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ED 071 979 80 005 295 AUTHOR White, Lydia TITLE Impact: World Development in British Education. INSTITUTION Voluntary Committee on Overseas Aid and Development, London (). Education Unit. PUB DATE Sep 71 NOTE .26p.

EDRS PRICE MF -S0.65 HC -$3.29 DESCRIPTORS *Developing Nations; *Development; Test Bias; Test Interpretation; Textbook Bias; Textbook Evaluation; *World Affairs; World Problems IDENTIFIERS *Worldmindedness ABSTRACT Aspects of British education which are relevant to the study of world development are examined in thispublication. The first three articles analyze respectively varioustextbooks, examination papers, and syllabi for attitudes,topics, and values presented in them which deal with developing countriesin xelation to world development issues. In History and Geography,Examining Boards are becoming more aware of the need to teach about the Third World and the syllabi and textbooks amplify these findings.The fourth article on teaching about world development in colleges ofeducation is based on two surveys undertaken by VCOAD in 1968and 1970 and indicates the.: in some parts of the country studentteachers have good opportunities to learn about the Third World. Thefinal article, a short report on an important conference of educationists convened by VCOAD in April 1971, examines the reasons for teachingabout the Third World in British schools, and works out suggestionson the most effective ways of undertaking such teaching. (Sm) lit. Ale

6Z,6EZ.0 03 U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DCLoMENT HAS BEENREPRO OuCE0 EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANI /ATION°RIG INA TiNu IT POINTS OF VIM OROP,N IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFsCEAE OFFICE OFMU (-ATHA POS,TION OR POLICY Impact Worlddevelopment in Britisheducation

edited by Lydia White

published by The Education Unit Voluntary Committeeon Overseas Aid and Development 69 Victoria Street, London,S.W.1. in association with The United KingdomCommittee of The Freedom From HungerCampaign

September, 1971 Contents

Introduction page 1 School Textbooks and theThird World page 3 Survey of the 1970Examination Papers page 9 The 1971 ExaminationSyllabuses page 15 Examining Bodies page 17 Learning to teach about theThird World page 21 British Schools and the ThirdWorldconference reportpage 23 Introduction

The first edition of Impact was published in 1965, when information about which textbooksare currently in the Education Unit of the UK Committee of the Freedom use in schools, and in what quantities. There are those From Hunger Campaign made asurvey of the syllabuses who say that textbooks are and papers of all the Examining Boards (GCE no longer important in the and CSE). majority of schools, but the evidence availabledoes not Thereafter similar annual surveyswere undertaken by confirm this view. the Education Unit of the Voluntary Committeeon Overseas Aid and Development (VCOAD), whichhad The article on teaching about world d nTelopmentin taken over the work formerly done by FFHC. Colleges of Education is based on twosurveys undertaken by VCOAD in 1968 and 1970. Becausethe surveys This year it has been decided to extend therange of were dependent on response by the Colleges they Impact to examine some other aspects of British cannot claim to be comprehensive; but they do indicatevery education which are also relevant to the study ofworld clearly that in some parts of the country student development. A survey of examination papers is still teachers have good opportunities to learn aboutthe included, and shows a continuation of the trendof Third World while in other places they donot. previous years. In History and Geography, at least, Examining Boards are becomingmore and more aware The final article is a short reporton an important of the need to teach about the Third World Thisyear's conference of educationists convened by VCOADin survey of syllabuses amplifies these findings. The by April 1971. The conference providedan opportunity now very large number of questions set have not been to examine closely the reasons for teaching about the reproduced this year, as it would not have beenpossible Third World in British schools, andto work out to find space for them. suggestions on the most effective ways of undertaking such teaching. It also provided VCOAD with The attitudes revealed by History and a starting Geography point for planning an extension of its services textbooks are the subject of another article. Research to teachers and students in this, the firstyear of the on this subject was not easy because of the lack of Second United Nations Development Decade

1 School textbooks andthe Third World

by Lydia White

Textbooks are still a frequently used teaching aid in Education, are particularly lable to many school subjects. Indeed, they are probably the continue using old textbooks).Many Third World countries, forinstance, most frequently used aid and are likely to remainso as have gained independence only long as there is a shortage of other 'me the Second World convenient source War, often in the last ten years. Some schools material for the teacher and pupil and may as long as it is be using books which call these countriesby their pre- cheaper to produce the conventional textbookrather than anything else independence names. It is a pity thatsome writers of more recent books also do not bother to checkon these For many children, and adultstoo, any information name changes: Ta:Iganyika has been Tanzaniasince coming out of a book has special authority. The school 1964, though P.W.R. Footin The Child in the textbook has a responsibility not to abuse this Twentieth Century, published by Cassellin 1968, may authority. Without teachers realising it, textbooksmay not realise it. put across attitudes and values which the teacher However unfortunate it is that schoolsmay have to use would not want to encourage. Even ifa teacher does old textbooks, it is not necessarily realise that a textbook has disastrous if they many failings, he may be are factually incorrect, provided the teacher hastime to unable to do anything about it because suitable point out the changes that have taken place alternatives are difficult to find. since the book was published. But other impressionsmay be It is only in recent years that textbooks havebeen harder to put right. Howmany books make statements produced dealing specifically with world development like this one when talking about theinhabitants of issues. History and Geography, however, inevitably Africa: 'The natives, in fact,seem as destructive as provide a background to development simplybecause the baboons, but it isvery difficult to get them to they provide information about other countries, change their habits.'? The impressionthat such including the countries of the Third World. This statements help to create can only be damagingto information may tal e the form of the history ofthe understanding people in other parts of the world.The British Empire or the physical geographyof different statement came from a book called The EarthMan's countries. The older textbooks, which tendto look Her:!age by W.F. Morris and R.W. Brookerwhich was at the world from a colonial or insular position,may published by Harrap in 1953 and reprintedmany be fostering attitudes whichare hardly appropriate for times, this edition being as lateas 1961. There is a today or for the future. definite danger with books thatare reprinted many times, or where new editions For this reason, it seemed usefui to look are published, that a at various book may look new but containa text written many textbooks, old and new, to see what attitudesare years ago. The text may well be revised from time presented in them towards developing countries,to to time but such revisions are usually confinedto amending see what topics are dealt with and in whatway. Over facts and figures, rather than attitudes. the past few years VCOAD has surveyed theexamina- tion papers of all the General Certificate ofEducation Even if one could dismiss the danger presentedby the and Certificate of Secondary EducationExamining older teK.tbooks (and as longas they continue to be Boards in different subjects to see howmany questions used this danger exists), that kind ofattitude does not there are relating to world poverty and development. disappear with that kind of book:it shows itself, There have always been more questionson the History admittedly in a more subtle form, inmany books and Geography papers than on those of othersubjects published in the last few years. For instance,consider and it, therefore, seemed sensible to lookparticularly the following statement: 'Even elementaryskills are at the textbooks of th 'ise subjects, though other books not easily acquired by people living ina hoe and wi!' dealt with briefiy. It was alsonecessary to diggingstick civilisation. One recalls thecase of an limit the books investigated to secondary schooltext- African labourer who was foundto be using lubricating books written for general classuse (i.e. not library oil on a mowing machine to a value inexcess of what books) for CSE and GCE Ordinary andAdvanced level he was earning in wages.' (From EconomicGeography, work. by E.H. Cooper, University Tutorial Press,1968). The author means this as a reflectionon the lack of In the British educational system the individual school training and skill of the labourer; he doesnot seem to is able, to a large extent, to choose what textbooksit see that it is a reflection on the values of the society uses, rather than have them dictated by a central which pays the labourer so little. authority. It is, therefore, impossible to findout exactly which books are currently inuse in schools and It is also worth noting at this point that Geography so the books mentioned in this survey may be somewhat textbooks, especially in the past,seem to consider it random. The list of books is certainly notexhaustive. important to stress the existence and ways of life of (Nevertheless, many more textbookswere read for certain 'primitive' peoples, suchas the Amazon Indians, this survey than are specifically mentioned and these the Australian Aborigines, the KalahariBushmen and books also helped to give an impression of the trendsin the Eskimos. Most of the latter, by theway, do not live school textbooks). in igloos any more and only used them in the pastas temporary hunting shelters, facts of which most writers It is possible, especially considering financial problems, of school books seem that many schools use outdated textbooks which, in unaware. While such peoples are the of sociological interest, their numbersare usually small context of development, present factual information and they are often unrepresentative of the which is no longer va1.11:1, as wellas questionable -'titudes. population as a whole. There is a danger that school-childrenmay (It has been suggested that thegrammar school;, and assume that all people of the Third World live other schools studying for the General Certifica as they of do. Now, as geographers begin to abandonthis approach,

