Evaluating the Adoption of Project Management Tools and Techniques in Private Construction Companies in Nigeria

Dr. Edidiong Emmanuel Sidney

This is a digitised version of a dissertation submitted to the University of Bedfordshire. It is available to view only. This item is subject to copyright.

Title: Evaluating the Adoption of Project Management Tools and Techniques in Private Construction Companies in Nigeria

Name: Edidiong Emmanuel Sidney

EVALUATING THE ADOPTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN PRIVATE CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES IN NIGERIA

EDIDIONG EMMANUEL SIDNEY

Ph.D

Business and Management Research Institute

University of Bedfordshire

2018

EVALUATING THE ADOPTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN PRIVATE CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES IN NIGERIA

EDIDIONG EMMANUEL SIDNEY

A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

July 2019

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Supervisors:

DOS: Dr. Mohammad Kisshk

Diane Richardson

ABSTRACT

This research investigates the factors that influence the adoption of Project Management Tools and Techniques (PMTT) in the Nigerian private construction industry. To date, the private construction industry in Nigeria has experienced delays in project delivery, budget overrun, low quality, and project failures in most of its projects as a result of inadequate use of project management tools and techniques. These issues have been a major concern to the stakeholders and clients, considering the huge investments made in the construction projects and the impact they make on the growth of the economy. Several authors have focused on project management practice in public construction organisations with less focus on private construction companies. This research, therefore, seeks to address this gap by deploying the Nigerian private construction industry’s perspective to investigate the factors influencing PMTT practice. This research was conducted using qualitative research methods and data were collected through structured interviews. This research adopted the generic purposive sampling strategy because it was best suitable for the context of this research. In order to meet the objectives, set for the research, a pilot study was conducted using a semi-structured interview with eighteen participants in five geopolitical zones of Nigeria, excluding the North-East zone due to security issues, followed by the main study with forty-three participants. Case studies of two companies were further carried out for the purpose of triangulation, validating the data from both the pilot study and the main study. The data collected from the studies were analysed using thematic analysis to identify the different themes and sub-themes in the research. Based on the research findings and institutional theory, a conceptual framework for investigating the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT was developed for private construction companies in Nigeria in order to improve their practice. This conceptual framework presents the theory underpinning this study, key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT and the ‘Needs Factors’. Also, this study’s conceptual framework was validated.

Keywords: Project Management, Project Management Tools and Techniques, Construction Industry, Public sector, Private sector, Institution Theory, Practice, Nigeria

DECLARATION

I, Edidiong, Emmanuel Sidney, declare that this thesis and the work presented in it are my own and have been generated by me as the result of my own original research.

EVALUATING THE ADOPTION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN PRIVATE CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES IN NIGERIA

I confirm that:

1. This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University;

2. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated;

3. Where I have cited the published work of others, theses were always clearly attributed;

4. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work;

5. I have acknowledged all main sources of help;

6. Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself;

7. Parts of this work have been published as indicated on page vi).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude to Almighty God for the grace, wisdom, guidance and protection He gave me in the course of my PhD study. It would never have been a success story without His hand.

My sincere and special thanks go to my Director of Studies, Dr Mohammad Kisshk, for his encouragement, motivation, support, insightful comments and advice during the course of my research. I want to thank Diane Richardson for her guidance and encouragement in the course of writing the thesis. Their excellent supervision and encouragement during this study were profound and made it memorable.

I cannot at this point forget to thank Dr David Owen, who was my source of encouragement when I discussed my intention to enrol for a PhD programme after my MSc studies. I thank Dr Elly Philpot for her support and contribution at the initial stage of this study. Their encouragement has always been a thing to reflect upon throughout this journey, and I thank Hilda Obaje for her advice and proofreading some parts of the thesis.

Moreover, I would like to express my thanks to the University of Bedfordshire, specifically the Research Graduate School for their support, my fellow colleagues (PhD students) and friends for being there for me. I would like to thank Pastor Momoh Amoseola who was always there when it was very challenging and constantly encouraged me to continue to strive even when it appeared very tough.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife (Favour) for her support and encouragement, and for being there always for me.

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PUBLICATIONS

E. Sidney, O.T. Bukoye, E. Philpot, D. Owen (2016) Project Management Tools and Techniques in Private Construction Companies in Nigeria: A Case Study Approach, Project Management Development – Practice and Perspectives, Fifth International Scientific Conference on Project Management in the Baltic Countries, April 14–15, 2016, Riga: University of Latvia

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CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...... xvii LIST OF FIGURES ...... xix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xxii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.1.1 Project Management ...... 3 1.1.2 Construction industry ...... 4 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 5 1.3 Research Gap ...... 5 1.4 Aim and Objectives ...... 6 1.5 Research Questions ...... 6 1.6 Rationale of the study ...... 6 1.7 Outline of Research Methodology ...... 7 1.7.1 Sampling ...... 8 1.7.2 Data collection and analysis ...... 8 1.7.3 Research quality ...... 8 1.7.4 Thematic analysis ...... 8 1.8 Outline of the Thesis ...... 9 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11 2.0 Introduction ...... 11 2.1 The Literature Review Strategy ...... 11 2.2 Overview of Project and Project Management ...... 11 2.3 Types of Project or Project Categories ...... 13 2.4 The Main Concept of Project Types or Categories...... 14 2.4.1 Project type – Focus on Project Goals and Methods ...... 14 2.4.2 Project Management ...... 19 2.4.3 Definition of project management ...... 19 2.5 Project Management Office (PMO) ...... 20 2.5.1 Project Health Check (PHC) ...... 21 2.5.2 Socio-Technical System Approach (STSA) ...... 22 2.5.3 Organisational Culture...... 23 2.5.4 Project Management Maturity Model (PMMM) ...... 25 2.6 PM Process, Framework, Method and Methodology ...... 29 2.6.1 PM Process ...... 29

2.6.2 Framework ...... 31 2.6.3 Method ...... 32 2.6.4 Methodology ...... 32 2.7 Project Management Methodology and Project Life Cycle ...... 34 2.8 Traditional PMMs and Modern methods ...... 38 2.8.1 PRINCE2 Methodology ...... 40 2.8.2 The PMBOK Guide ...... 43 2.9 Modern Methodology ...... 46 2.9.1 Agile Project Management ...... 47 2.9.2 Reason for using Agile Project Management ...... 49 2.9.3 Traditional Project Management Methodology and Agile Project Management ... 50 2.9.4 Comparison of traditional PMM and Agile project management with Regard to Project-management Five process Groups and T en Knowledge Areas 5 0 2.9.5 Project life cycle ...... 57 2.10 Tools and Techniques ...... 59 2.10.1 Work Breakdown Structure ...... 67 2.10.2 Gantt Charts ...... 70 2.10.3 Project Stakeholder Management ...... 71 2.10.4 Critical Path Analysis...... 73 2.10.5 Project Risk Management ...... 75 2.10.6 Earned Value Management ...... 75 2.10.7 Business case ...... 76 2.10.8 Project Network Diagram ...... 77 2. 11 Technological Tools ...... 80 2.11.1 Primavera ...... 82 2.11.2 MS Project ...... 83 2.11.3 dotProject ...... 83 2.11.4 Assembla Tool ...... 84 2.12 Factors Facing the Adoption of Project Management Tools and Techniques .. 84 2.12.1 Political Factor in PMTT Implementation ...... 84 2.12.2 Economic factor in PMTT implementation ...... 85 2.12.3 Technological Factor in PMTT Implementation...... 86 2.12.4 Organisational Culture Factor in PMTT Implementation ...... 87

2.13 Public and Private Sectors ...... 88 2.13.1 Public sector ...... 88 2.13.2 Private Sector ...... 92 2.13.3 Justification for Private Sector ...... 93 2.13.4 Project management practices in Public Sector and private sector...... 97 2.13.5 Project Management in Private Construction Companies in Nigeria ...... 97 2.14 A Mapping of the Typical Structure of the Nigerian Construction Industry .... 101 2.14.1 The Nigerian Economy ...... 103 2.14.2 The Nigerian Construction Industry ...... 104 2.14.3 The Size and Growth of the Construction Industry in Nigeria...... 105 2.15 The Economy and Construction Industry ...... 106 2.15.1 Construction Sector and Labour ...... 107 2.15.2 Construction Industry Clients ...... 108 2.15.3 Private clients ...... 109 2.15.4 Projects in Nigeria ...... 111 2.16 Construction Project Management Practice in Nigeria ...... 115 2.16.1 PMTT Adoption ...... 115 2.17 Chapter Summary ...... 118 CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION AND ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE ...... 119 3.0 Introduction ...... 119 3.1 Decision Making School ...... 120 3.2 Institutional School ...... 121 3.3 Social Technology School (STS) ...... 121 3.4 Technological Adoption Theories ...... 123 3.4.1 Technology Acceptance Model ...... 123 3.4.2 Theory of Reasoned Actions ...... 124 3.4.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) ...... 126 3.4.4 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT) ...... 127 3.4.5 Technology Organisational Environment Framework (TOE) ...... 128 3.5 Social Technical Theories (STT) ...... 130 3.5.1 The structuration theories (ST) ...... 131 3.5.2 The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) ...... 131 3.6 Institution Theory ...... 132 3.7 Institutional Theory (Isomorphic) ...... 135 3.7.1 Regulative Institution (Coercive) ...... 136

3.7.2 Normative...... 138 3.7.3 Cultural-Cognitive (Mimetic) ...... 139 3.8 Institutional Barriers ...... 142 3.8.1 Political Barriers ...... 143 3.8.2 Organisational Culture...... 144 3.8.3 Economic Barriers ...... 144 3.8.4 Technological Barriers...... 145 3.9 The Initial framework ...... 147 3.10 Rationale for Adopting an Institutional Theory ...... 147 3.11 Chapter Summary ...... 149 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 150 4.0 Introduction ...... 150 4.1 Philosophical Standpoint for this Research: Interpretivism ...... 151 4.2 Positivist Paradigm ...... 154 4.3 Interpretivist Paradigm ...... 155 4.4 Justification for using interpretivism and qualitative issues ...... 156 4.5 Research Strategy – Qualitative methods ...... 158 4.6 Deductive and Inductive Approach ...... 160 4.7 Unit of Analysis and Justification ...... 161 4.8 Sampling Techniques ...... 161 4.9 Purposeful or Purposive Sampling ...... 162 4.10 Selection of Participants ...... 163 4.11 Research Methods ...... 167 4.11.1 Research methods – using qualitative interviewing ...... 169 4.11.2 Data collection method and techniques ...... 170 4.11.2 Semi-structured Interviews ...... 171 4.11.3 The focus Group ...... 172 4.12 The Process of Interview Followed ...... 172 4.12.1 Thematizing Phase ...... 173 4.12.2 Designing Phase ...... 174 4.12.2 Interviewing phase ...... 174 4.12.3 Transcribing Phase ...... 175 4.12.4 Analysing Phase ...... 175 4.12.5 Verifying Phase ...... 176 4.12.7 Reporting Phase ...... 177 4.12.8 Data Analysis (Thematic-Qualitative Analysis) ...... 178

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4.12.1 Data gathering process ...... 180 4.12.2 Producing the Initial Codes ...... 182 4.12.3 In Search of Themes ...... 182 4.12.4 Reviewing the Themes ...... 183 4.12.5 Naming and defining the Themes ...... 184 4.13 Time Scale for this Research ...... 184 4.14 Research Ethics ...... 185 4.14.1 Harm to the Respondents ...... 185 4.14.2 Informed Consent ...... 186 4.14.3 Privacy and Confidentiality ...... 186 4.14.4 Deception ...... 187 4.14.5 Principle of Accuracy ...... 187 4.15 Risk Assessment ...... 187 4.16 A Brief Summary of the Research Process ...... 188 4.17 Research Process ...... 188 4.17.1 Topic of the research...... 188 4.17.2 Initial review of the literature ...... 189 4.17.3 Pilot or preliminary study ...... 189 4.17.4 Iterative review of the literature ...... 189 4.17.5 Review of relevant theories ...... 189 4.17.6 Main study ...... 189 4.17.7 Data analysis ...... 190 4.17.8 Theoretical underpinning ...... 190 4.17.9 Main conceptual framework development ...... 190 4.17.10. Writing up the final work ...... 190 4.17.11 Case study ...... 191 4.17.12 Single and multiple case study research ...... 191 4.17.13 Justification for qualitative case studies ...... 192 4.17.14 Case Study 1 ...... 193 4.17.15 Case Study 2 ...... 201 4.18 Chapter Summary ...... 208 CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS ...... 209 5.1 Introduction ...... 209 5.2 Thematic Qualitative Analysis ...... 209 5.2.1 The Main Terms of TQA ...... 210 5.3 Pilot Study ...... 211

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5.3.1 Aim and objectives of the pilot study ...... 211 5.3.2 Sample for the Pilot Study ...... 211 5.3.3 Findings of the Pilot Study and its Main Themes Extracted from the Pilot Study 213 5.4 Generating the Report ...... 218 5.5 Findings from the Pilot Study ...... 219 5.5.1 The NPCI lack a general perception of the PMTT and what it is all about ...... 219 5.5.2 Most of the NPCI engage in basic PMTT practices, but do not adopt it as a ‘Business Practice’ ...... 220 5.5.3 NPCI need significant support from their top management ...... 221 5.5.4 Cost implication is a strong driver for PMTT implementation ...... 222 5.5.5 Factors such as political, economic, technology has a significant influence to the adoption of PMTT ...... 223 5.6 Conclusion of Pilot Study ...... 225 5.7 The Main Study ...... 226 5.7.1 Related issues to be responded to in the main study ...... 226 5.7.2 Objectives of the second phase (main study) ...... 227 5.7.3 Sample size for main study ...... 227 5.7.4 Data analysis of the main study ...... 230 5.7.5 Themes in the main study ...... 230 5.7.6 Relating the main themes of the study to the research objectives ...... 230 5.7.7 Current practice of PMTT in NPCI ...... 234 5.7.8 Issues regarding Political factor ...... 236 5.7.9 Issues regarding Economic factor ...... 240 5.7.10 Issues regarding Technological factor ...... 244 5.7.11 Issues regarding Organisational Culture ...... 247 5.8 Chapter Summary ...... 256 CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ...... 257 6.1 Overview ...... 257 6.2 Background ...... 257 6.3 Factors Affecting the Use of Project Management Tools and Techniques in Construction Companies ...... 257 6.3.1 Needs factors ...... 259 6.3.2 Theoretical underpinning of this research ...... 264 6.3 Elements in the Conceptual Framework ...... 265 6.3.4 Validation of the conceptual framework ...... 265 6.4 Summary ...... 268

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CHAPTER 7: FINDINGS AND MAIN DISCUSSION ...... 269 7.1 Findings from the Main Study Conforming to Objective One...... 269 7.2 Finding from the Main Study Conforming to Objective Two and the Conceptual Framework ...... 272 7.2.1 Findings related to the Political factor ...... 272 7.2.2 Findings related to the Economic factor ...... 277 7.2.3 Finding related to Technological factor ...... 281 7.2.4 Organisational culture ...... 284 7.2.5 Perceived needs ...... 286 7.3 Summary ...... 292 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION ...... 293 8.0 Overview ...... 293 8.1 Summary of the Research and Main Findings ...... 293 8.2 Conclusions ...... 294 8.3 Contributions of the Study ...... 295 8.3.1 Contribution to Knowledge ...... 295 8.3.2 Contribution to Practice ...... 296 8.3.3 Contribution to Theory ...... 296 8.4 Recommendations ...... 297 8.5 Limitations of this Research ...... 298 REFERENCES ...... 299 APPENDICES...... 387 Appendix 1: Characteristics of the positivist and post-positivist paradigms ...... 387 Appendix 2: Attributes of the interpretivist paradigm ...... 390 Appendix 3: Qualities of the Critical Paradigm ...... 392 Appendix 4: Data imported into NVivo 11 ...... 393 Appendix 5: Generation of nodes ...... 394 Appendix 6: Transcription of data in NVivo ...... 395 Appendix 7: Relate the codes and classify the themes ...... 396 Appendix 8: The factors that hinder the PMTT adoption process ...... 397 Appendix 9: Main challenges together with supporting evidence ...... 398 Appendix 10: Research Questions and Justification ...... 399 Appendix 11: Letter to prospective participants ...... 402 Appendix 12: Letter to participants ...... 403 Appendix 13: Letter to participants ...... 405 Appendix 14: Conceptual framework ...... 406

Appendix 15: Response from the participants ...... 407 Appendix 16: Response from the participants ...... 408 Appendix 17: Response from the participants ...... 410

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Literature search strategy

Table 2.2 Various PMMs

Table 2.3 Traditional PMM Process Group and Knowledge-Area

Table 2.4 Agile project management process group as well as knowledge areas

Table 2.5 Phases in the Project Life Cycle

Table 2.6 Systematic review of the traditional tools

Table 2.8 PM knowledge areas

Table 2.9 Systematic review of the Technological tools

Table 2.10 Government agencies as a client

Table 2.11 Private Clients or Private Companies

Table 2.12 The most frequently used PMTT by various organisations

Table 4.1 The contributions of different scholars on the philosophical stances

Table 4.2 Classification of respondents for pilot study

Table 4.3 Classification of respondents for main study

Table 4.4 Differences between methods and methodolgy

Table 4.5 Past projects carried out by case study 1 company

Table 4.6 The cross-sectional cases between Case Study 1 and Case Study 2

Table 5.1 Categorisation of the participants for the pilot study

Table 5.2 The Definitions of Adoption of PMTT

Table 5.3 PMTT Practices themes with its relevant data extracted from the interview

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Table 5.4 Political Definitions themes with its relevant extracted data

Table 5.5 Economic factors themes with related data extracts

Table 5.6 Technological Factors themes with related data extracts

Table 5.7 Classification of respondents for main study

Table 5.8 The definition of PMTT themes and its sub-themes and its related data extracts

Table 5.9 Some of the related data extracts for this particular theme

Table 5.10 Issues with Political Factors theme with its main sub- themes and relevant data extracts

Table 5.11 Issues with Political Factors theme with its main sub- themes and relevant data extracts

Table 5.12 Issues with Technological Factors theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

Table 5.13 Issues with Corruption sub-set of Organisational Culture theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

Table 5.14 Issues with Organisational Culture theme with its sub- themes and relevant data extracts

Table 5.15 Needs or solutions to the issues or problems influencing the PMTT adoption theme with its sub-themes and relevant data extracts

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Research Structure

Figure 2.1 Goal and Method Matrix

Figure 2.2 The NCTP Framework

Figure 2.3 The Multiple Levels of PMO

Figure 2.4 PRINCE2 Process

Figure 2:5 Agile framework

Figure 2.6 Project life-cycle

Figure 2.7 Work Breakdown Structure

Figure 2.8 A Gantt chart

Figure 2.9 Different Stakeholders

Figure 2.10 The Network Plan

Figure 2.11 Network diagram showing activity duration

Figure 2.12 Activity-on-node

Figure 2.13 Activity-on-arrow

Figure 2.14 The growth and performance rate in the UK construction industry for the period of January 2010 to January 2016

Figure 2.15 Increase in the output in the construction industry in Finland

Figure 2.16 The output rate and growth rate in Nigerian construction companies

Figure 2.17 Map of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria

Figure 2.18 Real construction year on year growth

Figure 2.19 Employment in construction

Figure 2.20 Eko Atlantic City

Figure 2.21 Abuja Centenary City

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Figure 2.22 Akaw Ibom International Stadium

Figure 2.23 Tinapa Resort, Calabar

Figure 3.1 Initial framework of Institutional Factors Involved in adoption of PMTT

Figure 4.1 Research methodology

Figure 4.2 Seven phases of interview procedures

Figure 4.3 The Thematic Qualitative Analysis process using inductive bottom-up approach

Figure 4.4 Screenshot illustrating the transcripts from pilot study being the recorded data in this study imported into NVivo 10

Figure 4.5 Screenshot illustrating the transcripts from main study being the recorded data in this study imported into NVivo 10

Figure 4.6 Screenshot of wider themes identified in the data

Figure 5.1 NVivo model showing the perception of PMTT main theme and two sub-themes

Figure 5.2 NVivo model showing the perception of PMTT main theme and sub-themes

Figure 5.3 NVivo model showing the current practice of PMTT main theme and sub-themes

Figure 5.4 Figure 5.4: NVivo Model showing Issues with Political Factor Theme with its two sub-themes

Figure 5.5 NVivo Model showing Issues with Economic Factor Theme with its two sub-themes

Figure 5.6 NVivo Model showing Issues with Technological Factor Theme with its sub-themes

Figure 5.7 NVivo Model showing Issues with sub-set of Organisation culture (Corruption) Theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts

Figure 5.8 NVivo Model showing Issues with Organisation culture Theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts

Figure 5.9 NVivo Model showing the needs theme with its two sub- themes and data extracts

Figure 6.1 The Institutional Pillars

Figure 6.2 Conceptual Framework for PMTT Adoption for Private Constriction industry in Nigeria

Figure 7.1 The Political Factor

Figure 7.2 The Economic Factor

Figure 7.3 The Technological Factor

Figure 7.4 The Organisational culture Factor

Figure 7.5 The Needs Factors

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANT Actor Network Theory APMBOK Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge BOK Body of Knowledge BPM Business Process Modelling CAPM Certified Associate in Project Management CAQDAS Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software CBS Cost Breakdown Structure CP Computer CPM Critical Path Method DMS Document Management System EST Early Start Time EVM Earn Value Management FCI Fixed Capital Investment GERT Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique GPM German association for project managers HL High Level IPMA International Project Management Association LL Low Level LOB Line Of Balance LST Late Start Time NPCC Nigerian Private Construction Companies OC Organisational Culture PCIN Private Construction Companies In Nigeria PDCA Plan-Do-Check-Act PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique PETOC Political, Economic, Technological and Organisational Culture PIR Post Implementation Review PM Project Management PM Project Manager PMBOK Project Management Body of Knowledge PMDI Project Management Deployment Index

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PMI Project Management Institute PMP Project Management Professional PMTT Project Management Tools and Technology PPD Project Planning Document PRINCE2 PRojects IN Controlled Environments QAT Quality Assurance Template RBT Resource-Based Theory RCC Reynolds Construction Company RH Resource Histograms RUP Rational Unified Process WBS Work Breakdown Structure

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Project Management Tools and Techniques (PMTT) adoption is a relatively modern practice which assists organisations to achieve their objectives within the constraints of time and budget and via optimum use of limited resources (Olateju et al., 2011; Shenhar, 2001). Extant literatures have revealed that the adoption of PMTT is still in at its early stage in Nigeria. The growth as well as the acceptance of project management (PM) practice is in constant progress as resources are limited in developing country such as Nigeria. The quest for PMTT in private construction companies has become vital in order to handle the vast responsibility of dealing with numerous projects. This study is exploratory in nature and seeks to understand the practice of PMTT in Nigeria.

