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Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States

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Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States University of Dayton eCommons Honors Theses University Honors Program 4-26-2020 Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States Cierra Dei Stewart University of Dayton Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.udayton.edu/uhp_theses eCommons Citation Stewart, Cierra Dei, "Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States" (2020). Honors Theses. 284. https://ecommons.udayton.edu/uhp_theses/284 This Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the University Honors Program at eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States Honors Thesis Cierra Dei Stewart Department: Political Science Advisor: Nancy Martorano Miller, Ph.D. April 2020 Racial Disenfranchisement and Its Impact on Political Participation in the United States Honors Thesis Cierra Dei Stewart Department: Political Science Advisor: Nancy Martorano Miller, Ph.D. April 2020 Abstract Political participation, and in particular, the power to cast a vote, is crucial to representation in a democracy. This project seeks to explore the issue of racial disenfranchisement in the United States, both historically and in the present day, as well as its implications for the political participation and representation of racial minorities in politics and government. In analyzing the broad scope of this issue, I will research both federal and state laws. Until recently, the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution of the United States coupled with the Voting Rights Act of 1965 have provided important barriers to state passage and implementation of laws that suppress or disenfranchise minority voters. The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Shelby County v. Holder (2013) freed states to adopt potential discriminatory voting and election laws without federal review by the Justice Department. I will focus specifically on voter suppression laws, including voter identification requirements, gerrymandering, laws concerning felon voting rights, and other policies that constitute modern-day voter suppression tactics. With significant legal barriers preventing certain segments of the population (specifically, minority groups) from casting their vote, they are effectively not having their voices heard, nor are they being represented in their own government. I end by proposing a possible solution to the issue of racial disenfranchisement and its implications on the American public, but specifically for racial minorities in the United States. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Miller for being an incredible advisor and helping me with my research through the entire thesis process. Dedication To all people of color in the United States who were not able to exercise their fundamental rights, and to those who continue to fight the good fight. Table of Contents Abstract Title Page Introduction 1 Literature Review 3 How Election Laws are Organized 3 Historical Barriers to Racial Minorities 5 Significant Legal Milestones 15 Shelby County v. Holder 26 Modern-Day Voter Suppression 29 Research Design and Methodology 37 Data and Analysis 40 Conclusion 45 References 48 Appendix 50 1 INTRODUCTION In the United States, the ability to participate in our political system, and in particular the power to cast a vote, is the cornerstone of our nation and what unites us as a democracy. When this power is lost, one loses the ability to shape policies and political agendas in their community. However, many groups have historically faced substantial obstacles to voting. With significant legal barriers preventing certain segments of the population, particularly minority groups, from casting their vote, they are effectively not having their voices heard, nor are they being represented in their own government. Following the abolition of slavery, the 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, declared that, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” However, despite this amendment, by 1890, discriminatory practices such as poll taxes, literacy tests, understanding clauses, Grandfather Clauses, and “good character” clauses were used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote, especially in the South (Anderson 2018). The Voting Rights Act of 1965 led to federal government intervention of state and local laws that infringed on minority groups’ right to vote. The Voting Rights Act (VRA) outlawed the discriminatory voting practices adopted in many southern states after the Civil War, and was signed into law on August 6, 1965, by President Lyndon Johnson. It identified jurisdictions that had a long, documented history of racial discrimination in voting, and required that the Department of Justice or the federal court in Washington, D.C. approve any change to the voting laws or requirements that those districts wanted to make before it was enacted (Anderson 2018). The impact of the Voting Rights Act was immediate, leading to a surge in African 2 American voter registration and turnout in the South (Anderson 2018) until the Supreme Court revisited the Act again in 2013. The 2013 United States Supreme Court decision, Shelby County v. Holder, struck down the provision that determined which locales came under federal oversight, and has since resulted in a surge in discriminatory voter suppression tactics – primarily in the form of restrictive voter identification laws, purged voter rolls, redrawn district boundaries (in a process known as “Gerrymandering”), and closed and moved polling places – all without the approval of the Justice Department. Additionally, issues that have historically disproportionately impacted the African American community (such as voter identification requirements and felony voter disenfranchisement) have only increased with the passing of laws post-Shelby. This thesis seeks to explore the issue of racial disenfranchisement in the United States, both historically and in the present day, as well as its implications for the political participation of racial minorities in politics and government. In analyzing the broad scope of this issue, I will research both federal laws and judicial rulings– such as the 15th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the 2013 Supreme Court decision Shelby County v. Holder – and state laws, policies, and local administrative practices pertaining to voting rights; and specifically those that have primarily impacted people of color (whether intentionally or unintentionally) by using public legislative databases. I will focus specifically on voter suppression laws, especially those enacted after 2013, including stringent voter identification requirements, gerrymandering, laws concerning felon voting rights, and other policies that constitute modern-day voter 3 suppression tactics, as well as the impacts they have had on political participation among minority groups by using publicly available election data. I will end by detailing the implications of these laws, not only on the American public, but specifically for racial minorities in the United States, and proposing a possible solution to the issue of racial disenfranchisement. LITERATURE REVIEW In the following section, I will attempt to cover the history and development of voting rights in the United States as they pertain to race. Race has always been the central fault line of American politics. Throughout United States history, proponents of racial equality have continuously struggled for preeminence in American politics against those who advocated for white supremacy or otherwise opposed federal measures designed to reduce racial inequalities. Because voting is the paramount way in which most Americans exercise their civil rights and participate in U.S. democracy, abridging voting rights in any way should be anathema to the American people; and yet, the history of this country is inseparable from the disenfranchisement of various groups, especially racial minorities. Contemporary developments and practices impacting voting rights must be examined and understood within the broader social and historical context of the struggle for political inclusion led by African Americans and the subsequent struggles of other groups, including women and various minority groups, to access the right to vote. HOW ELECTION LAWS ARE ORGANIZED The right to vote in the United States has deep roots in the nation’s historical conception of democracy, one of America’s founding ideals. However, the U.S. 4 Constitution does not include any direct, explicit language granting the right to vote to all people – it merely implies the right to vote through negative language. Instead, the Constitution directs responsibility to regulate most aspects of elections to the states, and federal lawmakers have generally deferred to the states on these issues. Moreover, the U.S. Constitution directs the inquiry over voter eligibility to state sources. As Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia declared in Arizona v. Inter-Tribal Council of Ariz., Inc. (2013), the Elections Clause of Article I of the U.S. Constitution, “empowers Congress to regulate how federal elections are held, but not who may vote
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