ill feelingo Pershing also stated that Carranza troops disguised a s .Villistas had fired upon his soldiers0 Believing that the general attitude of the Mexicans had changed from passive disapproval to active hostility, he suggested -a change in tacticso in-order to prosecute the chase more adequately, Pershing recommended the immediate capture of the.state of ' 3.1 Chihuahua and the seizure of all the railroads in that area0 The presence of the expedition in Mexico had undoubtedly produced increased hostility to AmericansMany Mexican:proper- - ties, owned by United States- citizens, had been obliged to suspend operations0 The United- States consular'agent at 29 Ibid Q 9 p'o- 520 0 . 30 ' ■ . Ibid0, p 0 523o - 31roid0, PPa 521-22'o i 71 Guanajuato had resigned his office and moved to Mexico City for greater safety0 United States consular officers and ■ United. States citizens were advised hy their government to use their own judgment ahout remaining in Mexico®^ The Carranza government had provided little assistance for the. punitive expeditiono Use of. the Mexican railways was usually not permitted and the United States forces labored under severe handicaps from lack of adequate transportation \ ■ - 33 ' ' . • ' " v ■ ■ - and materials0 . After the United States reminded Carranza;. . that he had been allowed.to use the railways of the United States for transportation of his de facto troops, the Mexican leader suggested a secret agreement for. use of the Mexican railway So.: This confidential understanding arranged for. the shipment of United States supplies to "civilian; •_consignees in Mexico .and then transfer of. these supplies to the expedition ary .'forceso' Carranza maintained that he was interested in helping the expedition achieve .its object but- political conditions in Mexico made it unwise for him. to give open ' .' ' ■ ■ . - . ; ; . . 1 ■ -• 34 ■ permission for the use of' the Mexlca,n railwayse ■ Many of the United states soldiers lacked funds with which to purchase necessary supplies* Some of the officers loaned money to their men* Colonel W® C0 Brown advanced almost ■32ibido ,, p* . 525o ■ : :.. ■ ■ ' '^"The Pursuit of Villa," Outlooks April 53 1916s ppe 772-73*. . 34 Foreign Relations0 1916g p® 50bo ' . " 72 ',' .::. i-::. ' " : ^^7 ;v |l7O0 o00 of his personal funds to the solliers in his command^ This money was used; for vs-rlous purposes "but a good leal of It went for necessities^ since by April 15 many of the soldiers : V : ' " • ' - • • - . ’ -v- ■ ■ 35 ", • :■■■■ were In rags.and subsisting on an inadequate diet 0 . Howevers even the generosity of their officers did not provide much assistance for the^ United States soldiers since the high prices charged soon absorbed their money0 Sugar sold for fifty cents a pound, cakes of soap- which usually could be purchased for three cents -sold for fourteen cents, cigarette were a dollar a package, and other prices were in proportionV^° Although the men were sufferring a good deal of.inconvenience, the.horses were having an even more difficult time0 Colonel Brown reported to General Pershing that because of the poor grade and insuf^ \ ficlent quantity of the"fodder a number of horses had diedo^ Despite the shortage of supplies it seems that the United., States soldiers did not resort to the looting and. robbing which are not uncommon with military forces0 According to, one writer, the Mexican natives were quite, surprised to receive payment; for all goods, since some of the Mexican f orces which- ... . ■ had fought for dominance in Mexico had. evidently seized some" materials without compensating the owners®-' , - The United States government was aware that additional financial support was necessary for the punitive expedition® - 35 : Glass, op® cit0, Po 146o ■ ^^hiterary -Digest 0 Yol0 hll9 pp0 ?1486-91o %r7 : ■ Glass, o£0 d t p, ppo 123=”24o 38 . ' Mason,11 The Man Hunt in Mexico, 'V Outlook, Vol." OKI I, January-April, 1916, pp0 896-9lit - ■ 73 - ' , ; - 39 - ■■ Funds for this purpose were appropriated on March 23 and • 40 ' ' - : • 4" April.6 j 19l6o Appropriations also were made on May 20 42 1 and June 27, 1916® , ' . It appears fairly certain that during the earlier months of the campaign Villa was almost totally inoapscltated0 Statements of eye witnesses indicate'that Villa was severely wounded in the right leg by a Mexican when the Villistas be cup led. Ouepperb shortly after the Oolumhus raid® At various times he was transported in a litter and a wagon® The necessity for slow travel in order-to • ease the pain caused "by the wound ; allowed; theyUnited.r States forces to draw very close to the Villa party0 On April 12 a cavalry squadron commanded by. Major Howze was' within a mile of the ranchhouse in' which Villa ; was hiding, and It was suggested to Hbwse that he search this particular rancho But the"search was not ordered and Villa was 4 3 • . : ' ‘ ; ' '■ , . not caught0 On April 21, Oolonel Brown, commanding the forces which had combined at Santa-Cruz de Villegas after the Parral engagement, conferred withOenerals Gerrera,; Lozano, and' others in command of the Carranza forces in that area® An official House Document 935, ®4th Congress, First.. Session0 House Document 990, 64th Congress, First Sessionc . . /' ‘ - . ■ , '• .. , House Document 1151, 64th Congress, First Session 42 House Document 1195, 64th