3 it is being taken up by sociologists in schools, possibly (Guardian, March 8th, 1971). 1 would argue (hat ,t is with similar effects. just as damaging to the white child as to the black to Of the two main subjects under consideration, be taught this one-s,ded history. Geography, by its very nature, is involved in the study History textbooks in this country seem to follow of other countries and one can expect a certain various patterns. In the past, it was often usual to sophistication in its approach. The connection between publish boo*.s in a series, so that a child could go History and development. on the other hand, may not through school using a different textbook from the same be as obvious. At a recent teachers' conference in series every year. He might follow the history of Britain Cambridge, one History teacher, who had for many in different centuries by means of series with such titles years been an enthusiastic supporter of Oxfam and had as New Outlook History, Certificate History, World tried to pass on this enthusiasm to his pupils, remarked Outlook, A History of Britain, Makers of Britain, that he could not see any relevance in History teaching History Grammar School Series, History Bookshelves, to development. But what children learn about the past etc. Series are still published today but the emphasis of a country (if, indeed, they are allowed to know that seems to be more on topic series rather than on it has a past) may well influence their attitude towards historic sequence in time. The series of the past usually the country and its people. It does not help matters concentrated on Britain and there might, at the most, be that when any foreign history is taught in British one or two chapters on the Empire in the relevant schools, and there is all too little taught, it is usually volumes concerned with the 18th and 19th centuries. the history of Europe as it relates to Britain, and if These chapters would be concerned with Clive, any other country is studied, it is in connection with our Warren Hastings and the Indian Mutiny, a; far as India colonial past. As Marsh and Col lister remark in is concerned, and with the various explorers and the The Teaching of African History, (Historical Association, `Scramble for Africa', as far as Africa is concerned. 1968): 'In many schools up and down this country The European is always in a superior position, pupils are taking a five-year course in English history, conquering, enslaving, discovering others. Is it in which the colonial connection is looked at through surprising that the white child in Britain still feels English eyes.' In 1853, a Mr. John Guy wrote a superior towards people of the Third World generally Geography textbook for children so that 'they may be and towards black people in this country in particular, shown the extent of the British Empire'. One sometimes s. hen his History and Geography books at school only wonders how far present day History textbooks have serve to reinforce his prejudices? Is it surprising that progressed from this aim. the black child is discouraged when he 'discovers that all the great men of history were white' (How the The history of India begins with the East India company, West Indian child is made educationally sub-normal in that of Africa with the explorations of Livingstone. It the British school system, published by New Beacon does not seem to be recognised that these countries have Books, 1971)? a history independent of ours and that, in the case of India, it is a well-recorded history. But for most British Other examples of distortion in History books have school-children, world history begins with the 'discovery' been found in a study called Cyprus School History of die rest of the world by the Europeans and is seen Textbooks (Education Advisory Committee of the from a British point of view. Consider the arrogance of Parliamentary Group for World Government). This the term 'The New World'. 'New' to whom? f o the study found that, in the case of the textbooks used by Europeans, to us. But in South America and Mexico, the the Greek Cypriots, 'The significant fact ... is the pi o- Incas and the Aztecs had well-established civilisations portion of the text given up to the wars between Greeks and the North American Indian was hardly a new arrival. and Tui.s''. These omissions and selections in school textbooks are all the more dangerous because the In this context, it is worth mentioning a comment by writer himself probably does not realise how much he is Christopher Bagley in his recent study for the Institute helping to form future attitudes by leaving certain things of Race Relations called Social Structure and Prejudice out, thus giving a biased view of History. in Five English Boroughs. Remarking on the fact that, even in the least prejudiced group of people, namely Some books, it is true, recognise what they are omitting: those who are young, in non-manual jobs and who have `Though our present concern is with the later stage of had further education, 21.6% of respondents are British relations with India, we must remember that prejudiced on three or more items of his scale, he says: the history of India did not begin when the English `A considerable amount of prejudice cannot be first appeared in the land. For centuries before then, accounted for by the structural and demographic she had had a history of her own.' (From British factors we have examined. It may be that this prejudice History 1783-1939, by Brett, published by can be accounted for by socialisation in values of Murray in 1934 and reprinted for many years, ,his colonial domination and superiority which still edition being 1959). But this book does not gt. into peivade many institutions of education and communica- any of that earlier history and is unusual in admitting tion.' If this is the case, then not only are children that it is leaving anything out. learning unfavourable attitudes towards developing Another series makes a similar admission and tries countries in our schools but they are also learning to be to make a virtue of it: 'Tnis series has been written in prejudiced against the people from those countries who response to a demand for a textbook of European and have settled in Britain. Such learning is hardly conducive World History which does not sacrifice anything essential to good race relations in this country. in British History. The main theme, therefore, is the It is also interesting to note that a 'Black Power' group History of the World; but as our civilisation is " European", in Leeds has started black history lessons 'designed to there is more about Europe than about any other prove that the black community does have a cultural continent; and as we are British, there is more about and historical heritage, with black poets and black heroes. Britons than about any other single people.' (From Toc often, says the group, coloured children in British The Modern World, by E.H. Dance, published by schools have nothing to identify with; they are only Longmans, third edition, 1967). These remarks raise a taught white history, from the white point of view.' very real problem: people are unwilling to sacrifice any-

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1 thing of British History and yet they realise the need ,o by Tull and Bulwer, Blandford Press1966, and World include world history. Butas long as we continue to History in Parallel 2, by Bankart, George Philip& Son. stress Britain more than other countries in History, the 1967). old problems of insularity will remain. Theobvious prejudice of the older textbooks has largelydisappeared, One might suppose that books about individualcountries to be replaced by an over-emphasison Europe, in more or groups of countries might have morespace to devote recent books, an emphasis whose effecton the reader to the early, pre-European history of the ThirdWorld. may be more subtle, Ind therefore more dangerous. Unfortunately, this does not alv.ays happen.For example, in From Colonies to Commonwealth Such an emphasis can he seenin Portrait of Work' by S. Hopewell (Cassell, 1967), thereare only two and a History, Books 1 t9 3, by G. Williams (Arnold, half very general pages on pre-British Indian 1961 -66). This series, unlikemany others, does history, out of sixty-three on that country.Nor are those few pages recognise that world history did not beginin the accurate: `Western civilisation brought Christianity', Twentieth Century and goes intomore detail than most the author claims. In fact, Christianityreached India in on non - European background history but its main the first century A.D. before it reached emphasis is still on 'the world discovered by the many Western Europeans'. countries. The rest of the book deals with thesame topics as others do, only in more detail. Thus, itis still There is a need for more books with this kind ofaim: about the East India Company and Clive andWarren `The ohject is to avoid looking at other civilisations Hastings and the struggle for Independence.The down a European drain-pipe or from the quarter-deck chapter on Africa has the usual sectionon the early of a British man-of-war, to see these cultures in their explorers and the slave trade and the 'scramble'and own right and identify the influence they had on Europe South Africa. There is a predictablepattern in all and the Europeans as well as the impact of Europe books of this kind and thereseems little point in adding upon them.' (From the Era Histories series, Methuen more of them to an already s. turated market. Educational, 1971). There is alsoa need for such aims Perhaps it is time to recognise that there to be carried out! This series is still largely Europe are good text- - books on foreign history available as well! Several centred in its outlook, though it showsan unusual con- of the to are about China. Indeed, chapterson China in cern for the Third World position and there are separate mot t books seem to be comparatively well done, `Culture' books to follow, to restore the balance.An possibly because we have always recognised Outline Atlas of World History, by R.R. Sellman the fact of Chinese Civilisation. In the sameway, Egypt, or at least (Arnold, 1970) has a similar aim and does succeedin Ancient Egypt, is usually dealt with in covering far more of the world than is usual in considerable the detail. An excellent book called Foreign Devils,by school textbook but most countriesare covered in Pat Barr (Penguin, 1970) serves detail only during the times when they as an example of were under what more textbooks could be. The 'foreigndevils' of European domination, so thatone still does not have the title are the Europeans who visited the Far the independent history of Third World East countries. and throughout the book the authorgives, side by side, Recently there has been a spate of books withtitles like the views of the Chinese and Japaneseon the Europeans Twentieth Century World History. Thisis a step in the and the views of the latter on the former,starting with right direction but, inevitably, the tendencyis towards the travels of Marco Polo and ending withmodern the superficial. If the world is to be coveredin one text- China. She understands the different peoplesand times book, the author has to be carefully selective.This about which she writes and brings out the conflicts should not mean selecting to include the Two World that were involved and the feelings arousedon both Wars, the 'Cold War' and nothing much else.Other books, sides. No one could complain that this book doesnot particularly for CSE, are even more ambitious; for give the European point of view. It does far betterthan instance, World History from 1783to the Present Day, that: it gives all points of view without becoming by Case and Hall (Arnold 1967),covers a far wider period superficial in the process. and as a result, ends up by being mainlya social history of Europe. A successful twentieth Another good book on the East is Lois Mitchison's century history, China in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University which avoids many of these pitfalls, is The Global Age Press. 1970), which manages to give by Alexander and Murphy (Rupert-Hart Davies, an impression of 1970). life as a whole in modern China and alsogoes into Some books of this kind do succeed in bringingin the some detail about China's past. Fo: a slightly more Third World to a reasonable degree. Indeed,the political advanced stage, thcie is R.J. Saywell's China (Ginn,1969), which is another excellent book dealing only struggles of India and Africa towards independenceare with China, often dealt with in detail. One such bookis World describing background, social history, customs, inventions, as well as the political history of China. History 2, 1900-1968, by H. Browne,(Cambridge University Press 1970), which gives a summary of the It would certainly be possible to do the growth of nationalism and the political problemsand same kind of thing for school-childrer. studying India; its history is development of Africa and Asia. But fora work with such a title, the failure to discuss Latin America well known and documented. Butone might complain through- that the same is not true of Africa: apart from Egypt, out the book is a serious omission. There is alsoa tendency in many books to concentrate there is comparatively little evidence, especially in on political writing, of past civilizations or ways of life. history to such an extent that there is littlespace left to mention economic and social issues. Sometimes the There are books, however, which domanage to suggest final chapters of such books actas a kind of 'sop' to what the early history of Africa might have been. One conscience in this respect, in that they try to dealwith which is very successful is Africathe Rebirth of Self- development issues by describing the work of the Rule by John Hatch (Oxford University Press, 1967). The United Nations. While this is a good thing, the UN book is a short and clear introduction to understanding efforts are only a part of what is going on in this field. modern Africa and the author recognises thatpart of (Browne's book, mentioned above, has sucha chapter, that understanding can be achieved by knowing something as does Britain and the World in the Twentieth Century about Africa's past: 'African History goes back to the