The key objective of this study is to identify the factors that affect PMTT adoption in the private construction companies in Nigeria. Moreover, the study investigates the difficulties these companies encounter in the process of adopting PMTT. This study is of great value to these companies because having an understanding of the factors that influence the implementation of PMTT will help them manage future projects with ease.

This chapter offers an overview of the scope of this research. It provides the background to the study, including an introduction to project management and the construction industry, the problem statement, research gap, aim, objectives, research questions, the rationale of the study, an overview of research methodology and an outline of the thesis.

1.1 Background to the Study

Scholars have defined a project in different ways: according to PMI (2013, p.3), a project is defined as “a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service, temporary means that project has a definite ending point, and unique means that the project or service differs in some distinguishing way from all similar product or service”. Drawing from this definition, a project is a set of activities carried out to achieve an exceptional product within a specific set time.

Project Management on the other hand is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements (PMI, 2004), and it is obtained via the integration and application of PM processes which includes initiating, planning, implementation, controlling, monitoring and termination of a project (PMI, 2004).

Soderlund (2004) stated that almost all the emergent companies since the Second World War are project intensive. This prevalent use of projects in industries requires a management approach that is able to handle these projects, which are significant to the organisational

1 objectives. This led the practitioners and researchers in this field to come up with an approach that will help to effectively manage projects. At first the attention of the study of projects was wholly on the execution of a single project (Crawford et al., 2006). In general, project research in recent times now spans to a diversity of levels of study. Ideas such as “management by projects and management of projects” (Soderlund, 2004a & b) obviously pointed to the present commitment to project research. An essential factor here is the fact that researchers propose management of projects as key to understanding modern organisations (Ali, 2010).

Private sector organisations are distinguished in comparison with their public sector counterparts. Private sector is profit-oriented in nature, with a high potential of income generation and this sector is owned by investors and stakeholders, and as a result they focus on return on investment. The public sector focuses less on profit maximisation; most public sector organisations generate income from the state government and their capacity is pivotal to economic growth (Rwelamila, 2007; Boland and Fowler, 2000). Private sector on the other hand is shouldered with the responsibility of engaging in a social responsibility in the society which it operates. Therefore, the need for PM tools and PM expertise in private sector companies has become central in order to manage the vast responsibility of dealing with a number of projects (Ali, 2010).

In a developing economy the implementation of PMTT is still in its infant stage of development. PMTT practice is relatively modern in this environment, and attempts to attain planned objectives within a specific time and budget, via optimal use of resources as well as the application of a control system, and integrated planning (Abbasi and Al-Mharmah, 2000). Schlichter (1999), cited by (Ali 2010), asserts that PM has led numerous companies to be more efficient and effective in delivery of their projects; it also enhances accuracy in scheduling and costing as well as improving productivity.

Furthermore, other scholars suggested that the application of PMTT in business has been recognised as a vital process for business transformation as well as improvement of organisational performances (Gollenia, 2016; Van den Bergh et al., 2016; Bontinck et al., 2016; Verzuh, 2015; Yu and Tao, 2009). This organisational change depends on the ability of the business entity to adopt and execute evolving management techniques to reorganise their business procedures, and to maintain continuous business growth and effectiveness. Industries that constantly focus their attention on innovation and creativity can take advantage of these management approaches. However, the reasons some these organisations are not adopting project management tools in their business process in Nigerian private construction industry is yet to be explored (Visser et al., 2016; Nunan et al., 2015; Davenport et al., 2010;

Olateju et al., 2011). This research, therefore, investigates the factors hindering the adoption of PMTT in private construction industry in Nigeria.

1.1.1 Project Management

Project Management is considered by Olateju et al. (2011) as a social science. Research into project management has progressed over the years, and is on-going. In addition to providing the different definitions of PM, this study also traces its history from the viewpoint of the professional PM community. Yüksel (2012) argues that though there exist many project management professional associations worldwide, and many others who use tools, techniques and approaches which they, as well as others, regard as “project management”, there are contrary opinions on the scope of this concept or subject.

Many researchers assume that PM is a recent or modern subject for growth as well as development (Turner, 2016; Archibald and Archibald, 2016; Gemünden, 2015). However, project management started in the nineteenth century; and long before then, it was used in directing, organising, planning, coordinating and constructing in the Ancient World (Sameh, 2014; Lucas and Harris, 2012; Fillmore and Baker, 2010). To date, basic PM principles such as “waterfall” and “agile” have remained constant, regardless of technology or the size of the project. Project management activities include management of resources, coordination of various activities and tasks, maintaining schedules and planning project schedules. These were considered as the ‘tools’ used in ancient times to successfully accomplish the “Ancient Wonders of the World” such as the Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China (Jaber, 2016; Grover and Froese, 2016; Elisabetta, 2013; Dellepiane et al., 2013).

However, the historic geniuses of PM in construction did not usually use schedule optimisation. Referring to the documentation process, there is no existing record keeping as well as documentation of historical projects from ancient days (Seymour and Hussein, 2014). Also, the influential society in those days was more concerned with project outcome rather than approach or methodology. Hence, it becomes a challenge to reference ancient practice, its tools and techniques and the methodology adopted (Seymour and Hussein, 2014; Morris, 2013; Ghaffarian et al., 2013; Morris et al., 2012). The demand for more structure in the late eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century in construction as well as manufacturing prompted the spread of PM applications (Seymour and Hussein, 2014).

In the 1950s, companies began to appreciate the application of systematic PMTT to manage their complex projects (Jaber, 2016; Grover and Froese, 2016; Baptista et al., 2016; Serpell et al., 2016; Cameron and Green, 2015; Kwak, 2005). Consequently, project management

3 has evolved for use in biotechnology, energy production, aerospace, information technology, manufacturing, real estate and automotive sectors (Badiru and Osisanya, 2016; Terlizzi et al., 2016; Conforto et al., 2016; Besner and Hobbs, 2013; Conforto, 2014).

Today, project management tools and techniques – such as Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), Critical Path Method (CPM), Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and Gantt chart (Snyder and Kline, 1987) – influence the way project managers in various organisations, including construction industries, carry out their activities (Jaber, 2016; Qazi, 2016; Kwak and Anbari, 2003).

1.1.2 Construction industry The construction industry is essential for the growth of any nation, whether developed or developing (Ofori, 2016; Yu and Yang, 2016; Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015). The advancement of economic development in the UK, the USA and Canada are traceable to the growth of infrastructures, such as road construction, buildings, railways and bridges (Barakpou and Keivani, 2016; Berry and Hay, 2016). Construction project improvement consists of various parties, different phases of the project work and a high level of commitment from both private and public construction companies, with the key objective of having a successful project closure (Kibert, 2016). The industry contributes positively to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and labour employment, as well as gross fixed capital formation (Patrick, 2006). Olanrewaju and Gunasekaran (2016) assert that the global contribution of the construction industry amounts to between 5% and 7% of GDP in most nations of the world, adding that the construction industry is worth $1.7 trillion worldwide. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2014), about one-tenth of the economy globally is devoted to construction, including homes and offices.

In the UK economy, the construction sector is considered the largest; it is said to have contributed £90 billion to the economy and also contribute about 10% of total UK employment (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2013). In China, the industry is the bedrock of their entire economy and in spite of the increasing rate of real estate scrutiny; the construction sector still remains a key sector in the economy maintaining 80% of China’s GDP (Véron and Wolff, 2016). As construction projects become more complex and competitive and the rate of project failure, increases due to rapid expansion in the economy generated by the high capacity of construction work, a sophisticated management approach is required to deal with the different phases of construction activities, such as initiating, planning, designing, financing, approving, executing and closing the project.

In a nation like Nigeria, construction projects have been considered as a major, valuable resource to the nation, offering citizens shelter and basic infrastructures for work as well as leisure (Lam et al., 2010). The analysis from Frontier Market Intelligence (2012) on the contribution of construction firms towards nation-building, identifies different levels of growth rate in Nigeria. According to the report, the construction industry in Nigeria experienced a 20% growth rate between 2006 and 2007; and between 2008 and 2012, growth dropped to 13.1%. The report further stated that the construction industry in Nigeria only accounts for 1.33% GDP in 2012, which is less than the 9% GDP world average benchmark. This outcome leaves vast room for development in construction projects across all sectors of the Nigerian economy. This situation requires further investigation to critically evaluate the management approach such as PMTT adopted by the Nigerian construction industries in delivering their projects.

1.2 Problem Statement The role of project management practice in construction companies is still a burning issue in the Nigerian Private Construction Industry (NPCI). It is certain that construction projects are faced with countless challenges which include technical as well as non-technical. For instance, the very characteristics of project planning, funding, adoption process of PMTT in private construction project and factors influencing the adoption of PMTT pose a major challenge for project stakeholders and project manager (Ofori, 2006). In addition, whilst projects generally have their challenges in implementation and successful completion of projects, development projects specifically are plagued with different problems. For example, there is deficiency of empirical evidence of evaluating the adoption process of PMTT in private construction in developing countries such as Nigeria (Ofori, 2013), hence leaving no adequate documentation on project management (PM) practice in the field. The PMTT adoption process is as important as the management tools themselves and this is perceived as one of the key issues which leave client or project stakeholders unsatisfied. These challenges in construction projects have an impact on the quality of a project in private construction companies in Nigeria.

As a result of the myriad challenges influencing PMTT adoption and project quality, this study seeks to investigate the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in Nigeria’s private construction industry.

1.3 Research Gap

Rapid economic growth pressure, as well as global competitiveness, has necessitated companies to change or re-engineer their business (Arnaboldi et al., 2004; Freddy and Mbohwa, 2013). Hence, evidence from the literature suggests that the adoption of PMTT has a positive impact on project success in both public and private companies in developed countries (Olateju et al., 2011; Idoro and Patunola-Ajayi, 2009).

Nevertheless, there are limited studies which evaluate the adoption process of PMTT in developing countries; furthermore, the literature revealed that there are some studies and supporting evidence that suggests that PMTT is not as heavily used in developing countries as it is in developed countries (Arnaboldi et al., 2014). Moreover, most of the studies in this context are not based on detailed data, but are solely explanatory and only explore the behaviour level of practitioners, with limited explanation of PMTT adoption. To address these concerns, this study aims to develop a framework that will help practitioners, researchers and policy makers to have a better understanding of the adoption of PMTT practice in private construction companies in developing countries, such as Nigeria, and the benefits of PMTT to the industry.

1.4 Aim and Objectives The aim of this study is to investigate from the NPCI’s perspectives, the key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT and to develop a framework to improve PMTT adoption. To realise this aim, the objectives of this research are set as follows:

1. To investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice. 2. To determine from the NPCI’s perspectives the factors that will influence their PMTT adoption. 3. To develop a framework to improve the adoption of PMTT in NPCI.

1.5 Research Questions The following are the research questions of this study:

1. How are NPCI presently engaging in the adoption of PMTT? 2. What are the key factors that will influence their adoption of PMTT, as perceived from the NPCI’s perspective?

1.6 Rationale of the study Adler (1991) argued that majority of the organisational models as well as theories and managerial activities were developed from the advanced nations such as the USA, the UK, France and Germany. Similarly, the theories of project management are based essentially on western research as well as on their experience (Chapman, 2004). Contrary to the belief that these western theories of PM are easy and are straight forward processes that can be learned and implemented by anyone, there are substantial problems in adopting such approaches in developing countries (Muriithi and Crawford, 2003). Literature shows that cultures and beliefs vary from nation to nation, and within nations. Based on this, values in an organisation as well

6 as social setting differ accordingly. In addition, Abbasi and Al-Mharmah (2000) believe that the presence of political, financial, social and cultural problems leads to inadequate management of projects in developing nations. Hence, the plan for implementing PMTT in developing nations must be consistent with the characteristics of a given environment, cultural as well as its political, economic and administration systems.

In recent times, project management in the private construction sector has attracted the attention of several studies on construction projects in a developing economy. These studies (Venter, 2005; AlNasseri and Radhlinah 2015; Callistus and Clinton, 2016; Jawad, et al., 2018) have identified various barriers which affect PM implementation in developing countries such as Nigeria. These are:

• System rigidities • Managerial cognition • Poor PM schedules • Weak institutional capacity • Lack of clear role definition of team members.

However, all these studies have stressed on further research to examine the barriers and potential for PM strategies in the private construction industry. Therefore, this study is conducted with this rationale.

1.7 Outline of Research Methodology

This study uses interpretative philosophy to understand the meaning of an action that occurs in the construction industry, both in interpersonal interaction and in the wider society surrounding the immediate scene of action. According to Thorne (2016) and Healy and Perry (2000), interpretativism is suitable in quantitative as well as qualitative research paradigms for studying the fundamental procedure that drives events. Therefore, semi-structured interview is appropriate within this philosophical position because it produces a complete understanding of rich and detailed data (Scotland, 2012; Brisman, 2002; Healy and Perry, 2000). To effectively achieve the aim of this study, a qualitative technique is adopted because it enables the researcher to have a robust or in-depth understanding of the way people think and behave towards a certain event or action and the motives that dominate such behaviour (Creswell, 2009). This section also captures aspects such as those in the following sub-sections.

1.7.1 Sampling

This research adopts the generic purposive sampling strategy. This strategy gives room to the researcher to critically select research participants who can respond to the interview questions that relate the study. The selection of these participants is based on their ability to respond to the semi-structured interview questions. The research sample comprised 43 participants in the main study and 18 participants in the pilot study (see Chapter 4 for detail) in construction industries across five of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria, due to the security challenge associated with the North-East zone.

1.7.2 Data collection and analysis

Qualitative interviewing (semi-structured interview) is used in this research. It is interactive and aims at achieving the viewpoint of the participants and interpretation of the meaning of their viewpoint (Mason, 1996; Kvale, 1996). It offers a means of getting in-depth as well as exhaustive information relating to the way participants understand an action, and how they explain and experience the events taking place in their lives.

1.7.3 Research quality

To ensure the reliability as well as trustworthiness of this study, activities such as observation, prolonged engagement and member checks were used after the semi-structured interview. It helped to remove any doubt about the data and ensured that the data collected were valid.

1.7.4 Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is used in this study to analyse all the transcripts and take into account the objectives as well as questions. Key ideas were grouped into keywords, codes and then into a hierarchical structure. The semi-structured interview was analysed in the same process using NVivo 11 data analysis software for qualitative analysis.

1.8 Outline of the Thesis This thesis is comprised of eight chapters. Figure 1.1 presents the structure and details of individual chapter, sequentially.

Figure 1.1: Research Structure

Chapter 2 presents a critical literature review; it also addresses the concept of project management in detail, including the different tools and techniques and critically investigates the different phases in projects to enable a better understanding of PMTT benefits to various organisations, particularly construction industry. Given the fact that there is limited research in this evolving field, this study has been broadened by drawing on additional literature related to PMTT adoption in construction industries. Furthermore, it presents the initial framework that this study developed in order to support common knowledge or understanding and a valid explanation of factors as well as their influence on PMTT adoption by construction companies. It presents the synthesis of both theoretical concepts and literature, and develops the conceptual framework for the study. In addition, it discusses the practice of PMTT in the Nigerian construction industry and focuses on the two case studies of Nigerian private

9 construction companies. It further presents the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in these companies. These factors include Political factor, Economic factor, Technological factor and Organisational culture factor.

Chapter 3 seeks to offer a clear framework for the research work. In this chapter, the research identifies different pressures that relates to political, economic, technological and organisational culture factors. Hence, the research employed Institutional Theory as the theoretical lens to study the organisational factors that are influencing PMTT implementation. The use of this theory in this study in-depth understanding of these pressures. These pressures were employed in this research as a lens to investigate several organisational factors related to the implementation of PMTT phenomenon.

Chapter 4 discusses the research methodology adopted for this study. The qualitative method used in this research is justified together with the philosophical standpoint. The research approach is considered, taking into account the methods used for data collection, sampling and research quality. Ethical issues and limitation of the study are discussed as well.

Chapter 5 discusses the data analysis process using thematic analysis methods. It discusses the step-by-step process of how the keywords, codes and hierarchical structure of the study were derived via thematic analysis that integrated NVivo in the research procedure and presented the outcomes. This chapter also presents the outcome of the broad data analysis as well as interpretation and research findings.

Chapter 6 discusses the conceptual framework and how it was developed and validated. It explains in detail the various elements that make up the framework, especially the institutional theory that formed the basis for this research.

Finally, Chapters 7 and 8 provide the conclusions, implications, contribution to knowledge, further research and limitations of the study. The first section in this chapter is the presentation of the review of this study, the fulfilment of the objectives. The second section of this chapter presents the argument for the originality of the contribution to knowledge from this research work, viewed from research and practice perspectives. The third section is the discussion of the research limitations present in this research work, offering the scope of study and the boundaries for the understanding of the relevance and generalisation of the findings and the contribution of the study. Finally, the limitations in this research offer the future researcher the opportunity to follow further research directions, which are presented as suggestions to extend this study on PMTT adoption research.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction This chapter presents a review of relevant literatures on the adoption of PMTT in Nigerian private construction industry. It presents key concepts which include project and project management overview, PM methodology, PM tools and techniques, factors facing PMTT, public and private construction sectors, the economy and the construction sector. In addition, this review provides a clear perception of the importance of PMTT adoption, analyses the PMTT used in managing projects, indicates the two types of tools (traditional and technological) used in the industry, elucidates how private sector is different from public sector, and provides the rationale for choosing technological tools over traditional tools and private sector over the public sector for this study.

In addition to highlighting the key factors (political, economic, technological and organisational culture) that influence the implementation of PMTT in the Nigerian private construction industry, the review also provides insights on the general state of these companies and the challenges they face in their attempts to adopt PMTT.

2.1 The Literature Review Strategy The research strategy employed in this study is indicated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Literature search strategy

Literature review search strategy Keywords Adoption, project management tools and techniques, private construction industry, project management. Databases Wiley journal collection, Sage premier, Emerald Management Xtra, Science-Direct, Discover (University of Bedfordshire UOB, library), EBSCOhost. Time limit 1998-2018 Types of journals Articles, academic journals, review papers, book chapters Fields Titles, abstract, Keywords Frequency Weekly search alerts used to ensure constant update on literature

2.2 Overview of Project and Project Management Project appears in history as a recent phenomenon. Formerly, most tasks or activity in society were managed by specific organisations, be it sport event, road construction, new product development, construction of bridges, testing new drugs and finding solution to research

11 problems. Since the 1950s, projects have become progressively significant as a means to manage work. Projects are employed to solve multiple tasks of both private and public utility. They run across organisations, and are also terminated as soon as the planned tasks are completed (Samset, 2003). Kehinde et al. (2017) explained that project is a set of interrelated tasks that are constrained through a particular scope, schedule and budget to deliver product required to achieve organisation’s strategic goals. Another angle to the definition of this concept by Olateju (2017) is, it is a transformation of both inputs to outputs, value as well as flows generation which take into consideration variability, time and stakeholders during operation. In order to establish an understanding on the concept of project, several authors have defined project in different ways:

“A project is a unique, transient endeavour undertaken to achieve a desired outcome” (APMBoK, 2006, 5th Ed.).

This definition highlight three key characteristics: the three vital features include:

a) Project is unique: there is no project that is exactly the same both from before and after. b) Project is transient: project has a starting point and an ending point. c) Projects are undertaken: all projects apply different approach.

Following the above project features from APMBOK definition, the project uniqueness requires more emphasis in the sense that some project practitioners assumed that project that looks alike particularly those with a similar objective and dimension should have the same cost even though the projects are in diverse locations. Projects with the same objectives are often not completed within the same deadline or timeframe due to the implementation strategy and even though the project team used are the same as before and with the same conception variation. This project characteristic supports the originality of all projects. Other institutions also view project in different perspective, they include the following:

1. BS 6070 (2000) cited by Maylor (2010) defined project as “a unique set of coordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by individual or organisation to meet specific performance objectives within defined schedule, cost and performance parameters”. 2. Similarly, the PMI (2013) defines a Project as a “temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service, temporary means that the project has a definite ending point, and unique means that the product or service differs in some distinguishing way from all similar products or services” (p.3).