Congress, First Session® 43 ■ ; v t , . . . . , Tompkins, op0 c it e, pp® 158-67, passim® 74 message from General Pershing calling for an apology for the Parral incident was.delivered•to General Herrerag 0n April 22 Herrera delivered his reply in which he refused to apolo gize and- insisted that' the Americans had provoked the clash* This.militant attitude evidently convinced Pershing that another, armed encounter was not unlikely* The orders he had received, from Washington had emphasized the desirability of pacifying the Carranclstaso Mao, the 180 miles of poor roads between/Santa Cruz de .Villegas and his base of supplies at San Antonio made his position rather precarious, so General Pershing ■ . u-.i i • ■ ■' I :' , ■' ..44 ordered a withdrawal to San Antonio, Mexico;B On April 22 Colonel Dodd8s column engaged in battle with a Villi sta contingent near Toma chi cl This fight was. somewhat more serious than most, for the Mexican casualty list was at least twenty-five and the United States losses 45 were two killed and three wounded0 . The Mexican government was not willing to concede that the expedition should remain in Mexico:® The Mexican _ ■" - . ' ■ - ■ . Secretary of Foreign Relations, G*. Aguilar, maintained that the United States government had misunderstood the note of March 10 regarding crossing of borders; that this was to be effective only if an incident like that at Columbus were repeated® He also stated that since the expedition was not fulfilling its object and did not seem likely to9 it should 44 • Ibid®, ppB 168-72, passim® ^ Foreign Relations, 1916, p 0 5300 75 be withdrawn 0 Aguilar claimed that the Villa.band had been :: dispersed and the Mexican troops could control the situationV^ Secretary of State Lansing seemed quite certain that the with drawal of the expedition would encourage the Villistas and the followers of.Diaz and thus create additional trouble for Garranza0 Therefore, Lansing said, Oarranza should not press Ay - the matter of withdrawal0 . . ■ • ' Although general Pershing was trying, to a W i d ' 1 antagonizing the Carranza governments he was still’making a determined effort to captureV Villa 0 On April 29. he "'is sued an order dividing into five districts the area in which Villa was. believed to beo Troops were assigned to the vicinities in which they had .had the most service and with Which they were therefore most .familiar, and.an energetic patrol was immediately undertakeno The five districts, with their .forces and .com manding officers were as follows| District ' -Troops District Commander Uamlquipa Tenth Cavalry ' - Major El wood IfV Evans . Guerrero Seventh Cavalry Colonel George A1© Dodd Bustillos . Thirteenth.Gavo , Colonel Herbert J6 Slocum Satero Fifth Cavalry Colonel ifilber E© Wilder? San Borja ■ Eleventh Cav© Colonel James Lockett© The punitive expedition had now been in Mexican territory less than two months © In this time there had been the three fairly large engagements at. Guerrero, Barral, and Tomachic In addition to a few minor skirmishes. The Mexican _____ . ~~~ ™ Ibid©, pp6 515-17* - 47 • Ibid©, p 0 518 - ■ . 2|.'8 Tompkins, o£0 cit©, p 0- 190© 76 losses totalled ,approximately one bmdred while the United' . States had lost . teno Tompkins describes this as lian impressive balance in favor of American valor and training981 , By now new reasons for continued interference in .Mexican affairs were appearingo Senator .Gallinger-, of New Hampshire gave' publicity to the view that .the United States navy was not strong enough to defend the Panama Canal ir both 'oceans9 therefore it was indispensable that access to the canal by land be assured-,. Since the land route: to Panama lay • through. Mexicos,: and a hostile Mexican government might oppose .the passage of United States troops9 control of Mexico by the 50 United States was essential0 . .. With the United States becoming . more involved daily in the European war, and the war sentiment in the United States constantly on the-increase, this was an appeal which found many sympathetic -listeners0 The Catholic r'--; ■' . '' ' ' . g]_. - J : Church also agitated for a more militant policy ■■■■.and these ■ efforts received the, support of Henry Cabot Lodgej, Republican . ■' '' ; ' ‘ ■ ".■'.■"' 1 ' ' ' 52 ' . Senator from Massaohusetts9 and of Theodore: Roosevelt0 .' : . . In order to soothe the ruffled feelings of the Carranza government and perhaps obtain greater cooperation in the pursuit of Villag the United States government arranged a ’ meeting between the Mexican General Obregon and Generals Scott 49lbldo9 p 0 1851 ■ ■- y' / / Congresslonal Record9 64th Congress^ First Session#- - Po 6628o p--, : ' ^ Lincoln Stef f ens j "Into Mexico And - Out 118 9 Every body *s Magazine 9 May 1916# Po ,538o 52dongressional Record9 63rd Congress9 Third Sessions, PPo 1057-61». , 77 a,nd Funston of the United States army0 This, .conference began 'at Juarezp Mexico on April 30s 1916 and lasted until May. 30s 1916a The United States representatives requested coopera tion and the use of the Mexican railroads* They 'emphasized that the.United States desired to avoid intervening.in Mexican affairs and merely wanted to remove Villa. as .a menace to their : . - ' . - ' ' • . d ' ' ' common s.ecnrity and friendly relationsQ Ueneral Obregon avoided discussion of cooperation^ stating that Villa was .either dead or unable to cause trouble? and emphasizing that ... the:expedition made the position of the Mexican government. ■ : ■ '. :gx " : •. . . . rather.: difficult o . As the conference progressed it. became obvious that there was little hope of reaching an agreement0 The United States was not willing to- withdraw-its troops uintil . - it was certain that Villa was nh"Ibnger ‘a. menace and. G-eneral - Obregon would discuss no other aspects of the situation until - . - - - ■ . . - ■ . 