5 birth of the human race; so to understand Africa today, many ways different from themselves also have we have to trace the human story from its beginnings.' similarities. In the same way, middle-class writers of This he goes on to do, reconstructing from ouch evidence textbooks about Britain sometimes express surprise that as there is from early times. Later, he describes the working-class cottages are 'clean' and 'neat'. Nevertheless, nineteenth century Europeans: 'They considered that however unprejudiced the intentions of writers in theirs was the greatest civilisation ever known. It gave pointing out these facts, the effect may still be to create them a deep sense of superiority and self-righteousness.' an impression which, when combined with other factors, It is interesting to place this statement beside another helps to build up unfavourable attitudes towards the about the Europeans in Southern Africa: 'Most of Third World. these settlers came of peasant stock. Their families had toiled for centuries and seen little reward for their The common and continuing use of terms like 'native' labour. In Africa they would no :onger be the lowest and 'dark continent' is one of these conti ibutory factors. order of society.' (From Era Histories 9 by Martin Because of their connotations, words like 'native' have Ballard, Methuen Educational, 1971). It is refreshing become highly emotive. Most British people react with to find such remarks about the Europeans in Africa in surprise at the very least, if anyone refers to them as school textbooks. Another interesting book on Africa's `natives' of Britain. If one can be surprised in this way, past is Ancient Africa by John Addison (Rupert Hart is it not showing prejudice to use the term when talking Davies, 1970). about the inhabitants of Asia, Africa or Latin America? So much for History books. In Geography textbooks, There is also a tendency, even in more recent books, to there is less of a pattern though there are still some imply that peasants are being stupid not to improve general trends and some obvious differences between the their farming methods and use fertiliser or better grain: older kind of textbook and the more recent ones. In the `If all the farmers in the world were as efficient as an former, one finds a lot of factual detail about climate, average farmer in a developed country there would crops, industry, occupations, products, and, where several probably be very little shortage of food in the world as countries are covered in one book, each country is dealt a whole now' (Population and Food Supply by Michael with under the same headings and some comparison Morgan, Collins, 1969). or 'Such old-fashioned tools possibly attempted. Such books tend to be rather dry and lack of fertilisers help to produce very poor crops', in tone and to have little human interest; the-e is no (Europe and Asia by Hazelden, George Philip and Son, attempt to relate the climate or crops to the living 1966). While these statements may be perfectly correct, conditions of the people. How many young people they do not say enough. Given the context of very smaii realise what subsistence farming means to the family land holdings, the fact that manure has to be used as which depends for life on the food it can grow? fuel, the dependence on the rains, farmers are being as More recent books make several welcome changes. efficient as they can in the Circumstances. Individually, Often History as it relates to Geography is included. they have not the power or money to be more efficient. Sometimes, this is unfortunate: 'Africa.... waslike a Unless children in this country are told why it is so huge cake just waiting to be eaten', says D.M. Hazelden difficult for most farmers in the poorer countries to of the nineteenth century 'scramble for Africa' in one change their tools or buy fertiliser, they will be left b iok in his series Everyone under the Sun (George thinking that it is the peasant's own fault that his Philip, 1966). But usually the introduction of some situation does not improve. historical Geography is beneficial. Another welcome The worst of the old is, once again, illustrated by an change is the topic approach. Several books have titles example from The EarthMan's Heritage. In a chapter like World Problems or approach Geography by looking called 'Geography and Greatness', the author asks: 'Why at the world through topics like food. have we, the peoples of Western Europe, had such a great A book by Mainwaring, published in 1949, has the History? Why have we produced so many great men in title The World's Wealth and its Problems. Today, such every branch of learning, in every kind of work and a book would include a large section or, development profession':' He goes on to explain that our greatness is and the problems of world poverty. Books written then due to our climate: 'Nowhere, for any length of time, only mention such problems very briefly, if at all. is it too hot cr too cold, too wet or too dry'. How, one Looking at old books, and wondering how much they wonders, did alt those other civilisations in China, Egypt, are still used in schools, one realises how quickly Mexico, Peru, India, manage in spite of their climates? figures, for instance population figures, change. It Our weather has not significantly changed over the would help if, when quoting such statistics, authors centuries; why have we been 'great' only in the last few? would give their date. Of the more recent Geography textbooks, many are The old-style Geography books share a characteristic very good. World Problems by Long and Roberson with the old-style History textbooks, namely that they (English Universities Press, 1969) takes certain topics often adopt condescending attitudes, probably without like water, farming, industry, towns, transport and realising it. There is an element of surprise in the following population and discusses these problems as they concern statement: 'The Kikuyu .... are an intelligent people in different places, mentioning problems as they arise many ways' (from A Geography of East Africa by and describing advances which have been made in Pritchard, published by Dent, 1962), just as there is in connection with them. The advantage of such an this one. 'Hyder Ali .... was, though ignorant of the approach is that one can really recognise that the alphabt 'try remarkable man.' (From The New problems we face are 'world' problems, since the GroundwG 9f British History, by Warner, Marten and problems of the 'developed' world are placed side by Muir, published by Blackie from 1943 onwards, this side with those of the 'developing' world. One edition being 1967). Being a tribesman or illiterate does criticism in connection with this book, which is also not automatically exclude one from being intelligent true of others, is that many of the illustrations are or remarkable. from Europe, North America and Australia when it Perhaps this criticism is over-sensitive. Possibly the writers would be just a',, approrriate, if not more so, to have are merely expressing surprise that people who are in ones from the Third World. (A bias in favour of

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I photographs from the `developed' world may simply be `Hindus consider cows to be sacred, due to the fact that theyare more available). and will not eat beef... Jews and Moslems do not eat pork. Some Books which are equally successful in this`topic' approach American Indians think the drinking ofmilk disgusting. and which arc concerned with the problemsof develop- some Africans reserve it for n.en only. SomeAfricans ment are World Problems by Ferris and Toyne(Hutton believe fish causes sterility, some Asiansbelieve animal 1970), World Population and FoodSupply by J.H. foods are bad for children. Peoples usedto rice will Lowry (Arnold. 1970) and Populationand Food Supply often refuse other grains.; we in NorthernEurope tend by Morgan (Collins, 1969). Manyof these books end each to regard maize as only fit for chickens'. Theauthor chapter or section with useful suggestionsfor is also very good at pointing out theproblems of discussion or project work which will takethe student development which are often forgotten:Mechainsation beyond the scope of the book itself.(This is also true needs to be introduced very carefully,so as not to cause of the newer regional textbooks). unemployment or imbalance in theeconomic system of the country'. Many te;.tbooks, Traditionally, Geography has looked in an effort to show at the world through what is being done already, donot mention such regional studies, considering the situationsof the problems and students may different countries of the world. The solid, come away with the idea factual that mechanisation or birth control is theanswer to surveys, such as The World by T. Pickles (Dent,1939- everything. 1966) or World Geography byHoneybone and Long (Heinemann, 1962-1965) or The SouthernContinents There are various books on subjectslike Poverty or by Coysh and Tomlinson (UniversityTutorial Press, Medicine. The Batsford Past-into-Pre3entSeries has 1951-1969) are being replaced by bookswhich still two such books, or called Diseases andMedicine, look at the world on a regional basi.,out whose approach by R.W. Johnson (1967) and theother called Poverty is far more interesting, forinstance Asia and North by Graeme (1968). Both thesebooks are excellent America and Africa, Latin America andlands of the on the history of their subject in Britain but both South-West Pacil'c by R.A. Beddis (Universityof devote only a page or two at the endto the world London Press, 1968, 1969). Other booksintroduce problem. With subjects like these, wherethe conditions variety into regional geography by approachingit which were present in Britain in thepast can still be through the different peoples of theworld. This is seen in other parts of the world today, itseems a pity done fairly successfully in OurNeighbours Overseas not to make comparisons between them. Another by Young and Musby (Arnold,1950-1962) and Batsford series, the World-Wide Series(1971), however, Study Geography by Rushby, Bell andDybeck (Long- is concerned with issues on a world iale. Books already mans, 1967), though there is always a danger ofbecoming published in this series have the followingtitles: World artificial in this approach. Problems, Revolution, Race, Cities. Povertyand Food are to follow. In these books, Britain and other rich While on the question of regional textbooks, perhaps it countries do not take priority butare considered in might be possible for more books byThird World relation to world phenomena. authors about their own countriesto be used in British schools. At the moment, nearly alltextbooks are Other school subjects could bringdevelopment topics written by Britons, who mayor may not have experience into their curricula and textbooksmore than they do of the countries about which theywrite. (They do, of at present. For example, health andnutrition could course, have the advantage of experience of theBritish more often become part of a biology syllabus.Nutrition school system and know the kind of detailthat is already appears as a topic onsome GCE syllabuses but necessary for a textbook in use in this country).Some while the examination questiats stilltend to be on the British publishers (for instance Evans,Heinemann, theoretical structures of proteins, ratherthan the Longmans, Mac 'Ilan, University of London Press) importance of protein as it affects peopleeverywhere, it produce books for th^ ove.seas schooltextbook market. is difficult for the teacher to beadventurous. Where In some cases, their content andtone might make them he does have the interest, he is hinderedby the lack of suitable for the British marketas well, if they became suitable textbooks. more readily available here. Religious Education is alsoa field where more could be History and Geographyare well-established subjects in done. As well as straight-forward studyof the Bible, schools. Other subjects, whichare not so hampered by there is room for study of comparativereligion or old traditions, might bemore able to approach discussion of one's social responsibilities,including the development in a constructiveway. CSE, especially, problems of development, within thissubject. This is has syllabuses on Social Studies,World Problems and already recognised to some extent andthere are good similar subjects into which worlddevelopment can be textbooks suitable for such work, forinstance Every- brought. There are many recenttextbooks which fall body's Business, by Roger Young(Oxford University under the broad classification ofSocial Studies and Press, 1968). Again, the examinationsyllabuses, some of these are devoted to developmentissues. The especially GCE, are far behind awlallow little scope Disinherited by John Hill (Benn, 1970)is a good for the student or teacher who wouldlike to spend example. Others are successful inmaking comparative more time on these questions. studies between `rich' and `poor' worlds. For instance, These remarks about examinations raise Life in Our Society by Lambert(Nelson, 1969) is important divided into two sections, the first being points. As Wiseman and Pigeonsay in Curriculum about the Evaluation (National Foundation for position of the individual in modern,affluent society Educational and the second being about the Research, 1970): `The secondary schoolheadmaster individual and his finds the GCE syllabuses taking relation to world problems suchas those of population, over curriculum-control in the upper school witha power hardly le_s than that poverty, war, race. Such an approach helpsthe child to of the more authoritarian continental see himself in a wider context than that of his system'. There small home is a vicious circle here: the teacher and circle. This book constantlystresses the fact that we thz textbook writer are unwilling to change what theyte.!ch or must look at ourselves and question howwe behave, write as long as the examination syllabuses instead of just dismissing othercustoms as odd: remain as they are. The examination is unlikelyto change if there