The common factor in the above definitions is that projects are exceptional in their results, having a specific beginning as well as the end date, and also have a short life span (temporal) and are carried out to achieve organisational strategic goals.

In contrast, though the uniqueness and temporary nature of a project are key characteristics of project as defined in the above definitions, project also consist of limited resources which must be adequately managed in order to achieve project success and it is influenced by external circumstance (Ohara, 2005). In support of this assertion Ohara also defined project as “a value creation undertaken based on specifics, which is completed in a given or agreed timeframe and under constraints, including resources and external circumstances” (Ohara, 2005, p.15).

Secondly, these definitions failed to demonstrate the dynamic nature of projects at each phase. Kehinde et al. (2017) claims that a project is a system that is dynamic in nature and changes from stage to stage in its life cycle; Bearing in mind a generic project, and its position or status changing from concept via feasibility studies, implementation and final completion (Kehinde et al., 2017).

It is important to mention here that projects, irrespective of its size or nature requires the activities of individual working together as a team on a temporary or a short time basis as heighted in the above definition by (Maylor 2010). This team works in an organised and coordinated manner and have knowledge of the interactions of individuals around them. They function as a homogenised unit and work toward achieving a common organisational goal. Project and management of projects such as construction projects “requires a constant balance of trade-offs between competing demands and it is against this backdrop that the project must be ultimately delivered” (Hanif, 2011).

2.3 Types of Project or Project Categories Several literature in PM examines, discusses, and explains the subject of project and project management (Ofori, 2016; Olateju et al., 2011; Ogunde, et al., 2017), but with little differentiation concerning application of PM to different project type or categories, whereas it is clear that the basic PM principles apply generally to all project types, there are also various differences regarding how these PM principles as well as practices are best used for projects within diverse categories (Archibald, 2004). Much of the academic journal as well as research, focus on PM in a generic sense, very few examine project itself, the normal denominators for the field of PM and in what way are these several categories of projects similar, also in what way they vary from each other (Archibald, 2013).

Crawford et al. (2004) established that industries that have numerous projects must categorise them, though not all categories are visible immediately. This prevalent de facto categorisation is time and again taken for granted. The questions that often arise in this case are: “how can they best be categorised for practical purpose? What are the purposes of project categorisation? What criteria or project attributes are best used to categorise project” (Archibald, 2013). Literature argues that it is improper to attempt to categorise projects without a proper knowledge of its purpose and benefit (Crawford et al., 2004; Archibald, 2013), adding that project types of categories are useful and beneficial to organisations; however, it requires to be practically oriented rather than being theoretically based. This study critically examines various project types or categories in order to help in understanding of the study focus.

2.4 The Main Concept of Project Types or Categories

2.4.1 Project type – Focus on Project Goals and Methods Ali (2010) examines types of projects by studying the work of Shenhar and Dvir (2004) and Turner and Cochrane (1993), asserting that projects are undertaken in a wide diversity of situations and they are different from one other both in scope and size and also in industry. Base on this variation, it is difficult to generate a single comprehensive classification for the projects. Turner and Cochrane (1993) and Shenhar and Dvir (2004) cited by (Ali 2010) presented two main method used for the project’s classification. These include; Goal and method matrix. Supporting this claim, Turner (2014, P.21) also emphasised that projects can be classified into two dimensions, “how well defined are the goals, and how well defined are the methods of achieving them”. This leads to four categories or types of projects which helps in understating the different nature of projects in line with this research. The four project types are as follows:

• Project type A: These are the projects with a clearly defined goal and methods. Project that falls under this classification are engineering projects. Since both the goals and methods have a clear definition, it is possible to make adequate planning for activities to be undertaken, engineering projects are the typical example of this project type (Turner, 2014). • Project type B: These projects type are those projects with well-defined goals, however, the methods or approach is vague. In this case the method of delivering the defined goals is unknown (Naybour, 2014). Though the functionality of this project type is known, the key issue of this project is to determine how the goals will be achieved. It is difficult to plan any activities, since the project determines each activity. Thus, milestone planning is used here, where it represents individual product or component to be delivered (Turner, 2014). According to Turner and Cochrane (1993) cited by

Naybour (2014) suggests that type B project requires multi-skilled project team who are able to explore other avenues or possibilities for implementation and are led by a seasoned coach or project manager. The projects under this category are product development. • Project type C: In this project type, there are no defined goals but the methods are well defined. The goals of this project type are said to exist; however, it cannot be stated exactly until users or production team begin to see precisely what can be produced, especially during the process of product testing (Turner and Cochrane 1993). This type of project is exemplified by information technology software projects (Lock, 2013), in which it appears challenging to stipulate the user’s requirement). • Project type D: These types of projects are those which the goals as well as the methods of achieving the goals are poorly defined. It is typified by organisational change or scientific research. Most project in this category commence by defining the research question that need to be answered. Furthermore, the planning of the projects may employ soft system methodologies; this plan itself is based on milestone, which represents gateways for the purpose of checking each stage of the project (Naybour, 2014). Figure 2.1 shows the goals and methods matrix:

Figure 2.1: Goal and Method Matrix (Source: Turner, 2014, p.22)

Project types – Focus on Engineering and Technology

The outstanding study in this domain has been the works of Shenhar and Dvir (2004). After a series of studies in examining projects diversity in various organisations and challenges faced by practitioners, they establish that the major challenges faced by the project managers are failure to acknowledge the existence of project diversity. Dao (2011) added that the reason for this deficiency in the PM practice is as a result of the generic approach to PM ignoring the diversity in the projects, and also stated that each project has its novelty, technology, complexity, as well as pace.

Addressing this concern Shenhar and Dvir (2004) develop a four-dimensional model known as NCTP-model (N (Novelty) C (Complexity) T (Technology) P (Pace) to assist in understanding the different dimensions or project diversities. Figure 2.2 illustrates Shenhar and Dvir’s (2004) four dimensional-models.

Figure 2.2: The NCTP Framework

(Source: Shenhar and Dvir, 2004, p.1270)

• Novelty The first dimension of this model is novelty which refers to product novelty. It defined how new product is to potential user as well as the market. This dimension refers to the extent to which the end users are familiar with this type of product as well as how much the customers will use and benefits from the products. This dimension consists of three kinds of project categories, these include: derivate project, platform product as well as breakthrough product

(Shenhar et al., 2005; Ali, 2010; Dao, 2011). These levels of projects novelty are further defined below by Shenhar (2004) cited by Ali (2010), and there are as follows: a) Derivative products: in derivative product, the existing products are extended and improved. This type of product according to Ali (2010) involves cost reduction, production modification, product improvement as well as additions to the current production line. b) The second product type is known as the platform, it is where a new generation of the current product line is developed. This kind of projects involves the development of families of new product to form the foundation for several derivate. Furthermore, they replaced preceding product in a well establish organisations (Shenhar et al., 2005; Ali, 2010). c) The third type of product in this dimension is the breakthrough product (Shenhar and Dvir, 2004, pp.1271-1272), it includes the introduction of new concept, new idea into a new project, which is introduced to the market for the end user.

• Technology Technological uncertainty is the second dimension as defined by Shenhar and Dvir (2004) cited by Dao (2011). This kind of project involves manufacturing process and consists of the following levels of technologies: a) Low-tech project: the current and well-established technology, b) Medium-tech: the current or base technology used together with new concept or features, c) High-tech: new but current technology, d) Super-tech: new technology and well-defined goals or objectives.

• Complexity Complexity is the third dimension. This kind of project dimension relates directly with the system scope and also affects project as well as the formality of PM. This dimension includes the following project levels: the assembly level, system level as well as array level projects. The assembly level consists of a set of several devices’ elements, components, devices and modules joint together in a single entity or unit that executes a single function (Shenhar et al., 2005; Ali, 2010). According to the work of Shenhar et al. (2004) system-project involves a collection of complex interactive subsystems and components, jointly performing a wide range or multiple functions to meet the need of a particular operation. Array project level on the other hand, deals with wide, largely dispersed combination of system that works jointly to attain a single purpose. This kind of project level is as follows; national air defence system, public transportation system and interstate telecommunication system

• Pace The last level of dimension is pace. These kinds of projects level are projects which vary by urgency; it determines the availability of time. It consists of the following elements: Regular, fast/competitive, time critical and blitz projects. a) The regular project in this dimension as explained by Shenhar et al. (2005) are those efforts where the concept of time is not considered as a critical factor for organisational success. b) The fast/ competitive project: This is the common type of project undertaken by industries and normally by the profit-driven organisations. c) Time critical projects: The projects in this class require a particular deadline for project delivery and failure to meet the deadline or milestone can lead to project failure as its window of opportunities or event may close. d) Blitz project: These projects are critical projects and require urgent timing and prompt action. Projects in these levels are influenced by events such as natural disaster, business crisis and war. As a result, project managers and project owners’ need to make contingency plan in order to handle any emergency.

Chaitaly (2016) argued that the NTCP framework above is structured as a model to assist project managers or practitioners to distinguish between projects. The model is designed to offer a disciplined tool for analysing the potential benefits of a project and its expected risks. Dierig et al. (2007) cited by Dao (2011) suggested that some organisations apply project differentiation by industry sector (construction, manufacturing and information system) or project delivery. Adding that although models are meant to be simple by design to help in easy application, however, quite a number of models are exceptionally simplified and as a result it does not meet the right requirements of increasing project complexity. Other models such as goal and method matrix by Tuner and Cochrane (1993) cited by Ali (2010) do not provide a well-defined direction and meaningful demarcation amongst management approach and project type. Generally, several models using higher number of elements or attributes are not efficient in managing categorisation. Also, there is lack of agreement in terms of parameters as well as absence of real (Archibald, 2004) added-value for the organisations. Dao (2011) further expressed concern on these models stating that there is a limited benefit that does not match with the right management approach, right project as well as with the capability development, explaining that these might be the factors why there is no standardised model for project categorisation.

2.4.2 Project Management

The project management has recently become a current subject in most organisations ranging from IT, manufacturing, Health and construction. Ernest and Ansah (2013) argue that PM is a management tools used universally to achieve optimal performance in an organisation. Literature revealed that PM practice has been used extensively in organisations in the developed countries; however, the adoption of this practice has been limited in the developing countries (Olateju et al., 2011). PM has been defined in different way by different authors; the following definition is adopted in this study.

2.4.3 Definition of project management • Project management is defined as “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the application and integration of the project management processes of initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling and closing” (PMI, 2013, p.6). • Project management is the application of methods, tools, techniques and competences to a project. Project management includes the integration of the various phases of the project life cycle. Project management is accomplished through processes” (ISO, 2012). • OGC (2009) cited by Rehacek (2017) defined project management “as planning, delegating, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of those involved, to achieve the project objectives within the expected performance targets for time, cost, quality, scope, benefits and risks." • The APM Body of Knowledge (APM BoK) defines project management as “the process by which projects are defined, planned, monitored, controlled and delivered so that agreed benefits are realised” (APMBOK, 2006).

The definition from PMI (2013), ISO (2012) and APMBOK (2006) emphasised on generic and practical aspect of PM and do not consider the triple constraint (cost, time and quality) in their definitions which is regarded in the literature as the key success factors that guides (Olateju et al., 2011) the project managers throughout the project life cycle. The definition from OGC (2009) cited by Rehacek (2017) highlight these variables and mention also the PM process in which is also identified in other definitions. However, these are not the only criteria for project management success. As demonstrated in the literature, the concept of PM success has captured the attention of several scholars over the years and some do agree with the definition from OGC (2009) including the PM practitioners (Ika, 2009). This definition supports the concept of “iron triangle”, though project success can be defined using these variables,

19 however, does not make a perfect definition. Project success is vast from PM point of view. According to PM standard project must meet the three factors such as; cost, time and quality before it is considered as a successful project. These three variables are known as “iron triangle” (Pollack et al., 2018). However, there are a lot of doubt concerning “iron triangle” as many projects that are said to meet all these requirements stated in this principle (iron triangle) still experience project failure (Awwal, 2014), and do not satisfy the expected project outcome. In order to give a more convincing definition to project management success, there is need to introduce one more factor to the iron triangle (Awwal, 2014), which is stakeholder satisfaction. Another limitation of this definition is that it did not mention PMTT which is considered by many authors (Olateju, et al., 2011; Abbasi and Al-Mharmah, 2000; Ofori and Deffor, 2013) as one vital element used by modern organisations to implement their projects. The application of PMTT has been acknowledged as an effective strategy which would aid in improving project goals (Ayodele et al., 2015; Arnaboldi et al., 2004).

2.5 Project Management Office (PMO) The concept of Project Management Office (PMO) has been in existence for years, the definition, function and purpose this office has changed over the years. The PMO was developed from project office (PO) which shoulder the responsibility of managing one project or programme up to a more complex project or multi-project and mostly project that are funded by the government (Van and Steyn, 2016). PMO is an evolving phenomenon that change as the need of the organisation changes, also as new methodology and management principle are developed. (Kerzner, 2003). Supporting this claim Pallegrinelli, and Garagna (2009) assert that for PMO to remain relevant, there is need for PMO to adapt and change continuously to the needs of the organisation.

As the subject of project management advance and spread into variety (Van and Steyn, 2016) of industries, the PMO’s function and purpose also varied to the level that no particular scheme can define the ideal purpose or function of the PMO (Hobbs and Aubry, 2007). The differences are apparent from several definitions used for PMO. For instance, a “Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) definition for PMO differs between the 4th (2008) and 5th (2013) edition” (PMI 2008; PMI. 2013). The first (PMI 2008 4th ed) definition states that the role of the PMO ranges from offing support to the management of various projects, while the second (PMI 2013, 5th ed.) definition states that PMO function are standardisation and facilitates the resource sharing, methodologies as well as tools and techniques.

Desouza, and Evaristo (2006) in their view PMO as the office establish to serve the key strategy of the organisation and support both project and programmes success. Other

20 functions of this office include training of the project team, supporting project management knowledge, project processes, provision of administrative support and project finance management. Literature shows that a strong Project Management Office could achieve a high degree of professionalism and its team member are mainly devoted project practitioners. Also, its aid in facilitating the adoption management software tools such as tools and techniques and ensure best practice in the organisation (Van and Steyn, 2016; Letvec, 2006). However, in spite of these benefits, literature also criticises this concept, maintaining that there is a high rise of organisational bureaucracy stemming from a “control mechanism” that a strong PMO may set, this can cause conflict in management and can also being about a high level of employee resistance in the system (Hindi, 2013). In addition, other scholars agreed that one PMO model alone cannot satisfy the organisational needs, hence appropriate analysis of the requirement and needs for PMO is essential (Dai and Wells, 2004). Figure 2.3 shows the organisational structure and also presents multiple PMOs in the organisation.

Figure 2.3: The Multiple Levels of PMO

(Source: Hindi, 2013)

2.5.1 Project Health Check (PHC) Chan (2003) in an effort to developed a model for measuring project success in the construction firms, reviewed eight key articles on project success, the three elements in iron triangle- time, quality and cost, were considered as the key parameters for measuring project performance. However, it was confirmed that other elements or indicators such as satisfaction,

21 safety, environmental performance and functionality, also attracts scholar’s attention (Bello, 2018). Subsequent study revealed that the term “project health check” was adopted to explain the project performance or to diagnose the “well-being of the project” (Mian et al., 2004).

Project managers in many organisations for the past few years have witnessed an increased need for support in the area of organising their projects (Bello, 2018) programmes and portfolio, and mobilising PMO. In doing so, clients look forward to achieve effectiveness in their risk management and resource management while at the same time maintaining an adequate control of dependencies and schedules. On the other hand, in order to aid clients to realise the benefits outline above, it is important to understand the present status of the project so as reduce many challenges faced during the life cycle of a typical project, hence, to achieve this PHC is require (Benjamin, 2016). Michael (2011) defined PHC as the “reflective learning exercise”, a glance of the current project and programme status in order to indicate the area where the project is doing well and the areas that need proper attention and improvement. The scholar further claims that the project sponsor, project managers and project team who engage in the daily activities of the project often fail to be familiar with the true project status (Michael, 2011).

The project health check was developed essentially to improve the ability of a project in order to realise its expected outcome, it helps in the immediate evaluation of the current health check of the project and indicates the root causes why a project fails to perform as expected, also suggests ways of bringing back the project to a better health (Jaafari, A., 2007; Mian et al., 2004). Again, PHC can be well-organised on particular projects at the decision of the project manager, PMO and project board within the company with the responsibility of delivering a quality project (ICG, 2015). This can be conducted by asking simple questions on the project health periodically in order to ascertain its health status. This gives room for a proper assessment of the project health without being bias (Merla, 2005). In construction project, the assessment of project health and performance has been links to various ‘key performance indicators’ comprising of ‘cost performance indicator’ that offers a glimpse view of the ‘project cost performance’ when conducting project health check (Philbin and Kennedy, 2014).

2.5.2 Socio-Technical System Approach (STSA) The term Socio-Technical System Approach concern with harnessing social factor, human factor, technical factors and organisational factor, together to make up an organisational system and ensuring that both the organisational factor and technical aspects of the system are taken into account at the same time (Laser, 2011; Abrahamsson et al., 2002). The outcome (Philbin and Kennedy, 2014) of employing these techniques provides a better perception of how social factor, human factor, technical factors and organisational factor

22 influence the ways work are carried out and how technical (Davis, et al., 2014) system are employed. This perception can help in contributing to design the business process, organisational structure, as well as technical system. Although various project managers understand that STSA issues are essential, this method are seldomly used. According to Philbin and Kennedy (2014) the reason for these methods is not in use is mainly the challenges in implementing the methods as well as the disconnect amongst these methodologies and both the technical issues as well as issues regarding the individual relationship with the technical system.

However, STSA has achieved considerable success in assisting the designer to develop new technology that leads to organisational change and guide them to understand the possible roles of the end-users, secondly, it helps to develop an understanding of the way new technology may be employ and integrate with the existing social system (Baxter and Sommerville, 2011)

STSA has its origins from the work of Eric Trist and other scholars who established the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London during the Second World War, they form the basis (Philbin and Kennedy, 2014) for socio technical system. This theory was develop based on several experiment conducted by this group of scholars. Based on the principle that organisation is an open-system consisting of both technical and social system, it needs to acknowledge the necessity to improve and integrate other components of the organisation such as social, human, technical and organisational factor (Patnayakuni and Ruppel, 2010).

Another method to improve the organisation performance is in the use of tools and techniques to support a various development tasks in (Patnayakuni and Ruppel, 2010) the organisation. These variety of technology tools as part of the organisational components support different organisations including Construction Company to improve their practice and meet their organisational goals, however, private construction company in Nigeria are not heavily involved in the adoption of these tools (Olateju et al., 2011).

2.5.3 Organisational Culture Culture is believed to be an active-living phenomenon by which individuals work together to constantly create their world to achieve organisational objectives. It is viewed as shared values and belief that assist in shaping the behavioural pattern of the people working within the same organisation (Narayana, 2017). Furthermore, Larson et al., (2014) observed that organisational culture maintained a shared belief, norms, values as well as assumption that binds employees together, thereby creating a shared meaning. This system is established by habits and customs that represent the beliefs and values of the organisation. It also reflects the organisational personality which is similar to that of individual’s personality, thus, enabling

23 one to forecast the behaviour and attitudes of organisational members (Nkwana and Lalk, 2012). Extant literature shows that organisational members display some values and behavioural traits based on their experiences and the length of time they have spent in a particular environments or settings (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2007), and the alignment of this behavioural traits leads to team structure or the organisational culture. This can also be related to the observation made by Narayana, (2017) that organisational culture (OC) ties the employees together and offers clear direction for the organisational growth, it also builds a high-performance team member and maintains a consistent team that work towards the realisation of organisational goals.

March-Chorda and Moser (2008) examined organisational culture and innovation and noted that managers with management attitude towards adopting innovation as organisational culture build businesses with a firm innovative culture and have this as a strong correlation between quality of communication and consensus within team members, resulting in a high level of agreement among the employees, customer’s satisfaction as well as increase in productivity (Cheung, 2005). This is exemplified in world-leading organisations such as Goggle, IBM, Apple, Amazon and so on which have flourished over the years as a result of continuous innovative culture characterised by collaboration, communication and flat leadership (Steiber & Alänge, 2013).

In contrast, high cohesive team members can also bring about disadvantages if their goals do not agree with the project objectives (Alnasseri et al., (2013). Moreover, organisational culture has faced criticisms by researchers. First, organisational culture is said to be very difficult to change where there are already established norms and values widely shared within the organisation (Bolino and Turnley, 2003). In order words, firms are liable to face internal resistance whenever they decide to implement a new set of values, because the workforce will need to gradually accept or adopt the new ways of behaving, thinking as well as responding to vital issues. For instance, it will be challenging to adopt PMTT as a new initiative in this situation due to a rigid culture in the organisations.

Essentially, a strong organisational culture may be a liability instead of an asset during a merger. Miles and Mangold (2005) have shown that in a large business context, organisation undertaking mergers and acquisitions always experienced cultural clash and clash of structure. Culture clash among merger companies is more problematic in nature if both organisations have strong and unique cultures. The culturally different of each organisation may act as a barrier or influence the effective integration. Other scholars in the likes of Yu (2012), Varner and Beaner (2011) and Alder (2008) criticised the concept of organisational

24 culture arguing that over generalisation as well as ethnocentrism is the cause of several culturally specific shortcomings.