54 ' . - ■ ' the withdrawal of the exped,ition was arranged0 Thus ? at the close of the discussions the situation was essentially the same as when the conference began0 ; - .Meanwhileg Mexican attacks had been made bn Ulen- Springs and Boqulllasg Texas, so the United Bta,tesg on May 9> 1916s - called into service the katlohal Guard, units of Arizona, Sew Mexico and Texas» These forces were sent to stations on the - . ; . - - 55 ". ' ’ ' ' ,' - - ' ' ' ■ Mexican border0 .. . : Callahang. opQ. cit a 9 p 0 ^^Poreign. Relat 1 ons »• 19169 pp 0 53 5=*40 -^TompkinSg op0 cit 0, p 0 190 0 78 .. Forty thousand men of the regular' army had "been stationed on the Bio Grande border,for several yearSo The . Mational Guard which was sent to the "border numbered 135,000 and this force was stationed in close proximity to the . eg . ' . regular army already theret Ihusy while the conference was in session at Juarezs the United States had" 175»000;: soldiers on the "border in readiness for actiont ' : United 'States troops stationed at Marathons Texas crossed the border in pursuit of; the Mexicans who had raided Glen - SprinBiv and Boquillaso^^ ; This action brought a .lengthy protest ^frpmt.the Mexican government0 The Mexican Secretary.. of;: Foreign Relations, stated that there was no reason for ad ditional United States forces/to he in Mexico as a result of the Glen Springs and Boquillas raids since.Mexican troops : were taking suitable action0 He maintained that the assurances of regard for Mexican sovereignty which the United ■ States had given were not horne out "by her military action* .He also indicated that it; would help the situation ; considerahly if the United ■ States would provide Mexico with ■ a:true statement of her attitude and intentions* According to Aguilars, the United States was responsible for the pro- . longation of the Mexican civil war-, since she had; recently ; given considerable assistance to.Villa,o';. The opposition to ; , the. Oarranza government from United States. Catholics, business S^War Department^ Annual Reports, 19163 Vol0 I9 PP* 474-75o 'R7 . , - . ' , ; Foreign Bela t ions, 1916, p 0' 542 79 men,, and newspapers, and the alleged .assistance which Mexican bandits'had received from across the border were listed by Aguilar, He claimed that the’United States was interfering' with the shipment of munitions for Mexico and that therefore her intentions were hot pacific. If war resulted he was sure that the actions of the United States would be the principal •58 cause> ■ Secretary of State Lansing'responded to Aguilar1s pro^ test in a conciliatory tone, but he showed no sign, of retreating from -his.earlier positions He claimed that the United,States ’ had no ulterior motives but merely wanted to apprehend :the . Mexican bandits and that the Mexican government could help by cooperating with the United States troopso He stated that the v weakness of the Mexican government made it impossible for the United States; to safeguard the border,. especially if pursuit ..was not permitted0 In regard to interference with shipments . of munitions intended for Mexico, Lansing felt that the United .States could not permit munitions or machinery for manufactur- .ing munitions to enter Mexico while the Mexican government troops were hostile.to the United States forces*^ By the end of May the United States troops which had crossed the border at Marathon had returned'from Mexico0 While in Mexico, this force had. divided into two detachments, one led by Major Langhorne and the other under the direction of -^Foreign Relations, 1916, pp0 552-63 59 Ibidp, pp0 58l-92G . . ■ 80 Beeorid Lieutenant Gramer0 Major Langhorae* s column rhad gone ninety miles Into Mexican territory^ rescued two of the people^ kidnapped at Glen Springs9 and also captured fourteen Mexicans . whom they believed to be members, of - the raiding partya - Cramer8 s force had moved 135 miles into Mexico and had'killed five '' ' \ 60 - ■■■ '■ : - V - • ■ 'Mexicans* Early in June the United States Department of State had received reports of new attacks'on United States citizens and their properties0 The United States consulate in Chihuahua had been attacked and in the Nuevo Laredo district ranches owned by United States citizens had been robbed* A party of Mexicans had invaded Texas near Laredo and fights had•occurred ' 61 - ' ' ' - at other border points* . i.t. Carrizals Mexico, bn June. 21, 1916, a part of the expeditionary forces under the command of Captain .Boyd engaged.in a battle with. de facto troops garrisoned in th© town* The Mexioans had served notice on Boyd that they.; . would not allow him to-: lead his men further east as he had ; planned, so Boyd attacked the town* The United States losses. were ten dead, eleven wounded, and twenty prisonerso The casualties of the de facto troops were forty-five dead and ' 62 : fifty-three wounded* In opposing Boyd8 s movement to the east, the,commander of the Mexican troops was evidently acting ^°HMexico and the Militia,11 Outlook* Vol* CXIlI, 1916, PP. 233-34* : - ■ . 