7 does not seem to be a demand for such change from the variety of landscapes and people, traditional peasant teacher. While the history examination syllabus life, native kingdoms or empires, European rule, and continues to stress British colonial history as an area modern independence. These are just sr me examples, for study, while the examination questions continue to many other changes are taking place. be on Clive and Warren Hastings, while the The traditional textbook is beginruig to give way to Geography syllabus allows one to get by without other teaching aids, such as 'packs' containing studying large sections of the world, not much progress documents and other source material for pupils, can be expected as far as the textbook is concerned. where so many different points of view are represented that the material does not convey any one biased out- Nevertheless, there are demands for change. and move- look. In the examination field, CSE Mode III ments towards improving curricula and materials exist. examinations offer the opportunity for the teacher to There are moves towards interdisciplinary studies, in set his own examination. While such changes are to be which Africa, for instance, can be studied in History, welcomed and encouraged, there is no room for com- Geography, Art, Music, Literature (see The Teaching of placency and it will take time for all of them to be African History by March and Col lister). The I.L.E.A. implemented. In the meantime, the teacher will continue has a World History Project. Draft syll, buses are to use the textbook; the textbook will continue to be already available and pupil packs and background written; the external public examination will continue sheets for teachers are currently being prepared on to dominate the later stages of school life. For these Africa, India, China, Latin America and will co-ordinate reasons, it is important that the textbooks that are with the 1971 to 1972 television series for the 1 1-14 age used are gooci ones and that the attitudes they convey range. Five programmes on each area will cover the are relevant to the world of today.

8 A Survey of the 1970Examination Papers

(Figure I) Examination Questions relatclto the Third World- Overall Totals by Year

1966 i 1967 1968 1969 1970 C.S.E. I-- 147 208 264 323 475 G.C.L. 77 137 265 474 476 S.C.E. 11 8 24 34 37 R.S.A. 9 24 86 108 114 Totals 244 377 639 939 1102

(Figure II) Examination Questions related to the Third WorldExamining Board Totals

C.S.E. Examining Boards 1967 (**) 1968 1969 (*) 1970 (**) (*) Associated 17 19 10 (2) East Anglian (I) 14 (3) (7) 32 45 48 (2) (I) 90 East Midland (13)(28) 10 18 16 (0) (2) 39 (5)(15) Metropolitan 12 12 12 (5) (7) 18 (6) (18) 15 21 33 (2) (6) North 28 (2) (9) 6 6 I6 (0) (1) 30 North-Western (1) (3) 11 17 7 (8) (3) South-East 10 (12) (7) 16 24 20 (0) (7) Southern 60 (4) (6) 24 39 50 (1) (2) 36 South Western 1- (4) (10) 37 50 (4)(17) 56 Welsh (8)(17) 8 5 (2) (0) 8 (2) (8) West Midlands 23 19 39 (3) (8) 30 (4) (10) West & Lindsey 6 5 (0) (0) 44 11) (1) Yorkshire 9 9 (0) (1) 12 (2) (4)

G.C.E. Examining Boards 1967 1968 1969 (**) (*) 1970 (**) (*) Associated 12 63 128 (15)(58) 116 Cambridge Local (13) (39) 10 42 57 (8) Joint Matriculation (57) 83 (10) (17) 12 30 33 (7) 50 University of London (9) (21) (27) 16 33 45 (5) (2) Oxford and Cambridge 63 1,5) (28) 21 28 41 (17) Oxford Local (9) 39 (14) (37) 14 13 61 (3) Southern Universities (7) 51 (8) (28) 20 38 49 (4) (4) Welsh Joint 33 (12) (13) 10 10 29 (2)(12) 29 (10) (II) Northern Ireland II 8 31 (3) (5) 12 (9) (2)

( * Questions with possible opportunity for bringing in development issues ** Open-c,,ded questions)

In 1965, the Education Unit of the Freedomfrom Unit has repeated the excercise and found Hunger Campaign surveyed the a sharp rise papers of all the General in the number of questio-..s. (See Figure 111). Certificate of Education and Ce-tificate of 1910 was Secondary no exception: the total number of questionson the Education Examination Boards to findout how many CSE and GCE papers (including the Scottish questions there were relating to world Certificate poverty and of Education) was 988. If the RoyalSociety of Arts development. Each year since then, VCOAD'sEducation questions are included, this total becomes 1102.

9 t (Figure III) Graph Showing the increase in the papers had 216* and 110**. Examples of one-starred Number of Examination Questions each Year. questions from the 1970 papers are given below *`Discuss the nutritive value of milk in the diet and 1200 explain why it is the "almost perfect food" +114 (Associated Board Ga. o Lerel- Nutrition and Cookery). 1000-- *`What is meant by the term "economic growth"?' +108/ 988 (Scottish Certificate of Education, Higher-Economics). *Wake a list of factors that help to make a soil 0 800 831 fertile'. (Welsh Joint Education Committee CSE Rural Science).

600 --- With these one-starred questions, it 1, possible to 0 introduce development issues into an answer, though It is unlikely that most candidates would do so. The greater scope offered by the double-starred questions g 400-- z is illustrated as follows: +9 * *`Water supply is the most important factor in the 200 235 location and distribution of settlement. Discuss this statement' (Northern Ireland GCE A Level 70 Geography). 0 * *`Describe and discuss any one attempt to define 1965 19661967 1968 1969 1970 poverty'. (Oxford GCE A Level-General Sociology). * *`What do you think are the most urgent problems Year facing the world today?' (Metropolitan Regional _G.C.E., C.S.E. and S.C.E. Totals including R.S.A. CSE-Religious Knowledge). Totals. figure:. * *`Inequality is inevitable and, in ars' case, a necessity' (Welsh Joint Education Committee GCE S Level-History). It is possible that this rise does not reflect as much of a * *`Write an account of the planning and carrying real increase as it seems to do but rather shows an out of a project in which you took part, which increase in our awareness of the number of questions aimed at raising money for charity' (Joint where development topics can be introduced. Matriculation Board GCE 0 Level-English In order to try and distinguish between directly relevant Language). questions and closely related ones, in 1968 the system of starring certain questions was introduced and in While an examiner might complain if candidates 1969 it was extended. A question receives one star if it introduced development issues which are not on the gives an opportunity for bringing in development topics syllabus into their answers to the one-starred questions, and two stars if the question is particularly open-ended there could be no such objection to answering two- so that the candidate can bring in his own knowledge 2 Id starred questions in this way, since these questions interests freely and, therefore, discuss development deliberately allow the individual student great freedom issues if he knows about them. (See Figure II). Neither of choice in the examples he uses. kind of starred question is included in the totals given above (in Figure III). In 1970, the CSE papers In 1970, as in previous years, there were more questions included 143 one-starred questions (*) and 67 double- on the History and Geography papers than on those of starred questions ( * *), while the GCE (including SCE) any other subject, as can be seen in Figures IV and V.

Subject C.S.E. 1967 1968 ,969 1970 Geography 89 141 127 152 History -, 1 102 L 147 255

Economics 1 2 2 0 Social Studies 15 14 16 18 Natural Science 18 14 2 7

Domestic Science 2 0 0 1 Relig. Knowledge 12 10 11 31 English 7 8 10

Modern Languages 1

(Figure IV) Examination question totals according to subject. (CSE)

10 Subject G.C.E. '0' 'A' 'S' All Levels '67'68'69 '70 '67'68'69 '70 '67'68'69 '70 '67'68'69 '70 Geography 12 112 93 96 69 57225 129 6 8 1 13 94117319 238 History 12 40 83117 8 7 65 59 2 3 20 47150 179 Economics 1 8 1 3 13 5 6 5 1 2 0 3 15 15 7 11 Social Studies 8 14 5 1 7 1 - 8 14 12 2 Natural Science 1 5 7 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 2 3 7 1 11 Domestic Science 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 Re lig. Knowledge 2 2 3 1 2 _ 9 1 1 0 - 13 English 2 5 3 1 3 2 6 6 Mod. Languages 1 1 0 2 12 -- 3 1 3 15 World Affairs 22 _ ...11... Genera! Studies 5