Nevertheless, the growing rate of intercultural skills and competency can limit the occurrence of over generalisation and ethnocentrism. Yu (2012) advised that multicultural companies should focus on cultural awareness, sensitivity, and behavioural skills as steps taken toward increasing intercultural generally. Essentially, this research lends its voice to create awareness of PMTT adoption in the culture of private construction industry in Nigeria for it to positively impact the Nigerian economy.

2.5.4 Project Management Maturity Model (PMMM) Project management maturity is described as a current organisational project management practice, capacity and sophistication, it is also the organisational directness toward project management. It assists organisation in addressing their basic aspects of project management, improving the possibility of the quality of project outcome and reduce also the possible risk that may have impact on the project negatively (Backlund et al., 2014; Demir and Backlund et al., 2014). Other scholars maintained that PMMM allowed organisation to have a better understanding of how they perform in terms of “project, programme, as well as portfolio management practice” (Seelhofer and Graf, 2018; Ibbs, et al., 2004). Maturity model is recognised by many industry and scholars as one of the largely used framework and methodology for capacity development and assessment of projects (Backlund et al., 2014; Oladapo, 2008). Literature summed up the significance of maturity models by showing that “maturity models essentially do for companies looking forward to execute project management methodology and perform through project, what the “project management body of knowledge” have actually done for project practitioners looking forward to improve the ability of their project management (Cooke-Davies, 2004). This underlines the importance of this model (maturity model) in an organisation.

Several types of Project Management Maturity Model (PMMM) exist today, some of which are inspired by a model known as Capacity Maturity Model (CMM) that was introduced in the 90s with the intention of measuring capacity in software-development projects (Yeh et al., 2017; Marcineková and Sujová, 2015). Literature suggests that organisations having a higher level of project management maturity are expected to attend a certain level of success or become successful in terms of their project efficiency and effectiveness, and hence have a better advantage over other players in the market-place (Backlund et al., 2014). In spite of the PMMM developed over two decades, knowledge concerning PMMM is limited in some organisations such as private construction organisation in Nigeria (Aregbesola et al., 2011). However, its impact is very significant in other industries in Nigeria, for instance software development

25 companies. It is used to measure the existing capacity as well as defining improvement goals for organisations seeking to develop the efficiency of their project management, in order to achieve effectiveness in project delivery (Aregbesola et al., 2011; Mittermaier and Steyn, 2009). Though several PMMM has been developed for project-based organisations wishing to turn out to be more efficient, however study indicates that the improvement potentials of these models are limited, some scholars even argued that the model lacks evidence of the inferences of using PMMM (Jugdev and Thomas, 2002; Crawford (2006). Pretorius et al. (2012) indicated that there are a number of results from measuring project management maturity in several kinds of businesses, for instance in defence industry, engineering organisations, in petrochemicals and in construction industry.

There are several PMMM. The common maturity model is the Organisational Project Management Maturity Model (OPMMM), developed (Seelhofer and Graf, 2018) by PMI. This model seeks to improve, integrate and assess project management practice (Yazici, 2009). This model aid in supporting organisations’ capacity development that boost the processes used in managing all the companies’ projects, it also links these projects to the organisational strategy (Grant &Pennypacker, 2006). Secondly, the model offers an orderly structure with some best practices, each practice encompassing multiple capabilities that leads to certain outcomes which can be evaluated by metrics and “key performance indicator” (KPI). Three main organisational levels (projects, programs and portfolios) are measured with this concept following the four-maturity levels such as “standardize, measure, control, and continuously improve” (Mittermaier and Steyn, 2009).

Another model highlighted in the literature is Project Management Process Maturity (PMPM) which offers means for measuring and identifying various project management levels through integrating the nine project management knowledge areas within five project management processes (Seelhofer and Graf, 2018). The model also offers a hierarchical as well as discipline processes and integrates project management knowledge areas with project management stages against the real “project performance data” in order to realise a higher levels of project management maturity (Ibbs and Kwak, 2002).

Benefit of PMMM

PMMM are developed to offer a framework or model that companies required to improve its capabilities, so as to deliver a successful project in a (Mittermaier and Steyn, 2009) long term. The benefit of PMMM according to literature depends on setting priority, direction, action and initiating cultural change instead of identifying the existing level of performance in the organisation (Backlund et al., 2014), the second purpose of PMMM is comparing project capacity with different organisations, or with a particular company and industry norms as a

(Grant and Pennypacker, 2006) way of benchmarking the level of their maturity relative to their counterpart. However, Backlund et al. (2014) maintain that making comparisons or evaluation is not sufficient, any model chosen to measure project management maturity must identify the logical (Crawford, 2006) path for continuous development.

Furthermore, studies criticise these models for focusing on explicit project management knowledge areas rather than focusing on incorporeal assets, which cannot be measured but can (Pasian et al., 2012) contribute to a developed project management capability. Another issue that may influence potential users not to apply these models is the complex and comprehensive frameworks. More so, these models are rigid and cannot be use to manage change and improve the organisation (Backlund et al., 2014), the framework does not take into consideration the instant rate of change in which organisations employ new technology as well as changing their practices, management system, processes and policies (Hillson, 2003).

Complexity

Complexity is a broad subject which can be linked to any area of discipline and hence there is so much information relating to it, thus, not much publication has been made in the study of complexity in (Wood and Ashton 2009) construction organisations. The research on complexity is still new in academia and is considered as a challenge to the modern business which many “traditional scientific” views are still struggling with. In view of this, investigating project management complexity and how this can be used in construction organisations could hold much understanding into the way construction procedures could improve.

The success of any project in terms of cost, time, quality and sometime health and safety over the years appears to be very poor in the construction sector. It is a common knowledge that the cause of poor performance in construction project is mostly complexity of the project as well as its complicated designs. The ability to measure or manage the project at the early phase help in understanding the project and hence could assist in managing the project and reduce the level of risk that relates with complexity.

Definition of Project Complexity

Though the many scholars have studied the concept project complexity for some years, yet there is no consensus about appropriate definition of this concept. As a results project complexity lacks a (San Cristóbal et al., 2018) single definition due to the difficulty in defining the term and difficult to quantify (Luo et al.,2017); therefore, the notion of project complexity is not totally clear. Some scholars viewed the concept as follows;

Pich et al. (2002) defined complexity as information insufficiency when many variables relate. In contrast, Custovic (2015) defined complexity as that property of a system which makes it difficult to formulate its overall behaviour in a given language, even when given reasonable complete information about its atomic components and their interrelations. These two definitions view complexity in different perspective, while the first definition centred on shortage of information within the system as (Luo et al.,2017) being the core issue in this concept. In contrast, Custovic definition argued that even with sufficient information, the properties within the system still poses as a problem to the entire system. However, Girmscheid and Brockmann (2008) view this concept in another way, stating that “project complexity has a set of problems that consists of many parts with a multitude of possible interrelations, most of them being of high consequence in the decision-making process that brings about the final result”. These three definitions indicate that project complexity has no single definition or it lacks a consensus definition (San Cristóbal et al., 2018; Luo et al.,2017).

Project Complexity

There has been a growing concern regarding project complexity, as projects around the world have become increasingly complex by the day (Luo et al., 2017). This recent increase in project complexity in construction organisations has prompted an increasing number of researches over the last twenty years, signifying that an understanding of this complexity (project complexity) is a major (Hu et al., 2012) element of a successful project management in construction industry. Also, this understanding is significant to project managers because it helps in identifying the different factors associated with complex projects and provides ways to manage it (San Cristóbal et al., 2018).

The source of complexity concept in project management stemmed from the work of Morris (2002), it emphasises the significance of complexity in project and its effects on the goals and objectives of the organisational projects. The significance of complexity to project management procedure is acknowledged for various reasons and these include; (1) it has an effect on project coordination, planning and control; (2) it prevents a clear recognition of major project goals and its objectives; (3) it can be adopted has a means in selecting appropriate project management arrangement and can impact on various project outcome such as cost, time, quality and safety and (4) largely the higher the complexity in the project, the greater the cost, risk and time (San Cristóbal et al., 2018).

Complexity in the construction industry

Construction projects are considered complex at all times and since 2nd World War have become increasingly complex. Actually, the construction project can be regarded as the most

28 complex business environment. The industry has shown great difficulty handling the growing complexity of key project in construction industry. Therefore, having a better insight into (Baccarini, 1996 city by Gidado, and Hannah, 2008) project complexity is essential to the project team. Mills (2001) explained that construction organisations are the most risky, dynamic and challenging industry with poor reputation for risk management and with several failed projects. Furthermore, the construction projects are instigated in a complex environment resulting (Gidado, and Hannah, 2008) in a situation of high risk and uncertainty, which are intensify by arduous time constraints. Studies indicates that interrelationships existing among projects elements are more (San Cristóbal et al., 2018) complex than what is stated in the conventional work breakdown structure (WBS) of project network. Identifying the factors that increase or influence project complexity is vital to the project manager. Luo et al. (2017) determine three different factors that increase project complexity, these include: (1) rapid environmental change, (2) increase in time pressure and (3) and increase in production complexity; while (Gidado 1996, city by San Cristóbal et al., 2018) identify four various sources of complexity; environment, employed resources, technological knowledge and scientific.

Apart from project complexity, study also recognise that the term complexity has also cut across tools and techniques use in project management. Most of the tools adopted in PM are complex and very difficult to use, for example technological tools (software tools) (Matharu, et al., 2015) which is difficult to understand and are not friendly to the end user. Gantt chart tool when loaded with more activities can be very complicated (Mubarak, 2003) to understand, also project scheduling tools (crashing tools) are not rolled out as they demonstrate some element of complexity when it is fully applied either to a single project or multiple projects, therefore, reducing the rate of adoption even in the private construction companies in Nigeria (Hall, 2012; Olateju et al., 2011). As a result of this, adopting complex software tools is challenging and in order to manage this, Olateju et al. (2011) suggest that these tools could be applied gradually in the project.

2.6 PM Process, Framework, Method and Methodology

2.6.1 PM Process Lewis (2005) defined a process as any action(s) that produces a result. The third edition of PMI (2013, p.47) defines a process as “a set of interrelated actions and activities that are performed to achieve pre-specified set of products, results, or services. Each process is characterized by its inputs, the tools, and techniques that can be applied, and the resulting outputs”. Rad, and Levin (2006) also looked at process as “a set of interrelated resources and activities which transform inputs into output”. From these definitions, processes are what turn organisational resource inputs into output. Projects on the other hand, have to follow through

29 some set of interactions, actions or processes before it can meet the requirement or project output (APM 2018). Process is often criticised as being static in nature, however, it is dynamic and changes based on the management, workload, project team, system as well as other processes and external factor, such as competitors (Lientz, 2013, p.174). The existence of PM process in the business environment is to aid in accelerating various features of business process by offering a starting point for defining the entire process of the organisation, as project work continues, the set of interrelated process are employed to increase awareness and knowledge and improve ultimately the corresponding project work plan (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 2012; Andersen and Fagerhaug, 2001). However, in must situation, this process is quite complex with strict or rigid deadline, it also deteriorates with time. In addition, Lientz (2013, p.175) maintained that their effectiveness diminishes due to more work as well as employee turnover; resulting in lack of flexibility among the project team. Moreover, it influences the creativity of the project team and also makes their managerial skills to become weak. Though processes help as a competitive advantage, reduced cost, in discoveries, investigations, amend resource, complete surveys and save time, there are still some reservations regarding the way this mechanism stifle the innovation level of must industries such as construction organisations (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 2012), however, an organisation may achieve success without the adoption of PM process. Nevertheless, that success or result is limited and it takes more time to achieve compared to an organisation that actively uses the PM process.

PMI (2013) PM process is grouped into two major categories

• The project management processes • Product oriented processes

The project management processes are common to most projects and they include elements such as: project initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, controlling (APM, 2018) and the project closure. They ensure an efficient flow of project all through its life cycle. While project- oriented processes involve the creation of PM process and specification. They specify as well as creating the project’s product. These processes are defined by the life cycle of the project and they differ by area of application and the stage of product life cycle. (PMI, 2013, p.47). In these processes it is difficult to define a project scope without adequate knowledge of how to establish a specified product. For instance, in construction project, several tools and techniques are needed at each phase (Olateju et al., 2011) or be to be taken into account when carrying out construction project, PMI (2013, p.49) this process is further sub-divided into five process group and these include the following: initiation, planning, execution,

30 control/monitor and closing. Project managers employ these processes in their project, especially in large projects such as construction project where there are a lot of work packages such as purchasing, safety, subcontract, brick laying, roofing, forecasting scaffolding and equipment requirements (PMBOK, 2013, p.49; COAA, 2013). The phases in the projects overlap each other indicating that some stages in project life cycle are undertaken concurrently. For instance, Work packages can run simultaneously without interfering with each other, however, in most cases proper time are not given to address individual Work package in the construction work due to stifle deadline leading to project failure (U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 2012).

2.6.2 Framework A project management framework is a group of standards put in place to support PM process, document, template (Department of Finance, 2011) management roles, and tools to delineate a structure for the management of project in an organisation or a combination of tools, tasks and processes employed in translating a project from its start stage to finish stage (Whiting, 2018). It seeks to improve PM practice and the effectiveness and efficiency as well as management of the project quality with improved conformity to government and organisational policies and strategies (Department of Finance, 2011). PM framework is quite different from methodology though some project practitioners use these two concepts or words interchangeably. However, methodology involves carrying out task with a defined method, set of rules, deliverables, as well as processes which usually serves to meet a particular need. It shows a well-planned, defined and repeatable approach (Dafir, 2016).

On the other hand, a framework offers a frame, structure, guideline as well as direction to do something in a favoured way, without being rigid or too detailed. It offers guideline to project managers and at the same time is more flexible to adapt to changes or can be customised for any organisation in order to meet their strategic objective while utilising vetted approaches. This concept gives room for individuals to introduce new innovation and creativity or practices to the framework (Cote, 2018). Frameworks are also developed for a specific context and are targeted to a particular audience for the purpose of achieving particular results. In line with this thought, Department of Finance (2011) claims that frameworks are developed to improve and address the maturity of PM process with the knowledge of the integration needed for tactical planning, procurement, asset management, capital management as well as management process. However, Dafir (2016) and Ankrah and Proverbs (2005) stress that framework has its drawback inherited in it, suggesting that framework does not guide individuals through specific process or steps to produce a particular outcome. In spite of this criticism, Dalcher (2012) emphasised that PM framework is developed to increase the value of an organisation. Supporting this claim, Badewi (2016) assert that organisation can take

31 advantage or benefit from employing PM framework by ensuring that the efficiency of project team efforts is increased in the organisation and at the same time enhancing the effectiveness of these efforts.

2.6.3 Method This is described as a specific procedure or process for approaching or achieving something, particularly an established or systematic one. Method does not only make remark on process, but also define how activities or tasks are completed; it presents a more comprehensive way to implement the process (Stellingwerf and Zandhuis, 2013). According to Lewis (2001) method indicates the tools employed to manage projects and these tools are: earned value management, Scrum and critical path analysis. These tools are further explained in this chapter.

2.6.4 Methodology Methodology is a combination of logically connected practices, processes, and methods that define the best way for planning, developing, controlling and delivering a project all through the continuous execution process of the project until its successful completion as well as termination (Keleckaite, 2015). “It is a scientifically-proven, systematic and disciplined approach to project design, execution and completion” (McConnell, 2010).

Methodology in this context is a set of principles or guidelines that can be customised and applied to a particular situation. In an environment such as construction project environment, these principles have list of activities to be carried out. Also, methodology could be referred to as a template, approach and forms, as well as checklist employed over the life cycle of a project (Charvat, 2003). Attarzadeh and Ow (2008) noted that methodology can be defined also in others ways, these are:

• “A collection of methods, procedures, and standards that define a synthesis of engineering and management approaches designed to deliver a product, service, or solution”. • “A process that documents a series of steps and procedures to bring about the successful completion of a project”. The above definitions show that methodology is a procedure that should guide all the activities of the project team throughout the project lifecycle. It is a project concept whereby each member of the project team should be familiar with and employ the approved methodology all through the projects; especially in construction projects where a lot of work-packages are involved (Charvat, 2003). A number of PM methodologies deal with the management of a given project or single project, without realising that several other projects in the organisation go after the very same attention and resource, thus, PM methodology should offer the project

32 team with the viewpoint that there is a PM framework as well as associated methods present in the organisation, for instance some projects in the organisation are driven by processes without methodology (Attarzadeh and Ow, 2008).

Moreover, literature revealed that methodology has been developed to address the need of specific industries, whether manufacturing, health, Information technology or construction. Some organisations developed their own customised PM methodology for the purpose of managing their product and service, while other companies used the standard commercial methodologies. With inadequate methodology, planning, designing, testing, building, implementing projects can be challenging (Fowler, 2005).

Keleckaite (2015) remarked that PM methodologies that are used repeatedly in an organisation are valuable asset to that organisation. The repeatability of any methodology creates best practices, standards, skill development, high performance, quality of work and reduces risk. Kerzner (2004) presented further arguments on PM methodology benefits. These benefits are grouped into short term and long-term ones.

Short term benefits of PM methodology are:

• Lower costs and decreased cycle time; • Realistic plans together with the possibilities of meeting deadline; • Adequate communications from the project team as to what is anticipated from the project team and when; • Good feedback as well as lessons learned (Keleckaite, 2015; Kerzner, 2004).

Long term benefits of PM methodology are:

• Low risk; • Adequate risk management, leading to a better decision making; • Create better customer satisfaction as well as trust; • Easy and quicker improvement are achieved (Keleckaite, 2015; Kerzner, 2004).

From literature it is indicated that there are many other benefits associated with the application of these methodologies. Naybour (2016) stated that PM methodology ensure that limited resources are utilised effectively and efficiently, ensure effective decision making, controlling scope of the project and ensure a more motivated project team. However, Golini et al. (2014) explained that despite the worldwide spread of PM methodology, diverse organisations show different methodologies to PM and one of the noted industries is the construction industry,

33 though this practice is well recognised in the construction industry in developed countries, nevertheless, there are little evidence that shows that this is not well practiced in NPCI (Olateju et al., 2011). Therefore, it is vital to investigate whether the PM methodologies are used by NPCI and what are the factors that may influence their current practice.

2.7 Project Management Methodology and Project Life Cycle It is often suggested by various scholars such as Drucker as well as others that current organisations function in a progressively competitive environment (Boehm et al., 2012; Stangler and Arbesman, 2012; Stubbart and Knight, 2006). However, literature emphasises the need for businesses to change for it to subsist with projects being utilised to (Biggins et al., 2016) facilitate change. As Pinto (2013) states “Projects are one of the principal means by which we change our world … the means through which to achieve these challenges remains the same: project management.” According to the estimate made by Anderson Economic Group (2016), 32.6 million individuals across eleven nations in the world will engage in (ISO 2012) organisational projects. As the size, number, complexity as well as significance of the project increases, the same way is the requirement to make sure that these projects (Pinto, 2013) perform well. Increasingly, businesses are seeking for means in which (Wells 2012) project performance can be improved and one major way to achieve this is the use of the project management methodology (PMM).

Literature has not agreed on particular definition for PMM (Biggins et al., 2016). However, this study employed the definition made by Biggins et al. (2016). They defined PMM as “the standard organisational or strategic level processes and procedures used to execute projects rather than the tools and techniques such as risk management and scope management that are deployed at the operational level to manage individual project delivery”. In order to aid in understanding these PMMs, the scholars demonstrate the different PMMs in a table form together with their description.

Table 2.2: Various PMMs

Methods Description APM BOK The Association for Project Management Body of Knowledge (APM BOK). Developed by the APM BOK which comprises of (APM, 2012) context, interfaces, people, and diversity, in the 6th edition (2012). The scope of the APMBOK is extensive and covers portfolio as well as programme management, ‘interfaces’ to accounting and soft skills, sustainability, health and safety, etc. PRINCE2 “Projects in Controlled Environments” (OGC, 2009) Developed by Axelos With the 2009 edition, the methodology was simplified and was made simpler to customise. The focus is key principles such as business case, plans, quality, organisation, progress, issues/changes and risks. P2M “A Guidebook of Project and Program Management for Enterprise (PM2, 2005) Innovation ‘P2M’ Developed by the Project Management Association of Japan” (PM2, 2005). PM2 concentrate on adding value whereas delivering successful projects. “The P2M Project Management Tower consists of entry criteria, project and programme management processes and frame elements (e.g. risk, finance etc)” (PM2, 2005). PMBOK A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMI, 2013) Developed by the Project Management Institute (PMI) First proposed in 1986, it published its first edition in 1996 and it is updated every four years. It comprises of five process- groups such as “initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing” and Ten knowledge areas. (PMI, 2012b) ISO 21500 International Organization for Standards 21500: (2012) Guidance on project management. Developed by the ISO (ISO, 2012b) it covers concepts as well as processes for project management that are established as good practice, used by any kind of organisation for any form of project.

BS 6079 British Standard 6079-1: (2010) Project management. “Principles and guidelines for the management of projects” (BSI, 2010). (BSI, 2010) Developed by the British Standards Institution “A set of guidelines covering many types of projects and providing guidance on sponsorship, management, planning, undertaking projects and application of project management techniques” (BSI, 2010). (Source: Biggins et al., 2016)

The level to which these methodologies are employed in organisations is indistinct with contradictory information being offered from small, multiple, time and again national studies (PWC, 2012; Fortune et al., 2011; White and Fortune, 2011).