61 " - - ' * - - - . ■ Foreign Sffairs, 1916, pp* 572-76 * . , °2Tompkins, op* cit*, p* 209. imder orders from Garranza0' Oarrarza had issued a statement : that- United States troops should prooeed .in no other direo'tion hut; north,, Thus Boyd’ s intended line of. march eastward was in opposition to.the proclamation of Oarranzao It appears that Boyd believed the Mexican commander to be bluffing when he told Boyd that he would not allow him to march eastward^/ ■Captain Boyd himself was one of the ten United State's soldiers 63 . - killed at Carrizalc , : ' . / Mexican hostility to United States citizens was : evidently increasing^ for on June 28, Secretary of State- ■Lansihg ■stated that - the; United States government could not be held responsible for fbhose. who ignored his advice to leave ' ' ' ■ ^ 54 : ' ’ : ' ■ ' : ■ ■: - ■ : ' ■ - ■ - •' ' - ■ . - . : ■ - Mexicoo ■ . In July the Congress of ,the United, States appro- . priated §300,000*00 for the relief of destitute United States citizens in Mexico and to provide transportation for them to the -United. States®^ ; ./f ' ■ . ■ On September -14 Villa issued a publio statement that he intended to:occupy Chihuahua, and on September 20 he carried out his threato In a successful attack on the city of Chihuahua he took possession of the federal building, the governor6s palace,' and the penitentiary* After being in command of the city for several hours he left, accompanied by two hundred ■ liberated prisoners and a number of Carranclstas who deserted their army and joined 'him* • Reports indicated that Villa left - ^ .Foreign' Relations, 19169 ppe 5 9 3 -9 7 * 64 - ■ ' . ; p^Ibid0f p 0 7 0 0o ’ \ r , : - ■: ■;■ ■ ^% e w International Year Book, 11th ed*,: ,1917v.r:Po 7050 82 Chihuahua with fifteen hundred more men than he had when he attacked the oity0 He also had seized sixteen automobile loads of arms and ammunition^ In October Villa issued a Manifesto in which he'pro= claimed his opposition to the' Carranza-regime and recommended the organization of a new government0 He stated that the basic tenets of this government should be as followss Ho foreign, debts should be recognizedno foreigners should acquire . real estated in Mexico; all property owned by foreigners should be confiscated.by; the .government; all mercantile operations with y the United States should be suspended; all telegraph and. rail road; c ommuni cat ions should be cut off ..within eighteen leagues .'.f- of the United States border^ ■ . v ; In a dispatch to General Funston. on 'Hovember 2 f General Pershing stated that the commanding officers of the Mexican government forces in Chihuahua were disloyal to their governmentj and with VillaUs prestige; increasing and his army constantly growing5. .it was .impossible, for the Carranza govern ment to restore order in Chihuahua „ - Per shin g stated -that it would be an easy matter for the punitive expedition to seize control of - Chihuahua9 but he did not receive permission to embark on this project o' - ;■ . The political aspect of the Mexican,question was not : disregarded by the two major political parties in the United ' ■ •. . Foreign Relations, 1916, pp® 609-100 ■ 67lbidg'9 ppo 619-22 o f , • f; . Stateso The periodio clashes.between the United States and Mexico had consistently provoked criticism from the. Republicans and a corresponding defense of President Wilson*s policy by the DemocratSo The'difficulty which Democratic congressmen- of southwestern statea experienced in adhering to the party line ' had been removed by the order which sent Pershing In pursuit of Villao By this change of presidential policy? these congress men were enabled to be loyal Democrats and at the same time demand the capture and punishment of the Mexican bandit leader0 The Republicans, were not willing, to allow the expedition to deprive them of a campaign issues Republican congressmen claimed that till son' s weakness with Mexico was .direc tly respon- sible for the raid onColumbus0 The constant Republican . criticism led naturally to ,the Mexican plank in the platform adopted by the Republican National Convention which met at Chicago June 7, 2916 0; This, statement of-Republican policy condemned the president1 s t6failure to act promptly and fIrmlyr and contended that the Democratic administration had erred by "lending its influence to the continuance of1 such conditions - through recognition of one of the factions [Carranza8 sj( re sponsible for these outrages0H The platform also pledged Republican aid "in restoring order and maintaining peace in Mexicoo8171 ' ' ' - . - ■ '/ - . however, the war in Europe was absorbing, the interest V ^^Congressional- Record,, 64th Congress, 1st Session, p6.6l84e l ibido, ppe 4158-50- ' : . " - T ‘LMeyers9 op0 clt0, pp* 421-22 0 . 