(Figure V) Examination question totals accordingto sub'ect. (GCE) The marked increase of History questions, especially on as a whole. In Economics, only rarely are there the CSE papers, is interesting. It is, probably, partly questions on trade between the 'developing' andthe due to the difficulty in deciding whichquestions on a country's history are directly relevant `developed' world. In Religious Knowledge, there to its develop- could be many more questionson world poverty ment and which are not. The former are countedand and development m the context of responsibility. the latter starred but it is largelya question of individual taste as to which classification many Historyquestions It may be that the GCE Examinationpapers have fall under. For instance: reached their capacity as faras questions on world *`Write an outline of the development ofAnglo- poverty and development are concerned. Thisis French rivalry... in India, in the period 1740-1763' suggested by the overall question totals byyear (Figure (Royal Society of Arts, Stage 1 Historyof the 1). The GCE figures show no significantincrease over British Commonwealth). 1969, whereas the CSE figures do (evenallowing for This question has been given onestar because it mainly the problem of the History questions, discussedabove). concerns Britain and France rather than India. But, Nevertheless, since most of the questionsoccur on the `Examine the consequences of the IndianMutiny' History and Geography papers, there is surelyroom (Southern Universities GCE A LevelHistory), for an increase of questions in subjects likeEconomics, has been counted as a relevant questionsince the Biology, Domestic Science, Religious Knowledge,Social consequences did concern the development of Indiaas Studies, even within the limitations of thepresent well as the position of the British there.Many questions, syllabuses. And the great difference in the totalsof especially on early explorations, the tradingcompanies individual Boards, without there being thatmuch and political history, fall somewherebetween the two difference in their syllabuses,suggests that there is room and their classification has been somewhatarbitrary. for improvement by some Boardsat least. The Associated GCE Board has a total of 116 Another problem is raised byour counting system. Any question in question which qualified on thepaper to be listed 1970, whereas the Northern Ireland GCE Boardhas only 12. (Figure II). (A more detailed discussion under a separate number was counted, whateverits of length or the kind of answer expected from the syllabuses of the different Boards iscontained in it. One the next article). question with, for example, three relevantsubsections would only be counted asone point, not as three. Even where a syllabus does allow Third Worldtopics Several CSE Boards have sections ofquestions where to be included and where questions appearon the one word or a short sentence arc expectedas answers. examination paper, the questionsare not necessarily As such questions are each givena separate number, they answered or they may be answered badly,as some are counted as separate units. Thus: of the Chief Examiners' reportssuggest: `Who is the present secretary general of the United `The interest of the mass media in theseemergent Nations Organisation?' (East Anglian CSE--History) countries (Africa and India) is not reflected in the gets one point, as would any much longer andmore work of the candidates. Why?' (North Regional detailed question. As mc.st of theCSE Boards have this CSE report on the History papers). kind of question it is hoped that comparisonbetween `The scripts on the whole are dominated by CSE Boards can still be valid but since GCEexamina- European rather than World History and byevents tion papers do not usually have such questions,a before 1945 rather than afterwards'. (Associated numerical comparison between GCE and CSEmay not Lancashire CSE report on the History papers). be possible. This last remark is also interesting in the light ofthe As has been noted in the past, thereare .nany subjects findings about History textbooks. If theexamining where the Third World and development problems Boards expect more of a 'world view' ofHistory, could quite naturally be introduced andyet they are then there is little excuse forsome of the findings of not. In Biology and Domestic Science, questionson the textbook survey (see the previous article). health and nutrition are usually about the disease The number of questions on the GeographyA Level and diet of the Western world rather than the world papers has dropped considerably, there being 129

11 questions on the 1970 papers as compared with 225 But of all the Natural Science questions counted as on the 1969 papers. The 1969 total was a large increase relevant to wo,id development. nainel18, 15 N ere over the previous year. when there were only 57 of this 'special' kind. Indeed,. in all the subjects where questions, and It may be that Geography I-as yet to there were only a few questions which could be 'find its level'. counted, a high proportion of those questions specificall concern problems of food. poverty. population agency It has been argued that sometimes in previous years we work. Some examples of questions classified in this have tended to count all Geography questions as being way are given below' related to world poverty and development. This has been done because we consider that any questions on `Which do you consider the most "advanced" of Third World countries, their trade, commoditi.'s, Latin American countries" What reasons. historical farming patterns, living patterns, are relevant. But it or contemporary. can be found to account for this could be argued that certain questions on Geography development?' (Southern Universities GCE A Level- papers can be answered without any knowledge of Spanish ). development at all: ' "I know that in parts of Africa, Asia and Latin- '(a) On the map of Africa ... shade and label as America people are starving. are short of medical shown, (i) an area where irrigated crops are grown, services and either live in horrible slums or are and (ii) an area where tree crops are important. homeless, but this is not my concern. There are (b) For each area in (a) name two different crops more than enough problems in my own country" produced. and describe the methods in use to grow (a) Explain whether or not this is a reasonable them'. (Welsh Joint Education Committee GCE attitude. 0 LevelGeography). (b) Name THREE social problems needing attention Schoolchildren can study the stages in :olved in the in our own country. planting, growth and harvesting of crops like rice, (c) Suggest TWO ways in which ,t would be possible bananas, cocoa, in isolation, without understanding the to help under-privileged people in other countries. real significance of subsistence farming or one-crop (d) Relate briefly a parable of Jesus which teaches economies and their effect on the development of us to serve people, even if they are of other races'. the Third World. (West Yorkshire and Lindsay Regional CSE Religious In view of this and because most of the enquiries Studies). which VCOAD receives come from teachers, students 'Explain why an adequate supply of protein is essential in Man's diet and why some of these and children ,:oing projects on subjects like world proteins must be of animal origin poverty and development, food, population, the work Many inhabitants of underdeveloped countries suffer of the United Nations and voluntary agencies, it was from a dietary deficiency of protein. By reference to considered of interest to see how many questions a named country, state the staple diet of the people there were on the 1970 examination papers dealing and suggest how the protein supplies might be specifically with such topics rather than other aspects supplemented'. (Cambridge University GCE 0 Lerel of the Third World. (Questions on the recent political Environmental Science). history of Third World countries, or regional geographi- 'Explain the purpose and describe the activities of cal questions. where knowledge of development is not TWO of the following: the Red Cross: Voluntary specifically required, are excluded). The GCE papers Service Overseas; Oxfam; UNICEF'. (South Western had 67 such questions, CSE had 57, SCE had 7 and CSE Citizenship). RSA had 9. Every Board had at least one such `Illustrate the statement that overpc,ition is question but no Board had more than 12. These_ linked with the standard of living, dietary habits, and questions were found in every subject listed in Figures type and intensity of farming'. (Oxford and IV and V, as can be seen in Figure VI. Cambridge GCE S LevelGeography). 'What is meant by the term "Population Explosion"? Subject No. of Questions Select an area in the world where the "Population Geography 48 Explosion" nas caused problems, mentioning _ climate, native methods of farming, food supply, History 21 education and world aid. Explain how difficulties Economics 8 may be overcome'. (South Western CSEGeography). Social Studies 16 "Trade not Aid". Discuss heir) for underprivileged countries in the light of this slogan'. (London GCE 0 Natural Science 15 LevelReligious Knowledge). Domestic Science 4 From these examples it can be seen that the Examining Religious Knowledge 10 Boards are asking very specific questions on development

English 1 problems and students who have spent time doing projects along these lines may well be able to make use Modern Languages 5 of their knowledge in an examination. Perhaps the fact World Affairs 8 that these questions occur in so many different subjects General Studies 4 may encourage teachers to teach about world problems as part of 'respectable' subjects, rather than using (Figure VI) Number of questions on specific develop- them as space-fillers in non-examination subjects ;Ike ment topics by subject General Studies or Current Affairs. Even if there are not many specific questions on poverty or food or population, knowledge of these subjects can be very It is interesting to compare Figure VI with Figures IV widely applied. And sometimes, knowledge gained in and V. It can be seen that as a proportion of the total one discipline can be used in another: number of Geography and History questions counted, `La famine universellemanace de l'avenir ?' the total of these `special' questions is not very high. (Southern Universities GCE A Level French).