While most organisations employ PMMs in their original state, other organisations tailored the methodology to suit their own organisational requirements. This can be seen as a continuum with complete “configuration with the methodology at one end while at other end it has little or no alignment with the organisation” (Biggins, 2015). Whether it is tailored or pure, PMM are significant because they are vital key to project success due to the credibility and standardisation they provided to the organisation via a set of tools and techniques, common practices, approach of working and a (Wells, 2013) share vocabulary (PMI, 2013; Chin and Spowage, 2010; OGC, 2009). The adoption of PMM is one method adopted to increase the practice of project maturity within organisation and the more mature the organisational processes, the higher the rate of success (Swanson, 2012; IBM, 2008; PWC, 2004).

In line with these arguments Wells (2012) maintained that there is a common agreement across various organisations that traditional PMMs are advantageous to projects and organisations. However, the kind of perceived benefit as well as contribution differs from organisation to organisation, depending on the organisational level of engagement with the project. Other scholars in the field of project management research also argue that it is impossible for any organisation seeking to be a worldwide leader without a project management methodology (Kerzner, 2006).

Hobbs and Aubry (2007) discovered in their study that 75% of the 500-project management- Office (PMOs) that participate in their study engaged in the implementation and development of the PMM. The project management-Office with this project function often plays the role of supporting the implementation of the methodology, developing competency as well as PM in general. Jaafari (2007) also observed from the study conducted on the health of a program and mega-project on meeting their targets, stating that sick management approach will bring out absence of systemic approach proceeding to a disorganised way, while a healthy endeavour promotes a systemic structure (Jaafari, 2007) such as PMM and standards, proceeding in an organised way. Schoenberg and Ra (2007) explained adopting a PMM for airline organisation, reporting their processes toward a PMBOK, emphasising that initiation- based process and planning process as a tool for increasing likelihoods of project success as well as reaching organisational strategic goals. Similarly, Young and Jordan (2008) examined the influence of top management support toward project success (Young and Jordan, 2008) and discovered PMMs efficiency for risk management and resource based management purposes, though, they are not the major factors influencing project success. The scholars

37 suggest the need for project managers to acknowledge the limitations associated with these methodologies and give room to projects centred on project success instead of project management success although they cannot give account of the realisation of its outcome or benefit (Vaskimo, 2015).

Limitation of PMMs

The number one objective of any organisation carrying out a project is to see that the project is successful. In order to achieve this, several factors have been put in place as criteria to determine project success. One of these factors according Joslin and Müller (2015) is PMMs which is supposed to improve the chances of project success. Hence, PMMs was developed to help project managers to achieve a predictable rate of project success. However, the level at which this objective (Wells, 2013) is reached is not known as project failure still remain at the higher rate and the quantification of PMMs impact on project success is still absent. One of the limitations of PMMs is the believe that one particular methodology can be used for all kinds of project irrespective of its size and location. Literature claims that a “one size fit all” concept does (Wysocki, 2011) not work in project management. This is in agreement with Payne and Turner (1999) cited Joslin and Müller (2015) who discovered that project managers in most organisations often come up with a better project outcome when they customise PM process to fit with their project type and size or resources employed in the project. Russo and Stolterman (2002) observed that the most successful project management methodologies are those tailored for a particular industry or organisation. However, when industry or an organisation’s PMM is limited or incomplete (missing some elements in the methodology), project quality, effectiveness and ultimately the chance of achieving a successful project will be influenced (Joslin and Müller, 2015). Fortune et al. (2011) noted that 50% of the participants in their research work experienced limitations adopting PMMs. The most acknowledged limitations were in methods and processes as well as tools and techniques.

2.8 Traditional PMMs and Modern methods Traditional methods as defined by PMI (2013) are “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements”. Moreover, traditional methods involve going through all the five stages in project such as “Initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, and controlling, and closing” (Olateju et al., 2011) under the support and guidance of the project manager as well as the project team (PMI, 2013). Furthermore, project management seek to fulfil the demands of cost, time, quality, risk and scope in the framework (Salameh, 2014) of predetermined requirement of the stakeholder through the utilisation of ten knowledge areas as stated by Patanakul et al. (2010) with their respective tools and techniques (the ten knowledge areas is discussed in the next section).

The processes are grouped into five different process groups; “the initiating process group, planning process group, executing process group, monitoring and controlling process group, and closing process group” (PMI, 2013). These PM process groups were applied to explain some of the key elements inherent in traditional project methodologies; these elements are (Saladis &Kerzner, 2009) characterised by organisation and these includes, task allocation, task breakdown, predetermined stakeholder-requirements, compliance with milestones as well as command and control leadership style (Tomaszewski et al., 2008; Atkinson, Crawford and War, 2006). For traditional methods, the determining factor for project success is chiefly driven by the triple constraint or iron triangle (scope, cost and time), yet, current development indicates that these criteria are not adequate to determine project success (Papke-Shields et al., 2009). Other dimensions for instance, preparing for future and business outcome should as well be considered when (Sauser, Reilly and Shenhar, 2009) evaluating the success of any project (Saladis and Kerzner, 2009). In tradition methods, the entire project should be implemented in an orderly sequence manner (Weinstein, 2009). Though this action was seen as a remedy to the project failure, however scholars criticised that it has become a major failure in (Cadle and Yeates, 2008) the current dynamic project management environment (Leybourne, 2009). Also, the strengths of traditional PMM stem from describing its entire steps as well as the requirement before the start of project implementation. This process can lead to drawbacks because projects seldom follow successive flow, as stakeholders normally find it challenging to fully, initially, and correctly define the project requirement (Salameh, 2014). Traditional PMM is driven by controlled planning and methods that are inspired by the believed that both the project activities (Chin, 2004) and requirements can be predicted and also events as well as risk influencing the project are controllable and predictable. These methods are also built on linear practices and processes in which both the project manager and project team tries to describe and complete the project (Salameh, 2014) at once, through making a thorough planning in advance; more so, once a project stage is complete, it is moved to the next stage without any plan to revisit it again. This type of approach is suitable in construction projects, where the project team determine, plan and define project requirements for the entire construction work and deliverables (Chin, 2004). However, in this modern era where most projects are being management with software, this approach becomes unproductive, because its requirements are unpredictable and are subject to change (Salameh, 2014; Owen et al., 2006; Chin, 2004). This study highlights the most commonly used traditional methodologies and body of knowledge below.

Turbit (2005) and Wideman (2006) categorised traditional PMM into two distinct groups: “Project management methodologies as well as application development methodologies”. Chin and Spowage (2012) further subdivided the methodologies into five various categorises

39 in line with Chin and Spowage (2010) the level of particularity: “Standard and guidance, Individualized methodology, Best practices, Organization specific customized methodology and Sector specific methodology”, in agreement with this grouping they consist of PRINCE2, PMBOK and APMBOK all fall under the category of "Best practices, standards and guidelines". Best practices are not restricted to a particular industry or sector they can be used for any form of project. These “best practices” have been developed by international bodies such as Association of Project Management (APM) or Project Management Institute (PMI), in order “to codify the area of knowledge required for competent project management” (Meredith and Mantel, 2012). According to literature PMI has spread to about 180 different nations in the world with “500,000 PMI certification holders”. Likewise, PRINCE2 is a universal recognised methodology, particularly common in the United Kingdom (UK) and in some other European nations as well as Australia. APMBOK is developed also in the UK by AMP and it is well known body of knowledge (Karaman and Kurt, 2015). In this study the researcher considered the two widely used best practices: PRINCE2 and PMBOK which also fall under the traditional methods.

2.8.1 PRINCE2 Methodology

PRINCE2 is one of the PM methodologies used in managing projects, both in public and private sector. It is a methodology that is structured for effective and efficient PM for all kinds of projects, though the influence of information systems is very strong in this methodology. The name PRINCE2 stands for PRoject IN Controlled Environments, version 2. It presents the required standard employed by the UK government when it commissions projects (Newton, 2015; Wideman, 2002). The concept was initially developed in 1989 by the Central Computer and Telecommunication Agency (CCTA). PRINCE2 was derived from PROMTII, a PM methodology developed by Simpact System Limited (SSL) in 1975; a few years later the Office of Government (known as CCTA) further worked on the concept endlessly, and in 1996 PRINCE2 was developed and it turned out to be an international phenomenon in project management (Singh and Lano, 2014). PRINCE2 is a “process-based approach for project management, providing an easily tailored and scalable methodology for the management of all types of projects.” Like the PMBoK, PRINCE2 provides best practice and guidance use for managing projects of all kinds (Karaman and Kurt, 2015).

However, PRINCE2 lacks the ability to relate both with stakeholders and contractors on the project (Rutford, 2015). Various literatures show that PRINCE2 demonstrates incapability to downscale for projects of smaller and medium size, also this methodology is not flexible to change, therefore, discourages change process to take place (Karaman and Kurt, 2015; Olateju et al., 2011; Ahaotu and Pathirage, 2013; Newton, 2015).

PRINCE2 process

The PRINCE2 methodology involves several processes, and each phase of the activities is defined with major inputs as well as outputs and also with the precise attainable objectives. Figure 2.4 shows the PRINCE2 framework

Corporate or Program Management

Figure 2.4: PRINCE2 Process

(Source: Siegelaub, 2004)

Directing a Project

This project stage runs from the beginning of the project until the project closure. At this stage the Project Board and Project Manager are required to direct the project all through its life cycle, and effective communication between each phase and the stakeholders is vital and must be continuous (O’Doherty, 2017).

Starting up a Project (SU)

SU encompasses a sequence of sub-processes developed to ensure that the project has a clear business case. This phase is considered to be the initial process in PRINCE2. Being the pre-project stage, it is designed to certify that the fundamentals for commencing the project activities are right in place (O’Doherty, 2017). Hence the existence of project mandate, in this

41 process is to explain clearly the reason for project execution as well as its benefit. Starting up project is designed to be simple and very short. Moreover, it is a process that forms the basis for the rest of the process in the project life cycle (Singh and Lano, 2014).

Initiating a Project

The concept of initiating phase describes whether the initiating project has a robust justification that will encourage the stakeholder to continue with the project. The objective is to ensure that both the financial input and other resources such as human element and material element needed by the project are realised together with a complete risk assessment of the project (Singh and Lano, 2014; Olateju et al., 2011).

Controlling a Stage

This phase includes management of the daily activities or day to day activities of the project manager. The project manager's duty at this stage is to ensure a continuous monitoring of the project phase through a designed schedule, checklist and ensure a successful product management as well as delivery process (O’Doherty, 2017). There is always a consistent cycle or an iterative procedure in controlling phase, and these involve the following:

• Approving work to be carried out • Collecting information concerning the progress of the work done • Continuous observation for changes • Reviewing the work conditions • Making regular reports • Ensuring any necessary curative actions are taken.

Managing Stage Boundaries

This phase defines, in brief, the organisation of activities from start to finish stages, ensuring that activities are carried out effectively. Also, it certifies that activities are agreed with the requirements of boundaries acknowledged in the Activity Package.

Closing a Project

Project closure is the process of ensuring a satisfactory closure whereby the product is evaluated, client expectations or requirements are revisited, required actions are acknowledged, as well as summarising the lessons learned. Secondly, the objectives or goals

42 set out in the Project Initiation Document (PID) are checked to ensure they meet requirements. The fulfilment of the PID and stakeholder satisfaction is checked relating to the outputs or deliverables (Singh and Lano, 2014; Olateju et al., 2011),

2.8.2 The PMBOK Guide According to PMI (2013), the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK guide) is a collection of reputable PM practices, terminology and processes for managing projects. This guide focus on a general process based (Vaskimo 2015) and approach-based on grouping projects into product-oriented process and PM processes in order for the PMBOK to be applied in any form of project irrespective of size, nature and context of the project. This PMBOK guide is associated with the PMI certification, which acknowledges individual’s knowledge and experience (PMI, 2013) beginning from “Certify Associate in Project Management (CAPM) and graduate to Project Management Professional (PMP) and progress to Program management Professional (PfMP). The PMI according to (Vaskimo 2015) also runs “a system of specific individual certifications including PMI Agile Certified Practitioner (PMI-ACP), PMI Risk Management Professional (PMIRMP), PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP) and Organizational Project Management Maturity Model (OPM3) Professional Certification” (Vaskimo 2015). The PMBOK guide is accepted by the Americans as a national standard for their industries and in other nations of the world. The Guide acknowledges the role of tools and techniques by asserting that the knowledge of PMTT in managing projects is unique to project management. In contrast, to have an understanding of PM tools and using tools and techniques, i.e., skills as well as knowledge, known as “best practice”, is insufficient for efficient PM, as some projects still encounter project failure (Olateju et al., 2011). Also, the key debate against the PMBoK by many scholars is that a single approach cannot be suitable or applicable for all projects as each project has its own peculiarities (Siang and Yih, 2012; Milosevic and Patanakul, 2005).

PMBoK Process

According to the PMBoK, PM comprises several elements: this is a set of processes of four to five control systems. Irrespective of the methods or vocabulary employed, it is still traditional PM processes that will be applied.

Initiation

At the initiation or beginning phase, both the project scope and project nature are determined, and inadequate implementation of the initiation phase will automatically influence the project success as this may not meet the business requirement (PMI, PMBoK, 2013). The major

43 project management requirement at this stage is the understanding of the environment in which the business operates and to ensure that all the important controls are factored into the project (PMI, 2013; Haughey, 2013). Insufficiencies in the process should be made known and reported and should be responded to immediately before the planning of the project. The process of initiation involves two sub-processes together with additional elements such as PM tools and techniques.

This Initiation phase comprises the following elements:

• Examination of the business needs or business requirements in assessing the business objectives; • Reviewing the existing operations; • Analysing the finance, which including the following; costs, benefits as well as budget; • Stakeholder analysis such as, users and project support team; • The Project Charter, such as project outcome, deliverable, costs, responsibilities and schedule (PMI PMBoK, 2013).

Planning and Design

Planning and design commence immediately after the initiating stage; the planning phase ensures a proper level of project detail. The key objective of the planning phase is to adequately plan for time, cost and also for resources; this helps to estimate the activities required and also assists in managing the risk throughout the implementation process of the project (PMBoK, 2013). However, there are a number of drawbacks associated with this phase. For example, some of the project planning is rigid in nature, and many problems arise due to the inadequacy of planning procedures and secondly, the individuals doing the project planning (PMI, PMBoK, 2013; Amponsah, 2010). The planning drawbacks include:

• There is no fixed adherence towards project processes, policies, as well as programmes in all circumstances as this suggests prior determination in planning. • There is no motivation of the project managers as the project plan does not give room for individual choice or initiative; • The entire process is considered as bureaucracy as time is spent on procedure, including information gathering (Amponsah, 2010).

Nevertheless, like the Initiation phase, failure to plan effectively can lead to unsuccessful project accomplishment. Therefore, the planning phase comprises the following:

• Strategically determine the method for planning; • Creating scope of the statement; • Choosing the right planning team; • Establishing work breakdown structure (WBS) and indicating the deliverables; • Estimation of the resource that is required for each activity; • Estimation of time for each activity as well as cost for individual activity; • Development of the schedule; • Development of the budget; • Generating the risk plan; • Gaining official approval to commence work (PMI, PMBoK, 2008, 2013).

Additional procedures, including the planning process for communications and scope management, identification of responsibilities and holding the initial kick-off meeting for the project are also included in the planning process (PMI, PMBoK, 2013). This may assist in informing the planning team to properly identify the deliverables as well as the planning activities (Amponsah, 2010).

Executing

This project phase sets out the approach for carrying out project activities as described in the PM plan to realise the requirements of the project (PMBoK, 2013). The implementation or Execution phase also involves coordinating resources, the PM team, and integration of project performance activities in line with the PM plan. The project deliverables are generated as the outcome of the project as defined in the PM plan (PMI, PMBoK, 2013). However, factors such as changes in organisational policy, delays in the execution process, inadequate scheduling and poor project monitoring may prevent a positive implementation of the project (Amponsah, 2010, Olateju et al., 2011). However, in the absence of such internal and external influence, political problems still remain the significant challenges encountered in project execution plan. Hickson and Owen (2015) assert that “When political/government commitment is absent, weak or variable, project implementation suffers. Political pressure affects the location of projects”.

Monitoring and Controlling

Monitoring involves an effective observation of the project execution process to identify potential problems on time and to ensure that counteractive action is taken to manage it before it becomes a major issue in the implementation process. The major advantage is that the entire project performance passes through a constant observation and it is frequently measured to classify variances from the PM plan (PMI, PMBoK, 2013; Amponsah, 2010).

Monitoring process includes:

• Evaluating the on-going project management activities; • Monitoring the PM variables such as cost, time and scopes against the PM plan and the baseline of the project performance. • Classifying corrective actions in order to respond to the problem issues and risks properly.

The Monitoring process helps to offers feedback during the project phases, especially in projects that are multifaceted in nature. This process ensures projects are in compliance with the PM plan through adequate implementation of protective measures (Hickson and Owen, 2015).

Closing

The Closing phase involves the formal signing off or handing over of the project to the client. The administrator archives the records and lessons learned documentation (PMI, PMBoK, 2013). This phase involves:

• Project termination: this consists of finalising all activities within the process groups and formally terminates the project; and • Contract closure: here each contract is completed and settled according to the project phase (PMI, PMBoK, 2013).

2.9 Modern Methodology As discussed above, the traditional PMM although they are well recognised and widely used worldwide, yet it suffers a lot of criticism as it does not meet the expectation of the stakeholders due to certain limitation (Salameh, 2014) associated with these methods. Literature also ascertains that these methodologies may not be capable of handling software and IT project

46 due to its strict and rigid approach. In order to address this gap in traditional PMM and develop clients’ confidence in project (Chin, 2004) management, the IT and software world was driven to develop an alternative PM-method that aligns with concepts as well as principles to address this shortcoming. This drive has given birth to agile framework and because of its success in IT and software; agile project management has been accepted in other industries (Owen et al., 2006). As a result, this study will be focusing on Agile Project Management (APM).

2.9.1 Agile Project Management Agility is described as the ability to be proactive in an arbitrary, dynamic and constantly (Orr, 2005) changing environment and the agility of an organisation means the ability of the organisation to adapt to changing environments or conditions without (Ali et al., 2004) being compelled to change. Agile project management is a blend of traditional PM concepts; it is flexible, collaborative, and lightweight and adapts to constant change, yet disciplined. (Salameh, 2014; Rico, 2008). Agile concept as well as methods has been affected by agile software methods. These agile methods include, Scrum, Lean and Extreme Programming which are all motivated by a set (Larman, 2004) of principles such as “principle-base instead of rule-based. These principle guides the relationship, roles and activities of the concept of software development-process among the project managers, team and clients. These principles are included in Agile Manifesto (Fowler and Highsmith, 2001).

Agile (Scrum Process)

Agile follows a particular procedure for carrying out projects; Agile is known to involve a small group of people with different responsibilities or tasks to ensure that projects are executed successfully. In contrast to the waterfall approach, which is a step-by-step procedure in the development phase, the Agile iterative approach is known as a recurring approach. This approach ensures the improvement of individual phases in the process. One of the key agile approaches is the Scrum Master (Mattias, 2012).

Scrum Process

Scrum framework is known as an agile approach or process that gives room for delivering a high-quality product within a short period of time. It allows for repeatedly inspecting the actual product (Salameh, 2014)

In this procedure, the Scrum or project team undertake activities in Sprint Backlog in order to generate Sprint deliverables. The process allows the Scrum board to track activities or tasks being carried out. Any issues being encountered by the team could be fixed or updated in the Scrum back log (Mattias, 2012).

The Scrum framework involves “Daily Stand-up” meetings: this helps the team to critically evaluate and update one another on the progress of their work as well as any challenges faced during the Scrum process (Matharu et al., 2015).

The Scrum framework is known by its Priorities Backlog: here the prioritised backlog of the product is updated continuously and maintained through review meetings; the project team set priority product backlog meetings to determine the best approach or method of delivering the best product features and also make the necessary updates and changes in the product (Seikola, 2010).

The project team ensure a check of the actual or original working software every two weeks to one month and make a decision whether to release the project or continue to improve for additional iterations (Matharu et al., 2015). Figure 2.5 shows the agile framework.

Figure 2.5: Agile framework

(Source: Mattias, 2012)

An Agile approach focuses on stakeholders participating in the project from start to finish. A study conducted by Salameh, (2014) on the Agile framework supports the view of Mattias (2012), of collaborating with the customers or keeping them involved in each phase of the project, hence satisfying the stakeholder at the end, with the product outcome. This approach saves the customer both time and money as the customer gets to test and give approval to the product at every stage of development (Salameh, 2014). Similarly, this practice allows individuals to detect any mistakes or challenges during the process and these can be fixed during the production cycle (Mattias, 2012).

Segue (2015) argues that the traditional PMM is deficient in identifying defects in the product because they lack the ability for early identification of defects. Ordinarily (in the traditional approach of product production), defects that cannot be discovered at the various steps of the development process can find their way into the end product. This can bring about an increase in overhead cost and customer dissatisfaction. Organisations have proven Agile PM has a high increase in customer satisfaction (Segue, 2015).

Sohi et al. (2016) based their argument on time involved in repeating a process or testing a product at each phase, stating that since one of the project management criteria is to deliver projects on time, it will be difficult to achieve this especially on huge projects, such as a construction project. Others pointed out that though this approach focused on stakeholder satisfaction, the idea of stakeholders approving each phase of the project does not give the project manager full authority over the project, hence they are not able to give their best to the project (Streule et al., 2016; Dave et al., 2016;).