84 of the United States and the - importance of this conflict made ’ ; Mexico a relatively minor issue of the campalgno- Nevertheless the Mexican situation was given some attention by politicians and otherso Samuel Gompers, President of the American Federa tion of Labors felt, that the capitalist interests were 11 con centrating their political power in the present campaign to secure a.different policy on the part of our government toward ;Me3cido.»M. ■ ■ The principal opposition to Wilson seemed to be from the industrialists, bankers, and railroad magnates who would - lose most from non-intervention in Mexiooe "Wall.Street." ' 1 was rumored to be sponsoring a "raid of Mexican bandits,, into- : the. -United States, to be so timed and so atrociousithat it would .settle the electipno18^ ' ■ , ^ / 'i;/: 'y f ;v ', 'i. In his campaign speeches Char 1 es’ Evans 'Hughes9 the Republican candidate opposing Wilson8;s re-election to the , presidency, attacked the president8s Mexican policy, maintain- ■ ' . ; ' ■ v . ' ■ ■■■■. - ■ . ■ ■ ; . ‘ 75 ■ ings, after conferences, with Henry Lane Wilson and Senator Fall, •that the United States might better have'recognized'Huerta than .;Garranzas Attempts to modify Hughes8 views on Mexico were 72 . . Congressional Record, 64th Congress, First Session, Po 140 - 75 . ; ' . ■ ' ' . ■■ : ■ Ddddi.' op.a citosPo 193-o . . . i . - ^ T h e Letters of Lincoln Steffens, Yolo I, ;Po 3860 ' ■' : •75IMd.6, .PPo 376-77:6 . ' . .; . . ; " f f f . ^ Lit era ry Digest, Yol0 LIIX, p 0: 395o- 85 77 : unavatiing> .Although Hughes did not Indicate exactly how he would treat Mexico If he were. - elected, he favored maintenance of the United State8 regular army and. a federal citizen1s ; / ' '■ \ ■ - - - "■'■■■ • 78 reserve while/opposing the recall of the punitive expedition0 -Republican senators and the Republican press complained that the Democratic administration was trying to utilize the Mexican situation for political purposes'^ a-lthough these men seemed not averse to using, the same tactics they deploredt Representative Treadway, Republican of Massachusetts, said that the expedition was being restrained so that.if Pershing became involved, in a ..fight the "admin-i s t rat ion could send reenf or cements and point to-theIfact that ft Wisely had: them'available:; if the expedition returned from Mexico as the result of arbitration, > / . ■ . ■■ / - ' :/,;/ " ■ 80 . . • ' : the government could ..claim it had avoided war „ Representative Kahn, Republican of California, tried to blast.the Democratic slogan Hhe kept us out of war" by claiming that we had been at " ' / ■/ ■ ■ 81 war with Mexico ever since the Vera Cruz incident^ In a long criticism of Wilson8 s attitude toward'Mexico,‘ Representative Kreider, Republican of Pennsylvania, said that no one had seriously, anticipated the capture of Villa and that the president had sent the expedition into Mexico merely because he had- felt ^Steffens, op0 clt0, ppa 376-77< 7878, Doddo op0 oits, Po 187 79, Literary Digest, Vol„ LIU, Po 3360 7-- Oongressional Record, 64th Congress, 1st Session, p e1774s hppendiXo . . ' /. ' . ' . - • ‘ : ibida9 Appendix, pp0 2053-54c ! 86 that he had to '"do something" for political reasonse^ The ,dndianapolia'Star (Repuhlica.i]) felt that Wilson was putting the interests : hf.■'■.'■Mexico - above-those of the ; United States.: and the - , Hew York Sun (Republican) maint-ained that . Wilson9 s policy of . ' ; “watchful waiting11 was more suited to a candidate for the . . .. ::.. ■ ; .' ; ;: r . : s: presidency of Mexico than the presidency of the United States©./ '- The Hearst papers likewise arraigned themselves in opposition V. ' ' '-';/ : " -/"tv'-': 84 : ' : ' ' 14 ' ' 4:' ' ' - ' : to.President Wilson© - More impartial bbservers also felt that there might be . a tinge of political opportunism.in President Wilson*s treats . .ment of Mexico0 A usually staunch supporter of Wilspn belieyed that the president was taking a: sterner attitud# becau,se It t .. : ' ' 85 ' ■ . ■ ■■■:.■ . / / - ... . . ■ - ; . was politically expedient © ~ 1 ;4: 1 y .•;i/4v: . / In' his public statement a. Woodr pw: Wil son maintained hi s stand for the independenoe of Mexico, and in a conversation . .' with his secretary9. Joseph- Tumulty, Wilson said: */ . In a republic like;-; oursp the man on horseback . is .4: always an idol, and were. I considering the matter from ■ the standpoint of my own political fortunes and .'Its - ■ ■ - . influence upon the result of the next election9 I should at once grasp this opportunity and invade Mexico, for it would mean the triumph of my adminisiratihno But this has never been -in my thoughts for a single * moment0 The thing that holds me back is the: aftermath of the war, with atl its tears and tragediesi°n/ - 8 2 ibid0 pv ppo :2083-87o : ' . ; 4 ,:4 ' ' -' 4 : : gX : 4 , ' - 4'r ■ J, : ■ - •• . -u, „ Literary Digest, Vol© Lilly No© 12, p© 656© ■ ' 84 ' . ' 4 .. ■ ; . 1 : '. v ' - Dodd© opB clt0p p 0 192© ■ / ^Steffens, opo citop p© 373© : : - 1 • : 0Tumultyp op© cit© 9 pp© 158-60© ■ : ■ - ■■ .87 - - ' - • ; . . ■ .... ■' £1though he was not unaware of the political advantages that were dormant in the. Mexican situation, it does seem that Wilson was xmwilling- to use the crisis to assist his presidential capapaigno However, it does not appear that the Mexican situa- ". tion exerted a decided influence on the election of 1916 in which Wilson was the victor over Hughes by a narrow margin0 The Mexican crisis played a relatively small.role in the politics of a nation leaning toward involvement in the European ware■ A series of notes between the two governments resulted in the appointment of three commissioners from each country® These men-began their meetings on September 6 <,1916, at Hew London^ L'Oonnectlout and. remained in .almost continuous session until January 15s 1917o -The commissioners from the United .