12 Other Boards have usedpassages about development Poverty in Britain and Overseas Countries. Whatare problems for translation and comprehensionor as the main causes of poverty statistical material in mathematical problems in Britain? Is the and problem in underdeveloped countriesvery different several Boards' Art exammations havehad subjects from poverty in countries like Britain? (Whatis for composition which could be approachedfrom this angle- done to prevent poverty in England? Whatmore could be done? What kind of help 'Survival' (Scottish Certificate of Education, does Britain OrdinaryArt). already give to India, for example? Mutwould happen if countries like ours did Although the quantity of questions has not help developing increased, the countries? Should we help othercountries, even quality could often be improved. Considerthe following though we have not solved all question our own problems?). 'The problems of the underdeveloped (Middlesex Regional CSE Social Studies). countries of The question draws the candidate'sattention ..o the S.E. Asia have been causedor worsened by' fact that poverty is not something that (0 insufficient use of birth-control methods only occurs far away in the Third World andsuggests, in the brackets, (ii) lack of agricultural machinery the kind of approach he (iii) little industrialisation can make in his answer. The candidate is not, however, compelledto make use of (iv) people dying young due to lackof medical these suggestions. facilities (v) interference and exploitation byWestern Some questions are more structured. countries since 1945'. (West Yorkshire and 'Here is some information about births, Lmdfay Regional CSEHistory): deaths, and how long one can expect to live, forseven countries Candidac s were given a list of five differentcombina- which are very different from eachother. Births, tions of three of (0, (n). (iii), (iv), (v) above and expected deaths and natural increase to state which combination was correct. It is difficult in population rates are calculated for each 1000 population; infant mortality to see why any one group of three of the abovestate- ments should be more correct than any other. per 1000 births. See table at foot. * Candidates were not even given space to justify their (a)Which country has the fastestgrowing choice, or to suggest that all alternatives might betrue. population? Such a superficial approach should not be encouraged. Perhaps ccantination questionson world poverty and (b)Which country has the slowest growthin development should not be of the multiple-choicevariety. population9 Sometimes questions are unfortunately worded: (c)What other features in the tableaccompany the 'Imagine yourself to be an agricultural supervisorin slower rate of population increase? a remote country where you found that the native (d)Compare the information for England and population augmented their diet by eating the small Wales with Guinea in Africa. fruits of a wild plant. Outline the methodsyou (East Midland CSE Social Studies). might use to establish this plantas a relatively high- yeilding crop. Indicate the principles underlying The Middlesex Regional CSE Board hasa very similar the methods you have described'. (JointMatricula- tion Board GCE A LevelBiology). question on its Social Studies paper too, with the difference that questions are included wherethe The way that this question is phrased isreminiscent of the attitudes in the older textbooks answer cannot be found directly in the tablesgiven, so the white man that the student's knowledge of populationproblems coming to 'save the native'. Nevertheless,it is is more thoroughly tested: encouraging to find some attempt to makepeople apply 'Give some reasons why there biological principles in this is such a great way. difference in the infant mortalityrate of the United In contrast to the closed, multiple-choice kindof question,. Kingdom and that of India'. quoted above, is the open-endedessay question. Some- times such questions can be very general: A serious omission from a survey of this kindis the CSE Mode III examination. Mode 111 'With special reference to South America,discuss examinations are the problems faced by developing countries'. set and marked internally by individual schools andthe (Cambridge GCE AOGeography). CSE Board acts as a moderator. Thismeans that the teacher need not be limited by The CSE Boards recognise the need an outside examination to give younger syllabus, if he has time toprepare his own. Mode Ill students some guide-lines as to what towrite when they set questions of this kind: syllabuses and examinations give particularlygood opportunities to introduce development topics.The * Table natural infant rate of expectation of birth death mortality population life rate rate rate increase male female Sweden 16 10 12 6 71 75 England and Wales 18 12 19 7 68 74 U.S.A. 19 9 25 10 67 74 Argentina 22 8 60 14 63 69 Brazil 43 12 170 30 39 46 Guinea (Africa) 62 40 216 22 26 28 India 38 13 139 26 42 41

13 Associated Lancashire CSE Board sent us sample Mode Geography, Economics, Religious Knowledge, HI syllabuses and papers in Environmental Studies, Post Social Studies, Domestic Science, Biology. War Society, Modern Studies, and Social Studies, all of which included several questions relating to the Third World and development. It appears from this year's survey, that the trend towards including questions on world poverty, development and A similar flexibility is offered to many examination the Third World is continuing. History and Geography students who decide to submit protects. Many Boards, remain the subjects where most of these questions are both CSE and GCE, now require or allow a project to found and there is still room for many more questions be submitted in various subjects. Sometimes the Board of this kind in other subjects. But the number and suggests suitable projects, sometimes the teacher and quality of examination questions appearing on the candidate tnay choose one, provided it is connected papers each year cannot be considered in isolation to the subject concerned. Again, projects on the from the syllabuses, which determine what is taught in Third World can usefully be undertaken in History, schools and what is set in examinations.

Lydia White

14 The 1971 ExaminationSyllabuses

The VCOAD survey of the 1970 examinationpapers unlike the CSE Boards. (The Southern Region shows that the number of questions relatingto the CSE Board, for example, has a section ofits Syllabus S Third World has again increasedover the previous called The Hungry World). year's totals. Nevertheless, there willcome a point when no more questions can be asked on world poverty All the 1971 CSE syllabuses and development unless there isa change in the for History have references to the Third World and almost all theGCE syllabuses do. examination syllabuses. It is possible that thispoint Those that do not, namely the Oxford has already been reached in the Historyand Board and the Geography papers and that Welsh Joint Education Committee,divide their periods in other subjects, for for A Level study by dates, without instance Biology, there must be specifying what an explicit mention of events falling between these dates should development topics in the syllabus beforeone can be studied. expect many examination questions Nevertheless, one canassume that for these two GCE on them or before Boards, as for all the rest, the teacher will teach about them. a knowledge of the history of the British Empire and Commonwealthwould be The 1971 Geography syllabuses of allBoards, GCE, expected. Indeed, for most GCE Boards,colonial CSE, SCE, RSA, have, as one mightexpect, references history is all that is expected,as far as the history of to the Third World, though theyvary as to which the Third World is concerned, thoughBoards with regions are set for compulsory study. Often,the Twentieth Century syllabuses includestudy of regional syllabus is divided into Britainversus 'the nationalism within the Commonwealthand study of rest of the world'. Often, too, the teachercan opt to the United Nations. Those Boardswhich have papers teach about North America, Europe andAustralia on World Affairs do include the Third World and, rather than about Asia, Africa and LatinAmerica. An sometimes, specifically development butusually effect of this freedom of choice is notedby A.J. Mansfield concentrate on political conflicts between themajor in Geography July 1970. He conducteda survey powers. Once again, the CSE Boards do betteras far as amongst his students at Goldsmiths' Collegeto see reference to world poverty and developmentare what areas of the world they had coveredin Geography concerned. CSE History syllabuses tendto concentrate at school in 0 and A level courses, and hediscovered far more on the Twentieth Centuryand World Affairs that 'the less-developed parts of the worldappear to than the GCE syllabuses do and tomake explici have been thoroughly neglected'. mention of development pfoblems: the WestMidland CSE Board History Syllabus P Some Boards, however, arrange their regional consists of various Geography topics for study, one of which is Anexpanding syllabus in such a way that it is impossible onlyto teach about the 'developed' world. For instance, population in a shrinking wori Other CSEBoards the Oxford have similar topics in their Hi .tory syllabuses. and Cambridge Board requires fiveareas of the world to be studied, namely Western Europe, theUSA, the History and Geography were the subjects where USSR, Africa south of the Sahara and Latin the America. greatest number of examination questionson Asia, Each ar.ea has four topics listed under it andat least Africa and Latin America wer- found andcomments have two are to be studied for each area. The North already been made on the small numbers of Western CSE Board, Paper 2, requires study of questions in one other subjects where development ought to beincluded. continental transect, out ofa choice of three, and all Religious Knowledge was one of those subjects. transects include both the 'developing' and 'developed' Most world. CSE Boards, and a few GCEones, require study either of world problems or missionary activity whichcould In order to discourage schools from studyingonly be relevant in this context. Such studyhas either to certain regions of the world, some Boardsare turning to take the form of a project or to bepart of work under- the 'topic' approach, where the syllabus specifies taken for the written examinations. The CSEReligious certain topics for study, rather than certainregions. Knowledge syllabus attempts to relateChristianity to A good example of this kind of approach is givenby the modern world whereas GCEconcentrates on study the Joint Matriculation Board'snew revised and of the Bible in isolation. An exceptionto this is alternative syllabuses for 1973 0 Level Geography. proved by the Northern Ireland GCE Boardwhich is in Syllabus B is particularly relevant for those concerned the process of introducingan ()level syllabus where that the geography of the Third World shouldbe Paper II is called The relevance of the living faith studied as much as that of the rest of the world. which contains a fairly detailed sectionon development Paper 1 is called Map Reading and theBritish Isles, problems. Paper II The Study of World Geography with particular Domestic Science and Biology (whether reference to the uneven distribution of population. as a subject on its own or as part of a General Science course)are Candidates will be expected 'to show geographical also two subjects where, as we have often stressed, understanding of such fundamental themesas the development issues fit quite naturally. Food, nutrition following: and health are mentioned on almost all syllabuses developed and underdeveloped countries; for communist these subjects but usually in thecontext of the diet and capitalist economic systems; urbanization (the and health of a 'typical' British family. GCEsyllabuses growth of large towns and cities); the population often demand a knowledge of the constituents explosion and the unequal pressure of food on land; the inter- without asking for a knowledge of whathappens to the dependence of different regions 'It is encouraging large majority of people in the world whose to see such an approach being made by diet does a GCE Board, not include all these necessary constituents; of themany since the GCE syllabuses at the moment havevery organisms listed for study, perhaps little specific reference to development problems, some could be those which cause so much of the disease in the world.The

15 teacher who recognises the place of food and heilth on A study of the examination syllabuses re% .als that the a world scale in the Biology lesson may be reluctant to Third World, in terms of regional geography and recent do anything about it as long as there is little in the political history is fairly adequately covered. Where it is syllabus or examination to support him. The CSE covered, however, there are usually options so that it syllabus is not much better than the GCE one in this is not compulsory for a teacher to teach about developing respect, though some Boards mention the World Health countries. Similarly, on the examination papers, Organisatioa in their syllabuses (for instance the there may well be many questions on these subjects Yorkshire Regional Human Biology syllabus) and others but they are not necessarily answered, or answered well mention 'world food problems' as a topic (North Regional General Science). As far as development is concerned (that is, nutrition, health, population, education, world trade, development In no other subject is there consistent mention of topics work by voluntary and UN agencies), there is relatively relating to the Third World by all, or almost all, the little on the syllabuses, including History and Geography, Examination Boards Several Economics and Commerce and there is room for far more specific mention of these syllabuses give 'trade' or 'international trade' as a topics, particularly in subjects where they would seem subject for study but none specify developing countries. to fit naturally and yet are excluded. It is not fair to Those (few) Boards that have Social Studies or Civic say that teachers are free to interpret terms like syllabuses usually mention world problems. Many 'nutrition' as they stand at present on the syllabuses in Boards have papers on Agricultural or Rural Science but terms of world food problems. They cannot afford to these are always concerned with the agriculture and jeopardise their pupils' examination chances by teaching rural life of Britain. them something that might perhaps turn up on the In Modern Language syllabuses there is rarely any examination paper in one question but probably would suggestion that candidates should study the background not. Development needs to become an explicit part history of the countries which speak the language of the syllabuses for such subjects. concerned. In the Spanish syllabus a study of Latin America could easily be introduced. (The London It is hardly surprising, then, tt school textbooks GCE A Level syllabus already includes this). In English still concentrate on Europe aria that the examination syllabuses there is no reason why more books about papers often have only token questions on world poverty Third World countries or by Third World authors should and development. The syllabus holds them up. There is not appear on the list of set books.The Pearlby no need to wait for syllabus reform before changing John Steinbeck,Cry the Beloved Countryby Alan Paton, the textbooks and the increasing number of examination The Royal Hunt of the Sunby Peter Shaffer are questions each year on the different Boards' papers shows examples of books of this kind which already appear that questions are possible in spite of the syllabuses. on some CSE Board lists;The Night Runners of Bengal But there is a limit to how much can be achieved by John Masters andA Passa,:,e to Indiaby E.M. Forster without some change in the syllabuses, a change which appeared on some GCE lists. Such books help to the GCE Boards particularly need to undertake. Until give an impression of the conditions in the Third this change is achieved, together with a change in the World, past and present, and of the conflicts between teacher-training syllabuses, teachers will be reluctant coloniser and colonised. to teach about areas unknown to them. Lydia White