2.9.2 Reason for using Agile Project Management

The continuous change in business requirements, needs, and drives in the current business environment have presented challenges to project as well as to their management of cost, time and scope (Weinstein, 2009). Also, the existing business processes are interrelated and more complex than before, moreover projects address more difficult organisational structures involving complex communities comprising of alliances (Shenhar, 2004) with strategic outsourcing vendors, various customers, suppliers and competitors. These challenges motivate the need to adopt a more adaptable and flexible method to manage and deliver projects, faster services and products (Macheridis, 2009) to satisfy customers and meet the market demand. The shortcoming of Traditional Project Management Methodology approaches to attend to such needs in all conditions led to the development and increasing adoption of Agile Project Management (Augustine &Woodcock, 2008). PMI (2012) claims that, at the closing of 2012, agile management methods should have been adopted in about 80% of all software-development projects, and studies have confirmed that the application of agile project management has increased three-times from 2008 to 2011 (Salameh, 2014). Agile project management leads to the improvement of managerial as well as personal skills, predictability, quality, responsiveness and speed (Macheridis, 2009 and Owen et al. 2006). These improvement as stated in the literature may lead (Salameh, 2014) organisation involving in the use of agile to numerous gains via cost reduction, increased client, delivering of project on time, stakeholder satisfaction as well as retention.

2.9.3 Traditional Project Management Methodology and Agile Project Management

The PMBOK acknowledge forty-seven processes that fall under five key process groups as well as ten knowledge areas (PMI 2013). The knowledge area is described as a set of activities, terms and concepts that form a project management field, professional field or area of specialization (Patanakul et al., 2010). In addition, the process groups consist of “initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing” (Olateju et al., 2011, p. 1-4). Also, the ten knowledge areas comprise of “integration management, scope management, time management, cost management, quality management, human resource management, communication management, risk management, project procurement management, and project stakeholders’ management” (PMI, 2013, p. 61; Patanakul et al., 2010, p. 44).

This section compares traditional PMM and Agile Project Management by examining the approach that individual project-management-method follows in addressing the PMBOK process groups as well as ten knowledge areas highlighted above.

2.9.4 Comparison of traditional PMM and Agile project management with Regard to Project-management Five process Groups and Ten Knowledge Areas

PMBOK (PMI, 2013) suggested that to ensure effective project management in traditional PMM, the five process groups must be followed sequentially, beginning with initiation process to closing processes. Although these processes are meant to be carried out sequentially such that (PMI, 2012) the output of single process-group become the input of the subsequent process group however, it is likely to experience a kind of informal overlap. For example, though it is expected of the (Salameh, 2014) planning stage to define project plans completely before the beginning of the implementation stage, some informal iteration as well as back and forth between the stages may be required. The character of project management and risk normally requires the monitoring as well as the controlling of process groups to relate with another process group or other process group in project life cycle. Table 2.3 shows the mapping of various project management processes in the different 5 process groups and ten knowledge areas for traditional PMM (PMI, 2013).

Table 2.3: Traditional PMM Process Group and Knowledge-Area

Knowledge areas Initiation Planning Execution Monitoring Closing Project integration Developing project Developing project Directing and Monitoring and Closing the project charter. plan managing project controlling project work Develop initial project scope Project scope Planning scope Validating the scope management management Controlling scope Collecting requirements

Defining scope

Creating WBS Project time Planning schedule Controlling schedule management management

Defining activities

Sequence activities

Estimating activities

Developing schedule Project cost Planning cost Control cost management management

Estimating cost

Determining budget

Project quality Plan quality Performing quality Controlling quality management management assurance Project management Planning human Acquire project team Managing project Human resource resource team management management Develop project team

Manage project team Project Planning Managing Communication communication communication Management management Project Risk Risk management Risk monitoring and Management planning controlling

Risk identification

Quantitative risk Analysis

Risk response plan Project Procurement Plan procurement Conducting Conducting Closing procurement Management procurement procurement management Project Stakeholders Identifying Planning Managing Controlling Management stakeholders stakeholder’s stakeholder’s stakeholder’s management engagement engagement

(Source: Salameh, 2014)

In contrast with traditional PMM, Agile project management process do not go through the linear progression or pattern instead, several process groups that applied planning, execution, monitoring, as well as controlling and closure repeat the process many times during project life cycle (Salameh, 2014). Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show the difference between traditional PMM and agile projects in knowledge areas.

Table 2.4: Agile project management process group as well as knowledge areas

Knowledge Initiation Planning Execution Monitoring Closing area Project Developing project Iteration 1: prepare the project Closing project Integration Charter environment and supporting tools Management such as: servers, time tracking, Conduct project pilot automated test, version control, workstations, automated build, load testing, status tracking, and Work hours-tracking- systems Project Scope Iteration 1: Iteration: planning / backlog Management prioritization, Define product backlog Defining initial vision of the solution architecture.

Defining the Infrastructure

Diagram,

Security model,

Application of flow diagram,

Logical components diagram,

Availability requirements,

Users interface flow,

Defining high level-Scope

Project Time Iteration 1: Management Estimating team velocity

Defining delivery plan Project Cost Iteration 1: Management Estimate cost

Determine budget Project Quality Iteration 1: Management Planing quality management Project Human Iteration 1: Resource Management Finalising and dedicating the project team.

The Project Manager As well as the Product Owner work together to define human resources need of the project. Project Iteration 1: Communication Management Planning the communication management

Defining the length of every iteration Project Risk Iteration 1: Management High level risk evaluation and Planning. Can be carry out as the pilot stage

Project Iteration 1: Conduct Control Closing procurement Procurement procurement Procurement Management Planning procurement management Project Identifying Iteration 1: Managing Stakeholders Stakeholders or Stakeholders as Management Product Owner and Plan stakeholder’s management part of the Scrum Master iteration’s management Source: (Salameh, 2014)

2.9.5 Project life cycle Every project goes through a series of life cycle known as ‘project phases’ until it reaches its final product; “a life cycle defines the inter-related phases of a project, programme or portfolio and provides a structure for governing the progression of the work” (APM, 2012) PMI acknowledges four phases of project life cycle, which include “Starting the project, organising and preparing, carrying out the work and closing the project.” (2017, p. 547-548). These four phases can be broken down into functional objectives or a precise milestone within the entire scope of work; they also form project lifespan irrespective of size, location and nature (PMI, 2013). Figure 2.6 illustrates these different phases of project life cycle.

The phases in the project life cycle in Figure 2.6 relate to both project cost and staffing in most cases. Usually, at the beginning of the project the cost and staffing levels are low and rise up at some point as shown in the diagram. The two variables decline as the project comes to a closure. This indicates that at the starting point of the project (initiation) to organising and preparing (planning) stages, the risk involves is low and increases at the point of carrying out (implementation) stage.

Figure 2.6: Project life-cycle (Source: PMI, 2013, p.39)

Notwithstanding, other authors have criticised that the phases of project is not only limited to four phases, there are other phases that exist within the project life cycle which PMBOK has not highlighted (Labuschagne, 2005). The diversity and complex nature of projects makes organisations within the same industry and other industries fail to agree on the phases of the life cycles of a project (Kerzner, 2001). Several life cycles of the project approaches exist in

57 literature, for instance; “the control-oriented model, the quality-oriented, the risk-oriented, a fractal approach to the project life cycle and company-specific project life cycle” (Bonnal et al., 2002). Therefore, no agreement on the specific number of project phases or stages, which constitute the life cycle of the project phases, nor on the specific name used to define each of these phases (Labuschagne, 2005). Table 2.5 gives a summary of the life cycle of the project proposed by several researchers.

Table 2.5: Phases in the Project Life Cycle

Researcher Number Phases of Phases Stage-Gate ® (Cooper 7 Discovery Stage, Scoping, Build Business Case, and Edgett) (2018). Development, Testing and Validation, Launch Umhlaba Development 6 Programming, Identification, Appraisal, Financing, Services (2017) Implementation and Evaluation Erik and Gray (2014, 4 Defining, Planning, Executing and Delivering p.206) PMI (2013) 4 Starting up project, Organising and Preparing, Carrying out the work and Closing the project APMBOK (2012, 6th Ed) 5 Concept, Definition, Development, Operation and Termination Maylor (2010, p.32) 4 Define it, Design it, Do it and Develop it James (2005, p.36) 5 Concept, Defining. Planning, Executing, Closeout Kerzner (2004, p.110) 5 Vision, Initiation, Planning, Execution and Closure, Quality-Oriented (Bonnal 3 Conceptualisation, Materialisation, Turnover et al., 2002). Bonnal, Gourc and 6 Initiation/Concept/Identification; Feasibility Phase; Lacoste (Bonnal et al., Basic Design; Detailed Design; Construction; 2002). Turnover/Start-up Buttrick (2000) 7 Idea generation, Pre-feasibility, Feasibility, Development and execution, Commissioning, Launch, Post Implementation Review (PIR)

Similarly, Nigerian construction companies have no particular number of phases of project that they follow since the private construction organisations are faced with challenges maintaining an effective project life cycle (Olateju et al., 2011). However, the analysis consisting the

58 various phases of PM framework in Figure 2.6 above shows the life cycle of a project with a better practical approach that can improve the outcome of the construction industry.

In accordance to the objectives of this study, investigating the NPCI perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice, the researcher has conducted a systematic review of project management tools and techniques used in carrying out project management activities and also grouped these numerous tools and techniques in different knowledge areas for better understanding. Furthermore, the study has divided these tools and techniques into traditional and technological tools, with focus on technological tools and techniques.

2.10 Tools and Techniques PM has been in existence for ages and has gradually gained acceptance in recent time as management practices that aids organisation realised its business objectives. PM assist organisations to effectively use their limited resources, reduce the time of product development, manage complex technology, and meet stakeholder satisfaction as well as increasing international market completion (Patanakul et al., 2010). Yet with its importance in business practice, study in PM is still young and lacks theoretical concepts as well as bases (Shenhar, 2001). To manage a project successfully, a project lead or manager needs to have adequate knowledge of the project management process such as initiating, planning, implementing, controlling, monitoring as well as closing (PMI, 2008) and to execute these processes successfully, the project managers usually employ various tools and techniques to aid in orchestrating the various project tasks along the life cycle of the project (Patanakul et al., 2010). This appears to be an adequate practice as many researchers have argued that the appropriate application of PMTT can influence project success (Olateju, 2017; Olateju et al., 2011; Milosevic, Inman et al., 2001). However, improper use of PMTT can also affect the project outcome (Olateju et al., 2011; Kerzner, 2000), in addition, project management and project management tools and techniques are considered as the most vital practice in carrying best practice in construction organisations. As a result, modern organisations based their business process on project management and PMTT for a successful project deliverable, though others claim that PMTT are not the only medium for determining project success (Nakayama and Chen, 2016).

According to Brlečić et al., (2016) effective PMTT practice is a significance of modern business practices which has considerably transformed today’s organisation). The adoption of PMTT in project has aid the monitoring as well as comparing project activities both in departments and among organisations as well (Hazır, 2015). Furthermore, it is acknowledged that in project- oriented organisations projects appears to be the key part of organisational value creation. Here individual project contributes a specific value to the organisation in terms of offering

59 resources via the project scope, technical performances, quality, functionality and features (Browning, 2014) these are achieved by the use of proper PMTT.

This study also reviewed the work of other scholars in this field to obtain a comprehensive study concerning this subject (project management tools and techniques) for instance; Schwalbe (2016) conducted a study on tools and techniques and assert that “man is a tool- using animal. Without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all”. Adding that the business environment constantly become more competitive and complex in nature and it is equally essential for individuals to develop and use tools, particularly for managing vital and complex project. While, Kashala (2015) suggested that tools and techniques are the method and systems or equipment used to implement task. The scholar further stress that “tool is only as good as its relevance to the task at hand as well as the expertise of the user of the tool”. Secondly, tools and techniques are instruments whereby tasks are executed; also, this can be registered in their massiveness or vastness (Kashala, 2015). Milosevic (2003) and Fox, Murray et al. (2003) view tools and techniques as a software use in project management, while other school of thought perceive it as a systematic process or practice that are used by project managers to produce precise project management outcome (Patanakul et al., 2010). Drawing from these reviews, it understood that tools and techniques are used basically for the implementation of project activities irrespective of project type and size (Chin et al., 2012).

In spite of the increasing number as well as variety of PMTT in modern years, projects in most organisations continue to experience challenges (Nakayama and Chen, 2016). As stated in 2016 “Pulse of the Profession” (PMI, 2016), 47% of project go beyond the budget, 51% was delayed and do not meet the deadline. While 55% of the projects faced with scope creep. PMTT are employed to control PM plans, resources, staff assignment, budgets, roles and responsibilities, quality management, commutations and deliverables Zwikael, et al. (2006). They have been used commonly not only to reduce project risk but also to respond to unique challenges of individual project (Nakayama and Chen, 2016). According to PricewaterhouseCooper survey carried out in 2012, suggested that 77% of participants adopt project management methodologies as well as software. According to Pereira et al. (2013), software tools that conform to both Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) and Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) can manage PM processes effectively and obtain project success. The scholar also maintained that many PMTT are not aligning with state of the art of project management practice. Although Thamhain (2013) has emphasised the need of using the appropriate tools as well as PM methods, adding that it is not certain how much the use of these tools and techniques can contribute to a successful project delivery (Thamhain, 2013).

On the other hand, Cheng (2005) looked at some of the limitations associated with some of these PMTT, arguing that “Bar chart” lacks logical representation and do not show the relationship that exist between the entities, adding that though most software tools have depicted logical (Cheng, 2005) relationship on these tools, the outcome have always been negative. Secondly, Gantt chart on the other hand only demonstrates one possible event, which is, a single situation. When undertaking any type of project, there are a lot of changes that occurs. For instance, within a private construction project, the project manager may experience an absence of detailed information concerning the final foundation type as well as design since Gantt chart may not represent the entire information required in the project due to limitation in the bar (Ballesteros-Pérez, 2018).

Gantt chart can become difficult and challenging, except for those projects that are very simple without much activities and complexity. When loading its bar with a large number of activities it becomes very complex, however, this complexity can be managed by some software tools such as Mavenlink, Wrike, Smartshet and AceProject (Mubarak, 2003). Pajares and López- Paredes (2011) evaluated Earned Value Management (EVM) used for controlling and monitoring projects, and claim that the major limitation of EVM is that it does not consider project uncertainty as well as variability, as it uses deterministic. Also, when it is integrated “schedule control index and cost control index” to manage project uncertainty, result shows that it become too complex for most practitioners in construction industry (P ajares and López- Paredes, 2011). Hall (2012) asserts that, for project controlling and schedule monitoring, decisions making most of the time are very difficult because of project complexity. For example, “crashing decisions become much more complex especially when task times are uncertain,” (Pajares and López-Paredes, 2011; Hall, 2012).

Other limitation of these tools is that it is costly especially the software tools. For most organisations the price tag is the key reason why these companies are not embarking on these software tools, besides the cost implication, the maintenance cost and implementation particularly when the project manager and project are not familiar with the current technology is another (Andra, 2018) limitation associated with these tools.

In reality, there are several PMTT available in the market and to project managers. The big questions are one: ‘what are the suitable project management tools and techniques to use in project that will enhance better project performance also when such tools should be employed by the project manager or project team?’ (Patanakul et al., 2010), while research on PM tools and techniques argued on the use of certain PMTT, suggestions were focused on the project managers’ experience rather than on concrete empirical study. Furthermore, study emphasises on the application of some PMTT; it does not empirically demonstrate the PMTT

61 impact on project success (Patanakul et al., 2010). Therefore, to address this concern, this research carries out empirical study to investigate the NPCI perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice and also to determine from the NPCI perspective the factors that will influence their PMTT adoption. The research question is: how are the NPCI presently engaging in the adoption of PMTT and secondly, what are the key factors that will influence their adoption of PMTT as understood from NPCI perspective? The response to this question aids to offer empirical evidence to underpin a contingency method on the adoption of PM tools and techniques. Based on this, it is essential to carry out a systematic review of PMTT to examine the available PM tools and techniques available to project managers. Due to large number of project management tools and techniques in the market, this research has grouped the tools and techniques into two categories: (A) the traditional tools (see Table 2.6 and Table 2.8) and (B) the technological tools and techniques (section 2.10).

Table 2.6: Review of the traditional tools

Tools and Project phases Description Authors techniques Business case • Project initiation Business case revealed the financial Mentor (2013); benefit of the project, opportunities, Kerzner (2013) and weakness of approving the project. Benefit realisation • Execution The Benefits Review Plan is a base Serra and Kunc plan phase lined product and it is created to (2015) define how and when measurement of achievement of the project’s Benefits are expected by the Senior User. Microsoft project • Planning A project management (PM) tool Wale et al. developed to assist managers in (2015) planning, assigning resources to tasks, tracking progress and managing the budget Gantt chart • Planning Gantt charts are PM tools used during Wren (2015) the entire design process. They are used to plan, monitor, and execute project. They are used to present tasks, deliverables, personnel, and other resources in graphically. Programme • Planning A PERT chart is a PM tool used for Kerzner (2013) Evaluation and scheduling, organising, and Review Technique coordinating tasks within a project. (PERT) Work breakdown • Planning phase WBS deals with breaking down of the Wren (2015); structure (WBS) • Termination projects into manageable components Kerzner (2013); phase in a hierarchical structure, it defines Patanakul et al. the overall scope of the project. (2010)

Critical path • Planning phase CPM is a project network analysis Santiago and method (CPM) method used to determine the Magallon (2009) sequence of different activities in the project Graphical • Execution GERT is a network analysis technique Nelson et al. Evaluation and used in project management to allows (2016) Review Technique probabilistic treatment of both network (GERT) logic and activity duration estimates Cost Benefit • Termination CBA is one of the most widely Analysis (CBA) accepted and applied models for project appraisal and for large scale infrastructure Checklists analysis • Execution “Checklist analysis is one of the tools Manick (2012) • Conceptual and techniques of the Identify Risks phase process. Checklist Analysis can provide ideas for risks on a current project. Checklists can be developed based on historical information, knowledge from previous similar projects and from other sources of information”. Manick (2012) Risk log • Execution Risk log tool is used in identifying risk, Maylor (2010) when it occurs, actions taken in order to mitigate the risk and the outcome of the step taken. Brainstorming • Conceptualizati It creates an environment for Maloney (2012) on stakeholders to share essential ideas • Execution that will promote project success. Scope statement • Planning Scope statement includes procedures Schwalbe that involves in controlling, defining (2016) what task is included or not in the project. It makes sure that both the stakeholder and the project team have equal understanding of the type of product the project will deliver. Pareto Chart • Controlling and Pareto chart comprises of a well- Powell and Monitoring arranged bar in an organised order of Sammut‐Bonnici height starting from one end to (2015) another. It refers to the 80/20 principle or rule. It helps to predict any form of imbalance in the entire project. Contingency plan • Execution This tool is considered to be useful for Patanakul et al. phase project manager and it enhance (2010) • Planning phase project success across various contextual factors. Therefore, it is vital for project team to develop contingency plan for their project irrespective of the type or size. Risk register • Controlling Risk register is found to be the result Dunović et al. • Monitoring of the risk assessment risk (2013) • Planning assessment also as a project management tool used for controlling and storage of risk management procedure.

Earned Value • Planning The EVM is a vital tool that supports Anbari (2003); Management, the management of time, cost, and Turkan et al. EVM project scope, also give room for the (2013); Kim and calculation of the following variables; Ballard (2010) cost, schedule variances and performance indices as well as forecast of project cost and schedule at the project completion. Flowchart • Planning Flowchart tool is beneficial PM tool Schwalbe used in displaying the logic as well as (2016) the flow of project processes that aids in analysing how problems happen and how to improved project processes. Milestone analysis • Planning These are tools employed in PM to Verzuh (2008) mark precise points along a project timeline Cost baseline • Planning phase Cost baseline is developed at the Patanakul et al. • Execution planning stage and it helps in (2010) phase monitoring the cost performance of • Termination the project at the end of the phase. phase Cost Breakdown • Planning CBS is applied when larger database Lahikainen et al. Structure (CBS) is to be analyses with the aim of (2005) capturing the average cost structures of the entire originations. Graphical • Execution GERT is a network analysis technique Nelson et al. Evaluation and used in project management to allows (2016) Review Technique probabilistic treatment of both network (GERT) logic and activity duration estimates

Project charter • Planning This tool aid in stating the goal, Kerzner (2013) mission and objectives of the project contend in the approve business plan. It defines the element that content in business opportunity and also summarizes the impact of the project Risk identification • Execution Risk identification is considered as on- going activities throughout the project lifecycle, particularly as the project enters into a new phase.