■■States were Secretary of the Interior Lane, Judge Gray, and Doctor John MottRepresenting Mexico were L e Gabrera, Is Bonillas, and Psnib . At the first session the .Mexican commissioners insisted that the Unit ed‘. States , must withdraw f from. Mexico bef ore any consideration of larger issues could b e .undertakenc The United .States representatives held that the presence of United States soldiers in Mexico was merely a part of the.larger United States-Mexico problem and discussion of Mexican Internal affairs should precede recall of the troops* Qtj ’ Myers, opt cit0, pp* 426=270 ^°The New International Year Book, 1917, P© 705© : 89 -• ■ ' ; : • ■ ■ ; - . ■ ' ■ Foreign Relations, 1917, P © 938© • - 1 '■ 88 This 'basic disagreement persisted throughout the sessions of the conference and had not "been resolved at its close0^ A protocol'^ approved "by the commission, providing for reciprocal crossing of "borders as the basis for recalling the punitive expedition and opening the way to more comprehensive discussions was rejected by Carranza on December 189 19l6o This led the United States delegation to proclaim the function of the commission at an endt Though the-Mexican commissioners re» quested that further sessions be held, the United States representatives submitted their resignations to President Wilson'on January 3* 1917o In a report to President Wilson .on January 16, I9I7a the United States commissioners stated that the Mexican question was now up to him0 While the joint .conference was in session, many prominent individuals and organizations in the United States had been pressing for recall of the punitive exp edit1org ^ and in Mexico the successes, of Villa in engagements with the Garranoistas spurred Carranza to insist that the United States ; ' ' 93 " ■ ■. . " forces leave Mexico;* During the latter part of November Villa had again appeared in the" Chihuahua area* On November 23 he attacked the city of Chihuahua and on November 27 the Carranza" forces’ abandoned- the city* The Carrancistas recaptured Chihuahua on December 5 s but Villa5s.prestige had increased Ibid 0-9- pp o 927-3-6,, passim* - 91 . - . ' ■ Ibldp„ pp0 927-38, passimp 92 - ■ .. ^ New York Times Index, Vol6 TV, No. 3,-p. 237. - ' . Q% ' . Ibido". Volo IV« No. p 0 2427 :. 94 ' ■' : : ' . again6 - ■ ... ; . On: Dec ember 9 . Greiieral Peratiing. again appealed to General Punston for authority to'proceed against Villa» Itophasizing that Villa,, was growing very strong, and the United St at'ss forces through their inactivity were losing the respect / of the Mexican populaces, Pershing ashed that he be permitted to pursue Villa$ but the.Secretary of War did not send the neees~ " - 95 .- sary orderG Most of the expeditionary forces had been encamped . - / . " ■ .' " ...' . ' at . Golonia Dublan since the end of Mayo This camp- was quite: -inadequate to accommodate the number of men stationed there9 and; in the early part of their stay the soldiers were exposed to high winds? frequent dust storms, blazing'heat, and swarms of flieso. ■■During tne months the expedition was centered at- Golonia Dublan, the supply service at the border sent materials fairly regularly so some improvements were made in.the physical : conditions, of the camp„ but boredom resulted from lack of ' 96 recreation and weighed heavily on many of the soldiers'© Pershing had been putting his forces through a period of-intensive.training but despite frequent requests for authority to proceed against Villa the expedition was; kept in camp at Golonia Dublan © In January, 1917 j? while the conferences at ^ Ibid., pp. 618-19© . ; 95Ihldo5 p. 623© . ' ' ■ - 96 ■ ■ ' ■■■':■■ Tompkins9 op. cltp 9. p© 214. ■ 90 Hew. London were■still in session9 the punitive expedition reoeived orders to withdraw from Mexico0 On January 30s 19179 the United States;forces left Colonia Dublanc They crossed . ■ . • : - : ; ' '' ■" ' ■ • - . • : 97 •. . the border at Columbus, New Mexico on February 5? 1917s accompanied by many United States citizens who Were fearful : . V . ; " ’ f ’ " ; : 98 ' ■ ; of .reprisals from the Mexicans0 7 The punitive expedition had been in Mexico slightly ' less than eleven months at a cost to the United States' of over ■ one hundred thirty million dollars* The number of men.com- : : . ioo prising the expeditionary force had totalled fifteen thousando The War .Department evidently felt that General Pershing had .done a commendable piece of work, for the Secretary of War sent him a letter praising him for; his- accomplishments in Mexicos^0^ and on. February-22, -19175 General;Pershing succeeded General Funston as commander of the Southern De- . ' : : 3_02 . ' ’ . ■ : : . - .' . ; ' partmento ' In his report to President .Wilson dated November . 2 0 , 1917$ the Secretary of War summarized the activities of . : : the punitive expedition^ - In his opinion the. expedition had ; been not .punitive but defensive* It had caused the disinte gration of irregular■and; outlaw, forces in northern Mexico and . . ;. , had exercised a generally stabilizing influence*: He believed: °^Ibidq7, ppo 2l 3-2 2 0g passim* .