Social Boundaries and the Organization of Plain Ware Production and Exchange in 14th Century Central Arizona by Christopher Watkins A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved November 2016 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: David Abbott, Chair Konstantina-Eleni Michelaki Arleyn Simon ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2016 ABSTRACT In the proposed project I simultaneously and reflexively identify and characterize social boundaries in the archaeological record by examining material culture distributions in novel ways to re-assess the scale of the Verde Confederacy, a proposed regional-scale multi-settlement alliance in Late Prehistoric central Arizona. I focus on boundaries between entities larger than villages, but smaller than regions or culture areas. I propose three innovations to better accomplish these goals. First, unlike previous conceptualizations of social boundaries as monolithic, I argue that they are better conceived of as a heterogeneous, multi-faceted phenomenon. Second, I investigate social boundaries by examining multiple lines of evidence. Previous researchers have tended to focus on one category of data at the expense of others. Third, I associate boundaries with relational and categorical collective social identification. An alliance requires regular collective actions including communication and coordinated action between large groups. These actions are most likely to emerge among groups integrated by relational networks who share a high degree of categorical homogeneity. I propose a plain ware ceramic provenance model. Seven reference groups represent ceramic production in specific geographic areas. The reference groups are mineralogically and geochemically distinct, and can be visually differentiated. With this provenance model, I reconstruct the organization of utilitarian ceramic production and exchange, and argue that plain ware distribution is a proxy for networks of socially proximate friends and relatives. The plain ware data are compared to boundaries derived from settlement patterns, rock art, public architecture, and painted ceramics to characterize the overall nature of social boundaries in Late Prehistoric central Arizona. i Three regions in the study area are strongly integrated by relational networks and categorical commonality. If alliances existed in Late Prehistoric central Arizona, they were most likely to emerge at this scale. A fourth region is identified as a frontier zone, where internal connections and shared identities were weaker. As seen among the League of the Iroquois, smaller integrated entities do not preclude the existence of larger social constructs, and I conclude this study with proposals to further test the Verde Confederacy model by searching for integration at a broader spatial scale. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Words fail to describe the respect and appreciation I have for my dissertation chair, Dave Abbott. His unflagging support has sustained me through substantial personal, professional, and academic obstacles to the completion of this project. I have learned much from him, and look forward to continued collaboration. I am indebted to the other members of my committee, Kostalena Michelaki and Arleyn Simon. In addition to providing constructive comments and much-needed encouragement, Kostalena guided me through a seemingly unsurpassable bottleneck and was instrumental in finalizing the final direction of my research. Arleyn Simon has been a friend and mentor for over a decade. Her impact on this project is significant, and I have also learned much about effectively guiding junior colleagues to greater scholastic heights. Kate Speilmann and Barbara Stark both served on my committee prior to their retirements, and were critical in setting this project on the right track. Kate never hesitated to tell me when I was right and when I was wrong. Perhaps most importantly, she always helped me to see why this was the case. Barbara always challenged me to look outside the box, and in the process improved my thought processes. Thanks to Dolma Roder for her assistance in navigating the Dugan artifact collection at ASU. Kim Beckwith of the National Park Service Western Archaeological and Conservation Center was of great help in securing samples from Tuzigoot and Montezuma Castle, and was understanding in facilitating a needed loan extension. During particularly difficult points in my journey towards this degree, various people in the School of Human Evolution and Social Change went above and beyond in my behalf. I am grateful for the invaluable contributions of Georgianna Miller, Monica Salazar, and iii Alissa Ruth. Without their intervention and support, graduation would have been impossible. A number of researchers have freely shared their data and expertise. Scott Wood has spent many hours documenting and thinking about the prehistory of central Arizona. He has never hesitated to give feedback or share information. Peter Pilles was never too busy to assist me, even when it was inconvenient. His publications, unpublished data, and thoughts were central to the success of my investigation. Thanks to Andy Christensen for reopening his notes on Middle Verde plain wares. Chris North’s estimates of Salado Polychrome counts on the Lower Verde filled in a glaring blank spot on the map. Valuable connections were made during discussions with Mary Ownby, and the shared sand from the Lower Verde Petrofacies bridged a critical gap in my analysis. Thanks to Jeff Clark for sharing data on obsidian sourcing. These questions would have never been asked without the vision of David Wilcox, who continues to push the envelope of Southwestern archaeology. He has always been gracious and supportive of my research, even when my conclusions were not fully consistent with his own. This project was supported financially through a National Science Foundation grant (BCS-0613201). These funds supported me for several semesters as a research associate as I collected data and completed the bulk of my lab work, and also covered the petrographic and electron microprobe analyses. I could not have completed this dissertation without the support and flexibility of past and present supervisors at Logan Simpson, including Greg Brown, Kathryn Leonard, and Erick Laurila. My longtime client, Arizona Public Service Company, has been similarly accommodating, particularly Jen Moore, Andrew Rable, and Jon Shumaker. iv My cohort at ASU included friends and colleagues Sophie Kelly, Josh Watts, and Andy Lack. Each has influenced this work for the better through many discussions over the years. I am a better researcher for having known them. Sophie also did the petrographic analysis for this study, and has been a welcome collaborator on a number of publications related to this research. Melissa Kruse-Peeples has assisted me on many occasions, and I always think of her as being at the heart of Perry Mesa. Many thanks to Matt Peeples for introducing collective social identification into archaeology, and for stepping in to the breach at more than one critical moment in my research process. A number of undergraduates have assisted in collecting and washing artifacts. Special thanks to Paul Shockey for assisting in preparation of end of fieldwork reports. Scott Ure advised me on formatting, graphics, and content, in addition to being a great friend. Glen Rice has heard all iterations of this research. His suggestions were always welcome, as was his constant encouragement. Gordon Moore taught me to use the microprobe, and regularly saved hours of work with his uncanny ability to resolve issues with the equipment. I owe a particular debt to my family. Our parents and friends have stepped in to fill the void when I was otherwise engaged. Janalyn, Maya, Cicily, and Sophie have endured my frequent absences with smiles and grace. They mean everything to me, and I look forward to many future adventures now that my “dispertation” is complete. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................. ..................................................................................... 1 The Continuum of Boundary Dynamics ................................................... 4 Collective Social Identification ................................................................. 7 Methodology: Characterizing Social Boundaries with Material Culture Distributions ............................................................................................... 9 Research Context: Late Prehistoric Central Arizona .............................. 14 Organization of the Study ........................................................................ 20 2 DETERMINING LATE PREHISTORIC CENTRAL ARIZONA PLAIN WARE PROVENANCE USING BINOCULAR MICROSCOPY, CHEMICAL ASSAY, AND PETROGRAPHY ........................................................ 23 Ceramic Types in Central Arizona .......................................................... 25 Ceramic Compositional Analysis ............................................................ 30 Linking Temper to Geological Source ........................................ 30 Establishing Procurement Behavior ............................................ 32 Distinguishing Exchange Wares ................................................