16 Examining Bodies

The following Regional Examining Boards havebeen recognised by the Secretary of State for Education for the conduct of C.S.E. examinations. and Science

Regional Examining Board (Area of Board) Name and Address of Secretary or Correspondent

Associated Lancashire Schools Examining Board J. Lawrence, Esq., (The County Borough of Bolton, Manchester,Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Salford) Refuge Alliance Buildings, 77 Whitworth Street, Manchester. Tel. Central 6020. East Anglian Regional Examinations Board A. Johnson, Esq., M.Sc., (, , East ,, , "The Lindens", , the , , , and the Colchester, Essex. County Boroughs of Great Yarmouth, ,Norwich, Tel. 71244 Southend-on-Sea and the Peterborough Joint Board) East Midland Regional Examinations Board (, Holland, , , W.C. Watterson, Esq., B.Sc., Northants, Robins Wood House, , and the County Boroughsof Derby, Grimsby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham and Robins Wood Road, Northampton) r.spley, Nottingham. Tel. 293291. Metropolitan Regional Examinations Board D.H. Board, Esq., M.A., (The Administrative andthe County Boroughs of Newham and Croydon) 23/24 Henrietta Street, London, W.C.2. Tel. 01 - 240 1814/5. Middlesex Regional Examining Board (Middle sex) W.J. Leake, Esq., B.A., 53/63 Wembley Hill Road, Wembley, Middx. Tel. 01 - 903 3961/2/3. North Regional Examinations Board (, Durham, , J.A. Winterbottom, Esq., B.A., , and the Neville Hall, County Borough of Carlisle, Darlington, Gateshead, Middlesborough, Newcastle upon Tyne Newcastle upon Tyne, South Shields, Sunderland,Tynemouth and West Hartlepool) NEI ITJ Tel. 28893.

North-Western Secondary School ExaminationsBoard T.J. Rogers (Lancashire, , Barrow-in-Furness, Birkenhead,Blackburn, 36 Granby Row, Blackpool, Bootle, Burnley, Bury, Chester, Liverpool, St. Helens, Manchester, I 6WD. Southport, Stockport, Wallasey, Wigan, Warrington,the Isle of Man) Tel. 061 - 228 1701. Southern Regional Examinations Board D.C. Spenser, Esq., (, , West , the Isle ofWight, , D.F.M., M.A. , , and the CountyBoroughs of 53 London Road, Bournemouth, Oxford, Portsmouth, Reading andSouthampton. Southampton, S09 4YL. The States of Guernsey and Jersey and theCommittee on the Tel. 27061. Education of Service Children Overseas)

South-East Regional Examinations Board P.N. Anderson, Esq., B.A. (, Kent, (except Croydon C.B.)and the County Beloe House, Boroughs of Canterbury, Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings) 2-4 Mount Ephraim Road, Tunbridge Wells, Kent. Tel. 20913/4. South-Western Examinations Board H.L.M. Household, Esq., B.Sc., (, Devonshire, , , and the 23/29 Marsh Street, County Boroughs of Bath, Bristol, Exeter, Gloucesterand Plymouth) Bristol, 1. Tel. 23434. Welsh Joint Education Committee Andrew Davies, Esq., B.A., T-IF(Wales and Monmouthshire) Welsh Joint Education Committee, 30 Cathedral Road, Cardiff. Tel. 41253.

West Midlands Examinations Board J. Aspiriall, Esq., F.C.1.S (, , , ,. , Norfolk House,. and the County Boroughs of Birmingham, Burton-on-Trent, Coventry, Smallb rook R ingway, Dudley, Smethwick, Stoke-on-Trent, Solihull, Walsall, West Bromwich, Birmingham, 5. Wolverhampton and Worcester) Tel. Midland 8924.

West Yorkshire and Lindsey Regional Examining Board R.G. Capes, Esq., ( (Lindsey), Yorkshire West Riding, and the County M.A.; LL.B., Boroughs of Barnsley, Doncaster, Rotherham and Sheffield) Scarsdale House, 136 Derbyshire Lane, Sheffield, 8. Tel. 53538.

Yorkshire Regional Examinations Board J. Pare, Esq., M.A., (East Riding, North Riding and the County Boroughs of Bradford 7/9 Cambridge Road, Dewsbury, Halifax, Huddersfield, Hull, Leeds, Wakefield and York) Harrogate. Tel. 3959.

Names and Addresses of the Secretaries to Examining Bodies Conducting the Examination for the General Certificate of Education

Associated Examining Board B.C. Lucia, Esq., B.Sc. Tel. Aldershot 25551 Wellington House, Station Road, S.T.D. Code 0252 Aldershot, Hants.

Cambridge University Local Examinations Syndicate T.S. Wyatt, Esq., M.A., M.Litt., Tel. Cambridge 54223. Syndicate Buildings, S.T.D. Code 0223. 17 Harvey Road, Cambridge.

Joint Matriculation Board R. Christopher, Esq., B.A., M.Ed., Tel. Ardwick 2565 Joint Matriculation Board, S.T.D. Code 061 - 273 Manchester 15.

London University A,R. Stephenson, Esq., M.A., Tel. MUSeum 8000 University Entrance and School Examinations Council, S.T.D. Code 01 - 636 Senate House, Ma let Street, London, W.C.1.

Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Boari J.M. Todd, Esq., M.A., Tel. Oxford 54421 Elsfield Way, Oxford S.T.D. Code 0092.

H.E. King, Esq., M.A., M,S.C., Tel. Cambridge 50658 Brook House, S.T.D. Code 0223 10 Trumpington Street, Cambridge.

Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations J.R. Cummings, Esq., B.Litt., M.A., Tel. Oxford 54291 Summertown, Oxford. S.T.C. Code 0092.

Southern Universities' Joint Board W.G. Bott, Esq., M.A., Tel. Bristol 28778 22 Berkeley Square, S.T.D. Code 0272. Bristol, BS8 1HT.

Welsh Joint Education Committee D. Andrew Davies, Esq., B.A. Tel. Cardiff 41253 30 Cathedral Road, S.T.D. Code 0222. Cardiff, CF 1 9YH.

18 Northern Ireland G.C.E. Examining Board E.J. Kirkpatrick Tel. Belfast 650111 Examination Office, Dundonald House, Upper Newtonards Road Belfast BTA 3SA.

Other Examining Bodies

Royal Society of Arts 18 John Adam Street Adelphi, Tel. 01 - 839 1691 London WC2N 6AJ

SCOTLAND Scottish Certificate of Education Examining Board c/o The Director 140 Causewayside, Tel. 031 - 667 6724 Edinburgh, 9.