- . k . ^®f'!Getting Out of MexicOs,1- The Independent9 Vol* LXXXIX:, Febo 1917> p* .209o . ‘ . - ^-Priestley9 The Mexican Nation, A History, p 0 434* : ' 100 :V' V ■ ' : .. - ' . : Callahan<, op0 cit., p 0 362@ 101 , New International Yearbook, 19179 p 0 7050 : 102 ■■■ ' : . ■ . ■■■■. ". ... - ' . New York Times Index, Volo Y s No* ls pc 2.57o 91 : / that ^ the expedition had heen' successful in quieting conditions , ■ - : \ . • ■ ■ ■ .■ 103 and in preventing lawless hands from . crossing the border'V 103 . .. , v War Department9 Annual Report s, 1917? PPo 9”10o CHAPTER IV THE AFTERHATH OP THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION; In a. War Department. telegram to General Pershing dated Mar eh 13 1916 p. the purposes of the punitive expedition were stated as being the "pursuit and dispersion of the hand ■ . - \ v - ■ ' i 1- . or hands that attacked Oolumhusg N 0M0H These objectives had evidently not been attained, for, although American forces stationed along the border under the: command of Brigadier General Swift maintained a constant patrol5 on February 14 Mexicans, believed to be VOdistas, crossed.the border near Croner Ranch and carried off three United States citizens who ■ , ; . _ ;■ .vg . ; _ ■ - ■ \ 1 were found dead the day following^ Similar Incidents'took place from time to.time and in December, 1917? a series of minor clashes resulted in American troops crossing the bordern at Candelaria<, Texase A battle on Mexican soil caused the 3 deaths of eighteen Mexicanso According to.information given, out by the Mexican government, Senator Fall was still conspiring to influence Mexican policye Mexican secret agents at El Paso stated that they had. intercepted a letter proposing a conference between . Villap Senator Fall, . and other Americans having interests in Chihuahuae This meeting was to be for the purpose of planning ' 1 ’ . . ' ■' : : ■ - . ■■■■■■ ■ ' . Tompkins9 ope. citf, p* 218 New York Times Index, Vol0 V0', No0 T, p 0 2580 . ■ 3Ibid.o. Vol. V0, No'o 20; p 0. 231o : . ; p / - ■' 4- a new revolution against the,Carranza government0 The promulgation of a new constitution for 'Mexico aroused the "ire of Americans with interests in Mexico* This constitutions, which went into operation on May 1 9 1917j was objectionable to Americans prime,rily on the following groundsi (1) It provided f or'the return of lands to the ejidos ; (2) subsoil deposits were to be nationalized; (3) the acquisition of property by. foreigners was to be curbed; (4) educational - ; ■ ■' . : : ’ '1 " ■ ■ ■ „ 5 and religious institutions, were to be reformed6 Mexican efforts to enforce these provisions of the constitution were met' with strong resistance from the. United States government . and the United States ■ citizens intimately concerned® .1 The .State Department of the. United States protested against the. • . ■- ■ - ; ' . . . ' ' g ^violation of legitimately acquired American property rights ®" United States oil men refused to pay the Mexican taxesj formed an association to oppose Carranza and organized a'publiclty , % ' _ " ' ' r7 " ' ■ : campaign against the Carranza government^ .■ ■ Voices which had been heard before the punitive expe~ dition set Out; in pursuit of Villa were .again in the news0 Senator„Ashurst of Arizona- suggested that an attempt be made to purchase Lower California and part of Sonora; oilman E 0 L®. Doheny urged the use of.force to compel Mexico to observe her • ' "‘'Ibido, VoI q V*, HoW 11 p 0 259* ' ■ : / Haokett, op0 cito, p® 34fo ^Callahan8 op® olt0, pp® 573-74*@ • ^Agnes Ho Hoyt, The Holley of the United States with Re spect to Recognition of Governments in Mexico from 1910 to 1923, P> 75l(M0Ao thesis,, ms®,. University of .Arizona library 0 ) 9.4 international obligations(concerning oil)0 - Henry-Lane nilson recommended, dividing Mexico at tb.e twenty-second parallel and erecting Lower California and the northern border states as- ■ ' ' ■: ■ ■ ■■■■; : • 8 - - ' • ■ an independent republic and “buffer state0M Thus it appears that in the period immediately, follow ing the return of the punitive expedition to United States soil/ relations between the United States and. Mexico were substantially the same as before Pancho Villa and his followers attacked Columbus? Hew Mexico on Say 9? 19160 - Callahan9 op0 cl10, pp, 577-80e BIBLIOQ-MPHI ' I* GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS , : (Congressional Directory, Sixty^FourtD. Congress9''First Session# Q-overranent Printing Offioe-, .• Washington, D SG.0 . . Congressional Redord, Sixty-Third Congress, First Session:#; Sixty-Third Congress, Third Session# Sixty-Fonrth Congress^ First Session0 Appendix# Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States9 1913, 19147~1915, 1916, and Ipiy* ' ; Q-o.yernment Printing Office, Washington, D 0C6 : House Dociment 935, Sixty-Fourth Congress, First Session; Estimate of Appropriation s. for .Support, of the Army # House.Document 99Q, Sixty-Fourth Congress, First Session;' " Sst.imate of Appropriation for Radio Installations on Mexican Border# House Document 1151, Sixty-Fourth Congress, First Session; - Deficiency Appropriation, War Department# House Document 1193, Sixty-Fourth Congress, First Session; Army Appropriation Bill, Purchase of Motor Cycles# Senate Document 728, Sixty-Fourth Congress, Second Session; '' Rote of the German Secretary of Foreign Affairs'# . .. ■ . II# BOOKS : ' : : - Baker, Ray Stannard#' goodrow Milson, Life and Letters# . ' - .Douhleday, Page and .Go#, Hew York, 1927# ; " Bemis, Samuel Flagg# A Diplomatic History of the United States# ' Henry Holt, and Co#, Hew York, 1938» Blakeslee, George H#, ed# Mexico and the Garlhbean# : t Clark University Addresses, G# E» Stechert and Co#., Hew . - York, 1920# : ■. . . Callahan, James Morton# ; American Foreign Policy in Mexican .Relations# .The MacMillan Co#, Hew York, 1916# Cooke, W# Henry and. Stickney, .Edith P.