Schedule crashing • Execution This involves the downsizing the task Hayek (2012). phase time by specifically increasing the key resources needed in that particular task and as a result increasing the cost. For instance, material, number of people and money are increase. Lessons learned • Termination Lesson learned PM tool help an Patanakul et al. phase organisation to achieve financial (2010) benefit specially when a similar project is executed

Resource • Planning RH is an effective tool used in Kerzner (2013) histograms (RH presenting resource planning and managing project staff. It takes the form of bar chart or histogram. Stakeholder • Initiation phase Stakeholder analysis is a PM tools Pinto 2016) analysis that aid showing certain seemly impossible conflicts that may occurs via the planned creation as well as introduction of new innovation in the project. The analysis from this tool is employed to evaluate the interest of various stakeholders. Issue Log • Planning Issue log is PM documents that Kerzner (2017) consist of all the recorded issues which can be track successfully and are tracked. When this document is developed, it provides a tool used in communicating as well as reporting the event that takes place within the project. Project budgets • Initiation phase Project budget is a tool used in Pinto (2016) identifying the project goals, allocation of resource and the scheduling of activities. It allows an organisation to realise its goals or objectives. Quality assurance • Execution Quality assurance is PM tool used for Schwalbe phase periodical evaluation of the entire (2016) project performance in order to ensure that project meet the relevant quality criteria or standard. Fishbone diagrams • Conceptualizati This tool is used to identify the basis Watson (2004); on causes of problems in projects. The Ilie and Ciocoiu Fishbone tool is also an analytical tool (2010 that offers a systematic way of accessing effects and the causes that make or contribute to those effects Project Scope • Planning Project Scope Management Atkinson et al. techniques are a set of procedures (2006) that allows for the project's scope to be defined and mapped out correctly. Scope Management tools aid project managers to assign the right amount of work needed to complete a particular project successfully. Communication • Execution The PM communication tool is very Kerzner (2017) management plan • Conceptual critical in execution phase. This model phase is vital for tracking, monitoring, controlling and directing the entire life cycle of the project. it is also considered as the supporting knowledge model required for project success. (Source: Schwalbe, 2016; Wren, 2015; Kerzner, 2013; Patanakul et al., 2010)

This study also grouped the above tools and techniques into their respective knowledge area; Table 2.7 shows the various PM knowledge areas and their relevant tools and techniques.

Table 2.7: PM knowledge areas and their relevant tools and techniques

Knowledge Area Project Management Tools and Techniques Integration Project selection, project planning, project review meetings, Management project charter, payback period, change requests, lessons learned. Scope Management WBS, Scope statements, product review, quality function, scope management report, scope change controls, requirements analyse Cost Management Cost estimates, performance measurement, payback analyses, net present value, earned value management, portfolio management, cost baselines Quality Management Quality audits, Pareto diagram, flowcharting, statistical sampling, quality metrics, checklists, fishbone diagrams, maturity models Human resource Resource histograms, motivation techniques, stakeholder Management analysis, team building techniques, recognition systems, organisation charts Communications kick-off meetings, conflict management, project Web sites, Management stakeholder analysis, templates, progress reports, virtual communications Risk Management Risk matrix, check list, Delphi, SWOT analysis, risk rankings, risk registers, probability and impact matrices, Risk-management- plans Procurement Source selections, bidder conferences, source selection, make or Management buy analysis, supplier-evaluation matrices Stakeholder Stakeholder analyses, reporting systems, interpersonal skills, Management stakeholder registers, issue logs Time Management Monte Carlo, Gantt charts, simulation, buffer management, variance analysis, project network diagrams, schedule- performance measurements, critical path analyses (Sources: Schwalbe, 2016; Patanakul et al., 2010)

As mentioned above there are several project managements tools and techniques available in the market place and accessible to project managers. Most of them are used often in carrying out project management practice while some are not usually in use at all-time depending on the nature, type and size of the project. Although literature has pointed out the (Olateju et al., 2011) impact of these tools and techniques to project success, however, the most frequently mentioned ones in academic journals (Olateju et al., 2011; Patanakul et al., 2010; Besner and Hobbs, 2004; White and Fortune, 2002; Raz and Michael, 2001; Thamhain, 1999; Fox and Spence, 1998) are discussed below:

2.10.1 Work Breakdown Structure

Often the absence of accountability, loss of credibility and lost profits can result in an inefficient estimation or planning. A detailed estimate is also measurable; hence, the estimation that is not thorough is not measurable (Rinke, 2017). The achievement of any estimator is not quantified by the capacity of estimates produced, however, by the success of the individual project. To achieve the objective of any project and budget guidelines, there is a need for the project manager to measure, confirm, question, quantify and abide by a plan. Secondly, an estimator must be skilful to comprehend and enumerate a plan that implements and delivers an individual project’s activities that are cost-effective with positive result or outcome (Globerson et al., 2016; Heagney, 2016; Schaufelberger and Holm, 2017; Richard et al., 2016; Rinke, 2017). The WBS is recognised as a tool appropriate for the estimation of project work flow; it offers a standard for practitioners, estimators and project managers to follow (Behnam et al., 2016).

At pre-construction phase, the WBS provides accurate and detailed information as well as a cost analysis to the clients. It also aids in managing and implementing a project effectively and profitably at construction phase (Globerson et al., 2016; Richard et al., 2016).

According to Kerzner (2003, pp.23-45.), “a WBS is a product-oriented family tree subdivision of the hardware, services, and data required to produce the end product”. The WBS is also seen as a deliverable-oriented grouping of the work included in a project that describes the entire scope of the project. Kerzner (2003) further stressed that the ‘family tree’ structure endeavours to grab the entire work of the project in an ordered manner into a task that is estimated as well as tracked.

It is an essential document that makes available the basis for managing and planning, project cost, resources, schedules and changes. The tree root is named by the name of the project, issue or opportunity to be looked into. Besides, the project management plan and project

67 scope statement are the major contributors to developing a WBS, and it serves as a contributor to the main project management activities such as resource planning, risk management planning, activity definition, cost estimation and budgeting (Schaufelberger and Holm, 2017; Richard et al., 2016).

According to the PMI (2013), the scope baseline comprises the project document, for instance, a project statement of work and the WBS lexicon. The WBS lexicon comprises of comprehensive information about tasks, deliverables and planning information of every part of the WBS. The accompanying information is included in the WBS lexicon: constraints and assumptions, resources needed, benchmarks, schedule milestones, code of conduct identifier, work description, associated schedule activities, agreement information, responsible organisation, quality requirement and technical references (Schaufelberger and Holm, 2017; Richard et al., 2016; Sarhan et al., 2017). Figure 2.7 demonstrates a straightforward WBS.

Figure 2.7: Work Breakdown Structure

(Source: Richard et al., 2016)

2.10.2 Gantt Charts

According to Olawale and Sun (2015), project managers, especially those managing complex projects such as construction projects, must understand what activities need to be carried out in order to aid in the development of a project schedule. Behnam et al. (2016) state that a Gantt chart offers an adequate format for presenting information regarding project scheduling by listing all the project activities as well as their corresponding starting points and finish dates, claiming that the construction project is understood to be a multitask project and to appreciate the different stages of work, duration of activities and resource allocated to these activities. A Gantt chart must be used to display each task simultaneously in a calendar format.

However, Kumar and Chakraborty (2016) argued that a Gantt chart does not demonstrate the relationships that exist between each activity and it depends totally on a well-developed WBS that has been completed, and if there is any missing milestone or key activity, the Gantt chart will not identify it. Also, Olawale and Sun (2015) criticised this PMTT for not having the ability to accommodate as much information as it ought to, stressing that once the project durations as well as an activity stretch beyond a page, the Gantt chart at this point starts to lose its performance. Literature has also asserted that a Gantt chart does not perform well with project triple constraint (time, cost and scope), adding that the project cost and project scope are not fully represented on the Gantt chart; and irrespective of how it is detailed, and it does not show the complete complexity of the task because its focus is on time.

In contrast, Zaynab et al. (2015) noted that a Gantt chart is a vital tool in the implementation and management of projects; it also includes definition of activities as well as individual interactions and the assessment of necessary resources and also the expected task durations. Generally, all construction projects seem unique in nature, involve various phases, tasks, complex methods, project stakeholder and involve huge investment, therefore, the need for appropriate scheduling. Ogunde and Fagbenle (2013) claim that a well-scheduled, controlled, planned as well as carefully monitored construction project has influence on the project performance and success. Behnam et al. (2016) described planning tools in a construction project as the general coordination and monitoring of an entire construction project starting from the initiation stage to the completion stage with the view of meeting stakeholder expectations.

However, the study shows that not all project managers seem to employ planning tools in a construction project and the very few that employ planning tools, consider the Gantt chart because of its simplicity. In the UK and other developed and emerging countries, such as USA, Canada, Singapore, China and South Africa, the use of this planning tool is not new to

70 them since it aids with planning and allocating resources to various project activities for efficient execution of projects (Olateju et al., 2011; Ogunde and Fagbenle, 2013; Alotaibi et al., 2016; Olawale and Sun, 2015). Zaynab et al. (2015) looked at a private construction company in Nigeria and pointed out that the project manager in the region seems to lack the ability to plan their project according to specification, resulting in project delays and budget overrun. Figure 2.8 illustrate the Gantt chart.

Figure 2.8: A Gantt Chart

(Source: Stephen, 2017)

2.10.3 Project Stakeholder Management

Project management is a study and a profession that is considered as a young discipline; it has experienced swift and sometimes erratic changes in a bid to seek appropriate answers to a given tasks. However, those answers frequently had a discrete internal and quantifiable focus on improvement of the PMTT to manage cost, quality and time (Aaltonen and Kujala, 2016). A previous study revealed that almost all projects seem to be sensitive to changes in the project environment (Karlsen, 1998); on the contrary, several projects experience tougher demands made by clients, government authorities, end users and public leaders on project implementation. Therefore, it would be a mistake for PM to overlook the stakeholders or make an effort to enforce a firm control on them. On the other hand, it is essential to develop a mutual understanding with the stakeholders which will create trust that may lead to a good working relationship, as well as successful project delivery.

Mayor (2010) defined a stakeholder as any party that has an interest in the project process or outcome, this includes both external and internal individual, groups, or construction companies which are actively involved or are concerned with the outcome of the project (p24).

As one of the important aspects of project management, others have defined stakeholders in various ways, such as Daft (2001) who defines stakeholders as “all elements existing outside the boundary of the organisation that have the potential to affect all or parts of the organisation”. Similarly, PMBoK (2017) defines stakeholders as “individuals and organisations who are actively involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected as a result of project execution or successful project completion” (p21.).

Figure 2.9: Different Stakeholders (Source: Karlsen, 2002)

The above definitions show that stakeholders play a vital role in the implementation of any project and they are the key determinant of success or failure of any project. Therefore, the project manager should determine their needs and expectations, and in addition should have the requisite skills in managing their influence in line with their requirements in order to ensure project success.

Grover and Froese (2016) critically looked at stakeholder engagement within the construction arena and pointed out that stakeholder analysis is a unique in PM tool employed by project

72 managers to assist in identifying and prioritising stakeholders who have the power to influence project success. Aaltonen and Kujala (2016) suggest that it is vital to understand the most powerful stakeholders and a stage of developing communication strategies for creating and sustaining the network necessary for delivering a successful project outcome. Nash et al. (2010) accessed the stakeholder involvement in construction industries with a view to understanding the various categories and levels of authority that control decision making and sometimes have an influence on actions taken. The finding indicated that stakeholders in the construction industry are categorised into two forms: internal and external stakeholders, arguing that the internal stakeholders have a higher interest in the project outcome than the external stakeholders (Mok et al., 2015; Nash et al., 2010).

2.10.4 Critical Path Analysis

The critical path method in a project, as pointed out earlier, is the most extended sequence of activities (that cannot be done in parallel) which decides how soon the project can be finished or delivered (Rolfe et al., 2016). This implies that activities within the critical path should be given more consideration as a slowdown in any of the activities will result in a deferral in the whole project accomplishment. Consequently, it is essential that the project manager identifies the activities that are on the critical path at all times. This is accomplished by deciding the early start time (EST) and the late start time (LST) of every activity. The contrast between the early start time and the late start time is the slack – the period in which either of the tasks in the project can be deferred without affecting the period of the entire project accomplishment (Nafkha and Wiliński, 2016). Figure 2.10 below presents the Network Plan.

Figure 2.10: The Network Plan (Source: Nwachukwu, 2010)

Kumar and Chakraborty (2016) observed that the critical path method helps the project manager to allocate the time periods (in which a task can be finished) to every activity recognised in the project, then attempt to know the most early likely date that a task can commence and the latest likely date that a task can commence by doing backward-pass and forward-pass analyses. Sing et al. (2027) and Kumar and Chakraborty (2016) noted that construction companies in advanced countries appreciate the critical path method because it takes into consideration the limited resource when developing a project planning.

In another development, Hendriks et al. (2017) looked at the critical path method in private construction companies in a developed nation and emphasised that the level of usage is quite high as a result of activities that start and complete within the required time. In contrast, project managers in Nigerian indigenous construction companies seem to be unproductive as a result of their inability to allocate resources that will fit a specific activity as required, thus preventing them from meeting the project standard. Ogunde et al. (2017) stated that not knowing how to adopt this tool also contributed to failure to meet deadlines and work within the required budget. Cicmil et al. (2017) described these tools as an essential tool in construction projects, taking into account the numerous activities involved in construction work, and that each of the tasks must be given close attention in order to achieve a successful project outcome.

2.10.5 Project Risk Management

The risk is the unanticipated situations that are built-in in activities of humans, of which project management is not an exception. This might seem, by all means, to be a more extensive definition incorporating every human effort, with regards to project management; according to Maylor (2010), risk can be explained as the “uncertainties that may negatively affect the project by challenging the project’s constraints or parameters” (Maylor, 2010, p.219). This can bring about the loss of work, time, cash or the project in general.

In contrast, risk can impact on a project positively also:

At the project level, this may be the development of new capabilities by the organization as a result of the project or unexpected uses for the project outcome. At the task level, an early finish may result in the opportunity for another activity to start early, or for the development of a better way of completing that task (Isaac, 2012, p.51).

The exclusive nature of the project has made risk an important part which must be properly managed if the project is to be a success. The project manager’s capacity to recognise, evaluate and manage project risk will profoundly affect the consequence of the project (Olateju et al., 2011). Moreover, project risk can shoot out from inside of the project: that is internal risks which are unpredictability related to the project cost, quality and time, or the external project risks, which are typically issues related to the environment. Besides, risk management could be prorated into four principal parts: risk register, risk responses, risk assessment and risk identification. This assists in the study by quantifying, identifying and looking for a way to manage the indicated risk (Olateju et al., 2011).

2.10.6 Earned Value Management

Earned value management (EVM) is recognised as a key project management tool that applies information that is based on project cost, work performance and schedules to establish the existing position of the project. It allows project managers to induce existing trends in order to make predictions of their possible final effects. This technique is centred on a basic standard of project, however, is demonstrated to be beneficial in terms of cost control (Czernigowska, 2008; Kerzner and Kerzner, 2017). EVM is established to give a better description of the time as well as the scheduling aspects of the project (Czernigowska, 2008).

EVM has been established to facilitate project or work progress control. It is employed for determining the status of the project as well as scaling of existing plan variation. Moreover, it gives room for the management to make suggestions on the ultimate effect of the entire

75 project, taking into account the cost and project duration to an extent, and this is achieved via extrapolating the existing trends. This approach is considered simple and it has been known as a useful PM tool by government agencies and PM practitioners and been regarded as a standard in the field of project management (Heldman, 2018).

However, EVM poses practical problems to the project manager in terms of complex calculation. When complex activities that do not have a measurable or tangible result are estimated, there is that tendency for bias to set in. This becomes a challenge during the application of this tool (Czernigowska, 2008; Olateju et al., 2011; Heldman, 2018).

EVM is used in construction companies to monitor, control and direct project performance. It is used to manage scope change by allowing the tool to maintain the final cost of the construction project. It assists project managers to relate the activities that were initially planned with the activities that were actually earned and the actual amount spent on the work to determine whether the cost as well as the schedule performance meet the approved plan (Kerzner, 2018). EVM allows project managers in construction companies to define the actual work schedule for their numerous activities and also provides the essential data that aid in tracking performance and are capable of explaining the impact of the project to top management (Wei et al., 2016).

2.10.7 Business case

The Business Case allows the stakeholder in the organisation to make decisions concerning the feasibility of the proposed project. The application of a Business Case is considered best practice all through the private and public construction industry. In most societies, there are laws that make it mandatory for the use of this sort of project management tool. For instance, Capital Planning and Investment of an organisation needs some form of this project management tool (Business Case) for all construction work (Heldman, 2018).

Before the development of these tools, a statement reflecting the business needs is necessary for the early presentation of the current project concept. This single document offers robust information used in justifying the decision for progression with the full Business Case development. Therefore, any decision made by the top management, stems from the review of the document that contends the business’s needs (Kerzner, 2018). Furthermore, as soon as the business needs document is completed, approved by the governance body, and the authorization of the development of the business case is achieved, a full detailed Business Case is then developed (Kerzner, 2018).

Business Case according to Pospieszny et al. (2018) harmonises together the entire outcome of all the essential findings as well as the analysis required to underpin the decision making in a manner that is transparent. Also, it is a key document essential for a proposed project solution and also encapsulates project objectives, specifics and key qualities of the implementation process (Heldman, 2018). In contrast, other scholars suggested that the Business Case is a business plan that has no capacity to guarantee project success. Also, in a situation where the plan is rigid, issues may arise that could influence the outcome of the project (Eskerod and Larsen, 2018; Kerzner and Kerzner, 2017). Supporting this argument, Heldman (2018) added that high expectation from the Business Case could cause excessive spending in some other areas, for instance, staffing and stock.

In the context of the construction project, the Business Case helps in presenting a viable proposed document containing the business needs in order to gain response from the decision maker on the best way of addressing these needs. The tool offers essential information for making business decisions in the construction industry. The Business Case provides vivid possible options, detailed analysis, and makes recommendation on potential options to be considered by the decision makers. The key advantages of this tool are that it gives room for the decision-making procedure to continue all through the project lifecycle (Heldman, 2018).

2.10.8 Project Network Diagram

Kumar and Chakraborty (2016) highlight that network diagram tools are vital PM instruments, which are utilised to demonstrate the sequence by which project activities are done. It is capable of demonstrating which tasks or activities in the project should be carried out before which, and how each task relies on the others. Figures 2.12 and 2.13 show activity-on-node and activity-on-arrow. Supporting the above assertion, Heeks and Stanforth (2014) claim that the network diagram is considered as a schematic representation of logical relationships or categorisation of project tasks, adding that to use the project network diagram, it is essential to determine activity relationships. Figure 2.11 shows the sequential arrangement of the project task, problems or activities. Golini and Landoni (2014, p.45) illustrate the activities displayed in this PM tool, stating that “In this activity on the node graphic representation the notation used is that the centre number in each node is the activity name (a number in this case) and the upper number in each node is the activity duration”.

Figure 2.11: Network diagram showing activity duration (Source: Heeks and Stanforth, 2014)

Explaining that once the solution to the problem is defined the critical path is then achieved, resulting in having a number of options obtainable from the result set menu (Olawale and Sun, 2015; Heeks and Stanforth, 2014).

Figure 2.12: Activity-on-node (Source: Heeks and Stanforth, 2014)

Figure 2.13 shows the project network having 11 tasks and a finish/start (FS) precedence relation that exists between the activities. Olawale and Sun (2015) critically studied the relationship between the activities on arrows and concluded that each number at the top of the node indicates the predicted time in the activity will be completed. Further, they stressed that in some scheduling approaches such as PERT/CPM, projects are not subject to any limited resource, and therefore, the development of a baseline plan or schedule still depends on sequencing all tasks based on their precedence relations.

Figure 2.13: Activity-on-arrow (Source: Heeks and Stanforth, 2014)

According to Heeks and Stanforth (2014), the network diagram tools assist the project manager in the construction industry to decide the critical path, which is described as the most extended sequence of activities in the network diagram (which cannot be done in parallel) and which then decide how soon the task can be finished. Nafkha and Wiliński (2016) assessed the slack in the critical path, adding that all tasks on the critical path have to be finished as planned, or else the date of completion of the construction project will start to slip, which can cause the whole project to linger or delay.

Rolfe et al. (2016) criticised the project management tools, suggesting that it is difficult to understand and a waste of time, especially when trying to meet the client’s requirement in terms of time of project delivery. Others argued that the tool seems to be complicated, though it is applicable in most organisations in developed countries, especially in an environment where resources are available and in a large construction company that has the financial ability to purchase it, though this may not be cost-effective to smaller construction companies. Also, Olawale and Sun (2015) observed the thinking of others in developing countries, particularly in Nigerian construction companies, regarding this PM planning tool: their finding revealed that not many construction organisations seem to have a good knowledge of these tools, and the few that use it, employed it basically at the initiation phase of the project, while the majority do not use it because of its complexity and cost. However, Behnam et al. (2016) concluded that

79 lack of trained personnel also contributes to low levels of its application in construction projects.

2. 11 Technological Tools The technological project management tools fall under agile software tools. The agile software tools are soon becoming universal in all organisations, not only in IT industry. As Gothelf, put it, “Software is eating the world.” Since Agile Manifesto was published in 2001, the climate of project management has experienced a progressive shift from (Gothelf, 2014) the traditional approach “waterfall” to a modern “Agile tool” or modern PM tools. As a result of this development, various organisations have begun to search for agile knowledge as well as agile tool in order to manage the lifecycle of a software development or projects that are non-IT such as construction project. The advent of agile techniques commenced in the 1990s (Highsmith 2002). Largely, agile project management tools improve the performance of product development (Sommer et al. 2015). The current business environment is fast in nature with swift communication activities and high customers’ demands. Traditional tools and techniques are unidirectional and as a result do not consider clients’ needs and want. However, the clients are eventually the ones to determine project failure or success. Contrarily, agile tools and techniques are dynamic, receiving consistent input from the clients (Haines et al., 2017). According to literature, agile tools ensure the completion of all project requirements and at the same time improve the stakeholders’ satisfaction, improve product quality and demonstrate effective project compared to the traditional project management tools (Jamieson and Fallah, 2012). In support of this claim Parsons et al. (2007) suggests that agile tools improve project outcomes involving competitive advantages and high productivity for project management software development. However, study relating to the adoption of agile project management tools and techniques in private construction companies in Nigeria is limited. Therefore, this study focuses on the adoption of agile tools in this context.