19 Learning to Teachabout the Third World

Change in the school examination system, in the syllabus students take a course called 'People and Poverty'and. and in the school textbook cannot be introducedsuccess- according to G.J. Squire and M.J. Storm fully unless there is also some change in the Journal m teacher training of the Association of Teachers in Collegesand Depart- courses. The future teacher must learn about world ments of Education, Summer 1971, 'the emphasis of development before he can teach aboutit in school this programme is unequivocally subjects. upon the education of the student to a clearer understanding of therichpoor, whitecoloured gap which dominatesour world. In 1968 VCOAD surveyed the syllabuses of Colleges Increasingly, the course has come to be concernedwith of Education in Britain to discover how far student adjusting or dismantling the image of the "thirdworld" teachers were being equipped to teach thisarea of possessed by the students'. This willvery often be what study relatively new to the school curriculum. The the student teacher must do for his pupils lateron. principals of all colleges were approached and 74 colleges Other colleges mention similarcourses which all replied. In 1970 the survey was repeated. This time, students take. St. Mary's College, Twickenham,for principals and heads of relevant departmentswere instance, has r series of lectures on World Problems approached and 75 colleges replied, which isa little which all Geography students attend. more than one third of all the Colleges of Education. Many of these colleges are doing valuable work on Not all students at training college are Geography development and the Third World in theircourses in . one or several subjects and, of course, colleges which students and it is the Geographycourses in particular did not have time to reply to the which stress courses on development problems which survey may well be are to be attended by all students, either every doing interesting things in this fieldas well. year or in one particular year. Many courses on the Third World in other subjects, and in Geography at some places, The conclusions of the survey of collegesare in many are optional, so it is particularly welcome to find that ways similar to those of the school examination and certain colleges have courses whichare attended by all syllabus surveys. Geography and Historyare again the students, and not merely by all the students ofone subjects in which most is taught. Many college syllabuses, subject, and which include development studies. however, include study of the prob ms of development Bretton Hall College of Educationsays. 'Conventional and the twent.eth century world toa greater extent subject courses are subordinate to a Foundation Course than school syllabuses. In Religious Studies,too, the here students become interestedin and explore the college student is more likely to learn about develop- problems of developing countries'. ment than the school child. Nevertheless,even in these subjects many colleges replied that they make only One recommendation of the workshop conference Incidental reference' to world problemsor deal with world poverty 'indirectly'. organised by VCOAD on British Schools and theThird World (a report of this conference is containedin the next article) was that development studiescan very At the school level, it was found that thereare certain usefully be taught as a multidisciplinary subject.Few subjects where development issues ought to be included colleges seem to be doing this but Edge Hill Collegeof in a syllabus or examination but usuallyare not. The Education does have a three-year multi-disciplinarycourse, same is true at many colleges and the same subjects to study some basic problems of the contemporary are often involved. Social Studies, which one would world and it would be excellent ifmore colleges could expect to be taught more at college than at school,is co-ordinate their teaching on the Third Worldso that only infrequently named asa subject where the problems different aspects are studied in different subjectsat of the Third World are studied. Where it is mentioned, the same time. population problems commonly occur in the syllabus. In Home Economics, the emphasis continuesto be on Britain. One college wrote: 'Although Several colleges refer to extra-curricular activities we teach nothing such as fund-raising, conferences on world problems, about poverty in the developing countrieswe cover the subject in Great Britain. .. This is not to say that we students going on Voluntary Service Overseas. Efforts do not make some reference or comparison of this hind would probably increase and havemore to other influence if they were supported by study within the societies but nothing which would justifyany statement in a syllabus'. (Bath College of Education). In Science, curriculum. It is unreasonable to expect a studentto teach about something which he has only been involved very few colleges seem to be doing anything on food, in as a spare-time activity. fertiliser, population or disease as they relate to the Third World. A few, however, did mention thesetopics in the context of Biology: 'Stress is laid on such diseases Many of VCOAD's enquiries every weekcome from as malaria, sleeping sickness and diseases caused by teachers and student teachers. From these enquiries,it worms of various sortseffect on population. Food appears that many students are study;..g the Third suppliespossibilities of using unusual methods of World in their colleges or are hopingto introduce producing protein.' (Dudley College of Education). projects on related topics in their teaching practice. Sometimes the initiative seems to come from the student himself, sometimes from his college. Balls Park College The Third World and its economic development is taken has a course on the Third World as part of its Contem- as the central theme for the second year Geography porary Studies syllabus and the Third World option is course at the Berkshire College of Education. All the most popular of the ones offered. Students study

21 different issues related to development as well as his arum g. The teacher who is already teaching, and looking at teaching material available in this field. has been doing so for some years, has less of a chance A course like this one stresses both the need to educate to keep vp with the changes in content and method that the teacher himself about world poverty and the need constantly occur in this area of study. Development to teach him how to teach others about it. studies at the college level are not enough. There is also an urgent need for m-service training, both for the teacher who has never been taught about the Third Some colleges already have good courses in several World and for the teacher who has studied world subjects on the Third World. In others, courses have problems and whose knowledge and method need yet to be introduced or their quality needs improving. reinforcement. The work that is taking place in some At least the student teacher may have the chance to colleges now should not be wasted by lack of future learn something about development in the course of supporting courses. Lydia White and Robert Hope

22 British Schools andthe Third World

The Fourth Conference of the Freedom From Hunger that some people's living conditionsare declining, due Campaign. meeting in Rome in 1969, 'strongly to a variety of causes, could be introduced. The children recommended that development education, basedon could then begin to discoverways in which they them- genuine solidarity, be a major aspect of the Campaign selves might be able to take positiveaction to change in planning for the United Nations Second Development this situation. It was also at this age that children Decade'. As a result of this recommendation, should a European begin to learn about the inter-relationships betweentheir Workshop on in-school education was held inBergendal, own country and other people's countries. For example. in Sweden, in November 19 :O. Its purpose was to they could start to discover their dependenceon other evaluate recent progress in development education and parts of the world for food by looking at thecontents to propose guidelines for more effective national and of the breakfast table. international action in the 1970s. The workshopwas jointly sponsored by FAO and UNESCO, andfinanced The Conference felt that for teaching in Secondary by the Swedish International Development Authority. Schools in the under-fifteen age range therewere two One recommendation made by the Bergendal Workshop techniques which could be ofarticular value was that similar workshop conferences should be held in every country. lo the United Kingdom the Voluntary (a) work on themes such as 'poverty', 'food', Committee on Oversead Aid and Development (VCOAD) 'neighbours', 'power and authority', in which is the national link with FAO on educationalmatters pupils could begin with places, objects and and also provides the secretariat for the UKStanding situations which were familiar to them andwork Conference on the Second United Nations Development outward to the wider world. Decade. VCOAD therefore conveneda Workshop Conference which was held at Nutford House, (b) London from April 16 to 18, I 97i. Some thirty area projects such as 'Africa' or 'India', which especially provided the opportunity educationists and development specialists togetherwith to obtain a balanced view of all aspects economic, social, eight people from developing countries, tookpart. cultural, etc. of the area being studied. The Conference chairman was Dr. James L.Henderson of London University Institute of Education. Attention was drawn to the danger of presentingan The Conference took as its starting-pointthe belief that unbalanced view which could result from combining no child in Britain should leave school without having these two approaches, e.g. in a study of 'Poverty in acquired wide knowledge and understanding of the India', through which poverty might become identified outside world, and in particular of the urgentproblems with India. of the diminishing opportunities to achievean acceptable standard of life now facing most of the peopleof Asia, Simulation exercises and situational role playwere Africa and Latin America. commended, especially because of their effectivenessin involving pupils in the subject and in increasing their It was also agreed that "the value of teaching about understanding of development problems and their world development w. uld dependon the extent to which feeling for other life styles. knowledge and understanding gainedwere continued into adult life, enabling people to judge and interpretthe Textbooks and other teaching materialswere discussed information they received about the world, andto take at length. A continuing lack of balance in the treatment action in response to that information." of the Third World in many history and geographytext- books was noted, and VCOAD was askedto bring the A realistic view was taken of the constraintssurrounding findings of the Conference to the attention of the teachers, e.g. the demands of examinations. the fragmented Educational Publishers' Council and its members. distribution of lessons, the pressure of numbers.But it It was felt that the most effective supporting inatilial was suggested that "blocked" time, group work and for much teaching about the Third World wouldtake team teaching could all provide closer contact and the form of 'kits' rather than conventional textbooks. more opportunities for working with pupils which Such kits should be inexpensive, easy to keepup to date. was essential if the learning situation was not to very flexible in format, and should contain a wide contradict the content of what was beingtaught about variety of suggestions for their use. attitudes of co-operation. The N alue of visual aids was also stressed, and the Looking at the situation it Primary Schools,the Conference felt that special care should be taken in visual Conference felt that children began to form attitudes material to present a balanced picture of the Third World. towards people of other countries at an early age and "A positive attempt should be made to counterbalance that, 0 erefore, as soon as they had acquiredthe basic the greater number of pictures of poverty and disaster skills of oracy and literacy there should be some teaching inevitably appearing in newspapers, television and charity aimed at helping them to develop an understanding of advertising by showing scenes of everyday lifein normal other people's cultures. conditions". It was agreed that the objective of teaching aboutthe The Conference made a number of recommendations Third World at the seven-tonine age level should be to on teacher training, and it was suggested that these should develop an awareness and appreciation of the intrinsic be brought to the attention of the James Commissionof value of the varied ways of tile in differentparts of the Enquiry into Teacher Training (VCOAD subsequently world. Between the ages of nine and eleven a realization did this). Among the recommendationswere the o. changes taking place in tti, world and of the fact following: Recognizing that many Colleges were concerned to In its report the Conference recognized "that the changes introduce more integrated work for their students. needed to solve world problems might require many the Conference drew attention to the value of years to implement. and that the part played by development studies in such interdisciplinary individuals might seem relatively ins,ginficant. teaching. Nevertheless, it felt that certain fundamental changes %zould never take place in the world unless a start It further recommended that in every College one was made now in changing what was haprening in lecturer should have overall responsibility for schools". development studies, which could be approached either as a separt.te course or as a co-ordination of different disciplines on a central theme. Because of the frequent changes in the content, as well as the teaching methods, of development studies, the (Copies of the Conference report, British Schools and Conference recommended that this subject should be the Third World, can be obtained, free, from the VCOAD given priority in in-service courses for teachers. Education Unit.)

24 VCOAD Education Unit

The Education Unit of the Voluntary Committeeon Overseas Aid and Development provides information, advice and teaching aids on world poverty and development. It maintains close contacts with the Department ofEducation and Science, the Schools Council and other educationalbodies. VCOAD publishes a handbook for teachers, The Development Puzzle, a set of nine folders containing materialfor classroom use, and a wide range of visual aids, leaflets and fact sheets (many of them free). A free list of publications is available from VCOAD EducationUnit, 69 Victoria Street, London S.W. i.

VCOAD also co-ordinates the educational work ofthe following organizations: Christian Aid, CatholicInstitute for International Relations, Catholic Fund for OverseasDevelopment, Commission for International Justice and UK Committee of the Freedom From Hunger Peace, Campaign, Overseas Development Institute, Oxfam, Save theChildren Fund, United Nations Association and Waron Want.

Opinions expressed in this publicationare those of the authors and do not necessarily any of its member agencies. reflect the views of VCOADor

Design & Print, Shoreham-by-Sea, Sussex. Tel.2201. 25