# Readings in European , International Relations, Harper and Brothers, Hew York and London, 1931# Cl eland 5 Robert Glass, ed0 Mexican Year Book, 1922■”192 4 0 Tlmes-Mlrror Press, Los Angeles, 192?% rDaniels, Josephus9 . The Life of W oodrow #11 son's Copyright 1924 by Will Hi Johnstone Dodd, William E@ Woodrow Wilson and his-Worko ■ . Doubleday, Page and Oo1, Hew York, 19200 ' Rackett, Charles W& The Mexican Revolution and the United States0 , World Peace Foundation pamphlets. Vole IXj Noo 5? Boston, 1926e . ■ ■ - v Myers, William Starr® The Republican Party, A History& The Century.Co0, Hew.York, 1931g • Hew International Yearbook, 191?o " ' ■ Dodd, Mead and Co 0, Hew York1918 0 - Priestley,- Herbert Ingram0 The Mexican Hation, A History0 The MacMillan Coo , Hew York, 19234- " Hippy9 Jv Fredo The United States and Mexico0 Alfred ■ A o Knopf, Hew-York,' 19257” Saenz, Molses0. Some Mexican Problemse :: Rnlyersity of Chicago Press,.Chicago, Illo, 19260 Scott, James Browny .President'Wilson*s Foreign Pollcy0 Oxford University Press, Hew York, 19180 Steffens, Lincoln* The Autpb1ography of Lincoln Steffens0 Haro our t Brace and Col, Hew York, 19311 ______. The Letters of Linooln Steffense Edited by Ella Winter and 'Oranville Hicks0 Ear court '.Brace ■ . and Co *, .Hew York, 1938& Tompkins, Colonel Frank0 Chasing Villa* The Military Service Publishing Co0,' Harrisburg, y Pa., 1934, • Tumulty, Joseph P* Woodrow tf 11 son.-As. I Know Hlm0 Doubleday, page •and Co*, Hew York, 1921 * . III, ARTICLES . - : : ; . Business1 Behind;the Mexican Muddle"* Literary Digest, Vol0 IXVI1, Ho* 20,.December, 1913, - PP* 935=36 * ■ - - ' Encyclopaedia Brltannlca,'1945, Vols* 17 and 234 The University of .ChicagoP Chicago, Illo 11 Getting Out of,Mexicos!i The Independent, Vole UCXXIXg/ , February9 1917s p0 2090 Hart 9 Albert Bushnello t! The Postulates of the Mexican Situation^11 The International Relations of the United. States, the Annalss Vol0 July, 1914), Anerfcan Aoademy of Political and Social.Selenbe'o.- " ' o "The Second Mexican War,'8 The Independent3 VOlo LXXVlls April-June, 1914,.pp. 195-96. The Inde pendent Weekly, Inc09 Hew York0 MasOn, Gregorye "The Dough-Boy and the Truck,” Outlook, Volo GXIII, pp„ 281-820 The Outlook: Oo'o, Hew York0 • . V "The Man Hunt In Mexico," Outlook, Vol0 GXII, Po 906G o "Wilson, Hughes, Taft, and Mexicoo" Outlook, Vol. 114, Mov* 1, 1916, ppo 505-5121. "Mexico and the Mllita," Outlook, Vol* GXIII, 1916, pp* 253-34 ttMr0 Lind® s Mission to Mexico, 11 Literary Digest, Vol0LXVII,". Mo0 '6, July, 1913> :Fu.nk and. Wagnalls Go0,, Mew York* . Obregon, T* EsqUivel* "Factors in the Historical Evolution,.; of Mexico,!;| Hispanic American Historical Review,: Vol* . II, Mo* 2, May,. 1919, PP. 135-172* . ' "The Odor of Kerosene •in the Mexican Upheaval,11 Current Opinion, Vol, LV, July-Deeember, 1913*• The Current. ' ■ Literature Publishing. Go*, Mew York* . ' Priestley, Herbert Ingram* "Mexican Literature oh the Recent Revolution," Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol* II, Mo* 2, May, 1919, PP* 286-3111 "The Pursuit of Villa," Outlook, Vol* CXII, April 5, 1916, ; PP, 772-73O . 1 y "The Reversal of Our Policy in Mexico, and Its Relation to the War in Europe," Current Opinion, July, 1915, PP® 5“ 5 . Current Literature Publishing Go*, Mew York* Steffens, Lincoln* " Into Mexico And - Out &" Everybody8 s Magazine, May* 1916, pp* 533-547= ' _, "Making Friends with Mexico," Collier8 s, November 25, 1916, pp, 5-6* .. "We'Appeal to the President to Save Mexico| To Save His Party| To Save Himselfs" Morth American Review, Vol* 0X0IX, April, 1914, pp*.48^-501* • . . Wilson, Woodrow* "The Mexican Question," Ladies8 Home 98 Journal 9, October % 1916 q p'o 9$ Curtis Publishing Gb"o9 - Philadelphia, 1916. ' . . : ' . Wooten, Dudley Go ^Mexico for the Mexioans,'1 Catholic World 9: :Vbl o - - C 9 . Ho o: 595 5. October 9 1914-March, 1915° - dVo: - HEWBPAPE^ \ - / - ; Arizona Daily Star9 January 6». 14s 18, 19$ . 20, 1916e : February 16 r 1916:0 . Blsbee Daily Review, August 31> 1915;. September 3'g 1915, Hovember. IT, 18s- 19, December 18, .19151 March 10, 19161 Mew York limes,' May 23, 1914; October .21, 27, December ,15, 1915o February 24, March 11,' July 8, 19160 .; Magazine Section % December ' 6, 1914,; January; 20, 1915o . . • January 13, 1916, March 5, 19160 .‘ Mew York limes Index (Ihe Index is cited where the newspaper • itself is not available In the university of Arizona library) Yolo 1, Mo,, 2, 14; Yolo II, Ibo 2; Yolo 111, Moc 3; Vol0 ; V, NOoli Yolo LII, Moo 13, 150 . : Vo MISCELLAMEOUS Ao'Manuscripts ;Brown, Colonel 1 0 ‘ . , ' Bo Theses . ... Hoyt8 Agneso• Howard0 The.Policy of the United States With Respect to Recognition of Covernments in Mexico From 1910 to 1923o Unpublished dissertation. University of Arizona, Tucson,. I9 2 9 0 - lladDonough, John E 0 Henry Lane Wilson, Ambassador to Mexico, 1909 to.1913o Mo Ao thesis, MSo, University of Arizona library 0 V : l.;