It is important to note that agile tools are not competing tools; they just execute ambidexterity and agility in various scenarios. For example, “user acceptance testing tools” is not contending with “air programming”, rather both tools are used to supplement one another. In real practice, multiple tools are employed simultaneously in agile project management (Haines et al., 2017). Table 2.8 presents a systematic review of some of these tools and techniques.

Table 2.8: Systematic review of the Technological tools

Activities Approaches Tools Authors Service The Design Process Incremental Refining Riahov, et al. (2008) , Shiaa Design Components et al. (2008); Saifipoor et al. (2007) Collaboration Enabling Hang and Zhao (2013); Components Marin and Lalanda (2007); Majithia et al. (2004) Automatic Specification Hang and Zhao (2015); Reasoning Components Xiang and Madey (2004) (ASRC) Constraint driven Wang et al. (2011); Environment Maaradji et al. (2011); Hoang et al. (2010) Service Design by Example Programming by Hang and Zhao (2013); Design Example Recorder Chowdhury et al. (2012); Mehandjiev (2010) Service Dynamic Service Natural Language Hang and Zhao (2015); Composition Composition Processor Riabov et al. (2008) High level Graphical Pi et al. (2012); Saifipoor, et Language Editor al. (2007); Han et al. (2003) Visualizer Rao et al. (2004) Natural Language Fujii and Suda (2004) Processor Wizard Riabov et al. (2008); Lee et al. (2004) Static Service Spread sheet Lemos et al. (2013); Hoang Composition et al. (2010); Kongdenfha et al. (2009) Workflow Diagram Altintas et al. (2013); Imran Editor et al. (2012); Namoun et al. (2010); Mehandjiev et al. (2010); Zahoor et al. (2010) WYSIWYG Editor Liu et al. (2011); Xiang and Madey (2004)

Wizard and Form Lalanda (2007); Chafle et al. (2007); Marin and Yamaizumi et al. (2006) Service Sharing and Packaging and Hang and Zhao (2013); Reuse Distributing Services Publishing Component Maaradji et al. (2007) Reusing Services Service Discovery- Hang and Zhao (2013); Component and Service Chowdhury et al. (2012) Matchmaker Service Template Chowdhury et al. (2012); Mehandjiev et al. (2010) Offering Right Composition Abstraction Lemos et al. (2013); Pi et Service/Composition al. (2012); Imran, et al. Abstraction for the (2012); Mei et al. (2011); End Users Zhao et al. (2011) Service Visualization Service-Specification Hang and Zhao (2015); Liu Testing Visualizer et al. (2008) Immediate Immediate-Feedback Chowdhury et al. (2012); Feedback Srinivasmurthy et al. (2009) Testing Against Specification Editor and Hang and Zhao (2013); Lin Design Runtime Monitor et al. (2008); Braem et al. Specifications (2006); Trainotti et al. (2005) Maximizing-Test WYSIWYT-Component Hang and Zhao (2015); Yu Coverage et al. (2004) Debugging Change- Change-Suggestion Hang and Zhao (2013); Suggestions Provider Haller et al. (2005)

Literature has also presented among the numerous agile project management tools and techniques the commonly used ones in the industries.

2.11.1 Primavera This is one of the frequently used technological tools for carrying out a successful project management, it very useful in construction project for building strategies, determining the optimal use of limited resource and controlling project delay (Saini et al., 2017). Primavera agile tool is the application of knowledge, skill and techniques into project activities, it is considered by many scholars as a best agile project management tool, it is a multi-project

82 planning tool, comprehensive and control organisational software (Sarantis et al., 2010; Ren et al., 2008; Ren et al., 2006).

Apart from the scheduling aspect of this tool, primavera is used for tracking, this feature helps the project manager to perform cost, resource analysis and scheduling by allowing the project manager to display, access and also manipulate data in different formats (Sarantis et al., 2010; Sajad et al., 2016). However, primavera gives more priority to the development feature rather than attending to fault that occur during the process. In order to solve all the problems, project manager need to dedicate one complete sprint at the end to attend to bugs that were left without fixing it earlier (Korhonen, 2010). Also, primavera has a less tracking and it is more (Fabac, 2010) expensive than other tool with the function.

2.11.2 MS Project This tool has been developed to help the project manager in monitoring the project progress. It automatically requests and log status reports of the project team and also alert the project manager whether there are late or incomplete (Hodgson, 2002) it is the “dominant PC-based project management software”. This tool consists of resource management, calendar view, milestone view, user control scheduling, fine tuning project plan, Gantt chart view and file management. All these elements are the features that are inherent in the MS Project. They assist in enhancing control over schedule for instance in calendar view, it allows project manager to generate initial activity lists in word or Microsoft Excel and paste (Al Dallal, 2010) the entire tasks into MS-Project without formatting them. Tan and Jones (2008) observed that like other agile tools, MS Project is user friendly, flexible and ease, has the capacity to track actual (Sajad, et al.,2016) work in the project plan, moreover, it assists in saving time of generating a new (Sajad and Sadiq 2016) project plan. However, Sajad et al. (2016) criticise that this tool may not be possible or practical to track activities that are measured both in minutes as well as hours.

2.11.3 dotProject The dotProject tool is an ‘open-source’ tool or a web-based PM application tool that is developed to control project functions and offer project layout (Von Wangenheim, 2009). It is used in project management to help in supporting client user management, orderly defined the activities in project, and support in visualising the project planning or schedule (Gonçalves et al., 2015). Unlike traditional tools (Gantt Chart). dotProject generates several daily and weekly report to support the project managers for decision making, it also, produce other report such as activity summary report, project statistics, as well as “schedule comparison Gantt charts”, this demonstrates the actual project progress on several activities (Zhao et al., 2010). However, this tool is criticised by scholars of not having the ability to offer a mechanism that will record the effort needed to accomplish a particular activity (Von Wangenheim, 2009).

Supporting this claim, Sajad, et al. (2016) argued that the documentation appears cryptic and difficult to comprehend, and there is no precise tracking of schedule. However, though this tool lacks hosting capacity for the installation of web-server, it has an open-source for project management tools a better user interface (Gonçalves et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2010).

2.11.4 Assembla Tool This is a web-based application tool that give room for organisations to hire its project management application online. It relies on the need of the project team to perform PM tasks (Javier, 2010). Literature highlights some of its features: the availability of Milestone view, it allows the project team to view each stage in the project progress and be able also to calculate the progress of the project via the attainment of the “targeted milestone” (Newton, et al., 2019), and also allow the project team to develop and manage several agile artifacts which includes, product backlogs, user story, sprint, as well as sprint backlogs. The tool also give support to the project team in generating tasks, assigning tasks to team members, creating deadlines, estimates and setting priorities (Dam et al., 2019). However, though this tool is useful, its support is quite limited to managing, creating, and tracking down the project artifacts, it lacks the analytical method that is able to bring about useful insight form the project data (Newton, et al., 2019) for estimation, scheduling, prediction, planning as well as recommendation.

2.12 Factors Facing the Adoption of Project Management Tools and Techniques

Generally, change in any management approach always encounters different forms of challenges, be it in a developed or developing country and the fact the project is carried out in the UK or in Nigeria does not make any difference: change is constant. It is the responsibility of the project manager to address the different challenges associated with PMTT adoption. Literature identifies four key challenges that influence the adoption of PMTT in a formal organisation such as construction companies, these include: Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational culture (Ogunde et al., 2016).

2.12.1 Political Factor in PMTT Implementation

The political influence in a formal structure is a less discussed issue in the project management discipline. Outside satisfying the triple constraint expectation in the project, politics as well as power is the crucial issue that affects the activities and the effective implementation of the project. Literature argues that the project manager and the project board engage their strength in pushing to control available resources in a project and their strength is often based on political power (Rogger, 2014; Jowah, 2014). A successful project completion cannot overlook politics that exists in an organisation, since it is one of the factors

84 that influences the adoption of any management approach (Jowah, 2014). Irrespective of the size, the nature of the project and the top management interest in the project, political impact threads across the entire structure of the organisation; frequently this is considered as the norm in the system. Literature establishes that the degree to which top management employed political force to determine the future of the project is higher than any other institutional pressure or force. This political influence in an organisation is not regarded as an element of a structure system, yet it influences resource allocation and PMTT adoption (Pinto and Winch, 2016).

Introducing any innovation (PMTT) within construction firms requires a political outline in order to guarantee its success. Based on this PMTT implementation depends largely on the organisational politics in generating an adequate outline that support and ensure the implementation process of PMTT in the construction industry. Ejohwomu et al. (2017) observed that clear rules and regulations are required when executing PMTT; this will enhance the trust as well as the adoption of PMTT by the construction industry. However, other scholars challenge this statement and argue that this will yet pose a challenge in term of PMTT implementation in the private sector, adding that it is time-wasting and detracts from original project activities. Pinto and Winch (2016) and Pinto (2000) recalled that politics is part of every organisation irrespective of what they offer, whether construction, service provider or manufacturing, every project manager must adequately address the issue of politics if they want to meet their project objectives.

2.12.2 Economic factor in PMTT implementation

Construction projects face numerous challenges as new innovations are currently taking over the traditional approach of implementing construction projects. Several of these construction challenges are based on the project itself while some are project-related. Quite a number of these concerns may not be project issues, however, they must be responded to by the project board in order to achieve a successful project outcome.

These concerns are what determine happenings in the project, they include, environment challenges, socio-political factors, government rules and regulations and economic challenge. It is crucial that project managers have an understanding of these demanding truths that may likely influence the adoption process of PMTT. Economic challenges being one of the key barriers are directly associated with the finance, whether in an organisation or a country. In this section focus will be on the economic position of the organisation as this play a key role in the organisational input (Ogunsanya et al., 2016; Ogunde et al., 2016; Jowah, 2014; Abdul- Rahman et al., 2009).

Literature suggests that many construction organisations are not involved in any new management approach as a result of the poor economic conditions (inflation rate and currency) that impact on the industry cash flow (Ogunde et al., 2016). This is so significant in developing economies such as Nigeria, as the country is experiencing an economic depression, which affects the entire sector of the economy. The fundamental causes of economic uncertainty which translate to limited cash flow in construction companies comprise of high interest rate in reimbursement of loan, an increment in the cost of materials, and high rate of foreign exchange for importing new technology. This economic insecurity gives room for a slow process of PMTT adoption in most organisations, while some organisations find it very difficult to use it because of the inflation rate and high cost of maintaining the PMTT software (Othman and Ahmed, 2013).

On the contrary, a robust economic situation repositions the organisational strategies, objectives and plan such as PMTT (Ogunde et al., 2016). As indicated in Chapter 2, PMTT offers a flexibility as well as consistency towards ensuring a successful project delivery. It further equips the project manager with the requisite skills for how to manage a complex project. Another interesting aspect of PMTT is that it allows for risk mitigation in a failing project, ensures the satisfaction of several stakeholders and informs project managers on project progress (Othman and Ahmed, 2013). Its benefit notwithstanding is not the only benchmark that determines PMTT implementation. As highlighted above PMTT is strongly influenced by economics, if there is a constant fluctuation in the nation’s currency or economy it will automatically impact on the organisational overall operation. This implies that adoption of management technology such as PMTT is a concern to the practitioners since the major factor that influences this concept is economic pressure (Too and Weaver, 2014). Economic pressure directly informed the decision of the top management on importation of new technology irrespective of the size of the organisation. This pressure regulates and indirectly controls the organisational investment. As stated in the study by Too and Weaver (2014), organisational plan and strategy and decision of the management is tied to the economic condition of the country, as its presence decides the adoption of any management tools.

2.12.3 Technological Factor in PMTT Implementation

The concept of technology in construction projects has been regarded as a key issue in the industry. As an essential factor for industrial development, technology remains the critical success factor in the current business environment (Benmansour and Hogg, 2002; Uyarra et al., 2014). Taking into consideration the vast information on this topic and the technology being the current responsibility of the top management, it should be assumed that construction firms are progressively innovative in nature. However, this does not apply in this case. Construction

86 companies, particularly in Nigeria, are not making much progress due to absence of technology caused by poor investment and support from top management (Benmansour and Hogg, 2002).

Literature asserts that organisations in developing economies found it difficult to change from their old practice to a new technology (Ogunsanya et al., 2016). The reason for this is the high cost of purchasing and maintaining PM software (technology); the compatibility of the technology in the Nigeria terrain and the ease of use are other factors that influence the adoption of this technology. It is noted that some practitioners are adamant against change because the new technology does not give room for individual creativity and flexibility (Ogunsanya et al., 2016).

2.12.4 Organisational Culture Factor in PMTT Implementation

The advent of innovation in management has triggered several counties to move ahead or change their approach from traditional methods to a more advanced method of implementing construction projects, especially in developed economies while developing countries such as Nigeria are yet to fully support modern methods. The traditional method is considered as the practice adopted by many developing economies and this forms the basis which organisations followed over the years; the traditional approach creates a framework for project managers and practitioners. It is generally accepted by many businesses as part of organisational culture (OC).

Organisational culture is a key driving force in the construction business that influences the work climate; it is a vital determinant of business practice; hence, OC has lately been discovered in academic literature as a critical success factor of construction projects (Nguyen and Watanabe, 2017). The characteristic of OC reveals the way project activities are carried out, how objectives are set, as well as how individuals are directed towards the realisation of project objectives. OC influences management decision, feeling, opinion and the way the organisation addresses business opportunities and environmental threats. OC has also influenced how the project team is selected for a specific task, which in turn affects the project performances as well as decision making. Culture has a root in people and indirectly affects the behaviour of individuals as well as their performance. The phenomenon can be explained as follows: “the way things are done around here” (Stare, 2011) or “that’s the way we do it” (Stare, 2011). The concept of culture is a different idea and method of carrying out tasks within a business environment (Arditi et al., 2017).

OC comprises of a number of fundamental factors; it is developed by a group of values, attitudes, traditions, beliefs, general understanding, norms, expectations and the thinking of the people in the work place (Stare, 2011). The context of OC forms the basis for the system of operation, management strategy and organisational practices. OC affects PM implementation, strategic planning and any other management approach (Stare, 2011; Nguyen and Watanabe, 2017). Pinto (2007) pointed out ways OC can influence construction projects, stating that organisational culture influences the way departments communicate and support one another in the quest of project objectives. Secondly, the OC impacts on the level of commitment of the employee towards achieving the goals of the organisation; it also impacts on the project planning or approach. Finally, it influences how project managers assess project performance of the project team and how these individuals examine the outcome of the projects.

Essentially organisational policies, tools and techniques, strategies, top management as well as rules as described by Kerzner (2017) and Tinnirello (2001) are important components to consider when discussing organisational culture. The culture of an organisation decides the kind of methods to be used in the business. Supporting this view, Stare (2011) suggests that PM methods most not be exclusively theory-oriented and found only in a spread sheet; adding that the methods need to be converted into practice in which the system can be implemented as a cooperative methodology. Organisations that excel in PM are those that appreciate cooperative culture or OC and where everyone in the business supports a particular methodology (Stare, 2011).

2.13 Public and Private Sectors Organisations remain the most prevailing institutions of the present-day society, it exerts a huge impact on human lives. The society obtained a significant measure of its social, material, and cultural gratification from organisation (Khan and Khandaker, 2016). Organisations are frequently divided into either public or private sectors. There are various ways these sectors can be explained and considered; however, it is essential to remark that the division can (Kauppinen, 2018) be made: most of the organisations are public in nature or more public while some are private in nature.

2.13.1 Public sector Flynn (2007) defined public sector as “those parts of the economy that are either under state ownership or under contract to the state, plus those parts that are regulated and/or subsidized in the public interest". The author further recognised the management in this sector as “having the formal authority to control and direct others in the organization and the ability to carry out activities as a project manager like planning, budgeting, performance measurement, and

88 arranging tasks for the whole organization” (Flynn, 2007). This shows that public sector organisations are collectively owned, managed, funded and control by members of the political communities and this is quite different from private sector which is owned and managed by individuals (Al-Hajri, 2017). Other scholars view public sector as a pyramid structure asserting that; the top management in the organisation formulates the decision and policy, the decision regarding tasks and responsibilities are taken at the top management level and are assigned to the other level of management or lower levels via hierarchical chain (Sotirakou and Zeppou, 2005) of command. In this sector, power resides at the upper level of the hierarchy (Ali, 2010). Public sector varies in terms of its complex structure as well as managerial values, goals, and organisational environment from that of private sector organisation (Boyne, 2002), these variables generate variances on how both the public and private organisations carry out their key managerial functions. In addition, Osborne and McLaughlin (2002) stated that public sector is a developing institute concerned with addressing complex, economic and social need of the people. Also, it occurred due to the shortcoming of the traditional administration model as observed by Agranoff and McGuire (2004). Public sector however, is a better merger of private sector organisation practice and the aspect of traditional public administration, giving this sector (public administration) a sharper (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2004) cutting edge in connection with flexibility, risk-taking, performance measurement as well as goal achievement. Therefore, public sector is based on the integration of processes, best practice and developing of private sector establishments. This helps in conducting business in a new way (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2004).

Scholars perceived that public sector is bureaucratic and functionally divided. They further stressed that this division (McCracken 1996, cited by Ali 2010) into different functional fields or area can be viewed for variety of purpose. One key purpose is that it sustains specialisation. Most often it is undertaken to separate the stages in procurement as well as maintaining the chain (Ali 2010) of command. The reason for this is to ensure that responsibilities are readily implicit and accountability can be traced easily. Secondly, the process of initiating, funding, designing, constructing as well as implementing a project comprises of functional division of public organisations (Al-Hajri, 2017).

Pūlmanis (2014) claims that public sector organisations have a vast number as well as diverse variety of potential uses of organisation resources and effective use of organisation resources has a substantial influence on the welfare of the society. Also, it plays a better role in offering services to its citizens in a bid to increase the standard of living. Its key objective is to transform its current administration into service in response to the market-type requirement mechanism and to meet the public interest, also to reduce citizen expenditures as well as increasing the quality of public-sector service (Pârvu, 2009).

However, the structure of this sector is faced with a set of challenges, these challenges result from the employee’s behaviour in different functional areas and it occurs in a way that the employed specifically concentrate more on their area of specialisation with very little understanding of how these actions will influence others (Klakegg, Williams and Shiferaw, 2016; Brunetto and Farr-wharton, 2003). Other problems that occur due to these conditions in public sector are; improper decision making, lack of adequate flow of information and short- term outlook (Ali 2010).

Supporting the above claim Al-Hajri (2017) also stated that public sector organisations tends to be surrounded with various challenges and these includes; inadequate project definition, political support, changes in sponsor strategy, vague success criteria, poor quality assurance and control. These variables are some of the key causes to project failure in this sector. Wirick (2009) also maintained that absence osf project management skill in the public organisations are the ineffectiveness of public sector to recognise outcome measures as well as missions. Studies also indicate that public sector organisations generate poor performances, stating that their services are not flexible, innovative and are slow for this computerised age (Pârvu, 2009). Although other scholars view public sector as a flexible working environment for employees and a better platform for carrier development (Jałocha et al., 2014), however, it reflects a hierarchy structure with a bureaucratic nature which is very rigid and cannot be easily accessed for vital information (Pârvu, 2009). Literature highlights some of the factors that influence public sector organisations, these factors determine how management in public sector is carried out and how it is different from private sector organisations, these variables are as follows;

• Complexity; public sector organisations are complex in nature and seem to be more complex by the day. The reason for this is due to the implementation of various modern administrative policies which keep changing every time. (Christensen and Lægreid 2010). Public organisations face several stakeholders, which many of them place high demand on managers, literature argued that public sector (government) operates via networks of interdependent organisations instead of independent companies which pursue simply their individual objectives (Boyne, 2002), the author further stated that the requirements of the different external stakeholders may be conflicting, for instance, producer group, service recipients and consumer groups (Boyne, 2002). • Instability; political constraints in public sector result in regular changes in organisational policy as well as the imposition of limited timeframe on public sector managers (Dillman 2007), also staffing arrangement in this sector are often disrupted by in coming employees, resulting in diverting major organisational resources away

from key competencies to secondary issues associated with recruitment of new staff, selection, training as well as induction procedures (Andrews et al., 2015). This sector also experiences constant pressure from the stakeholders to achieve rapid results that can aid in achieving a larger share (Boyne, 2002). • Bureaucracy: Organisations in public sector as well as some private sector depend on bureaucracy to carry out their functions. Though bureaucracy exists in public sector as well as private sector organisations but it is largely evident in public organisations which could (Krut, 2012) relatively explain the reason public sector is inefficient. Bureaucracy is considered as the substratum of public sector, however, citizens believes that bureaucracy is created by government to execute government policy, to take decision and laws made by government agents and put into practice (Mori, 2017). Others scholars argued that these has turned to a burden to the public organisations and has become unsuccessful (Chand, 2015; Kang, 2005; Boyne, 2002). For this reason, scholars in public sectors and other sectors have decided to address this issue and offer solution to public organisational bureaucracy problems (Ahmad, 2015). Conceivably one of the major noticeable solutions that are found in the literature in this domain is leadership. However, both bureaucracy and leadership concept appear to contradict one another (Kang, 2005). Chand (2015) suggested that Max Weber’s bureaucracy theory could be used in those firms where it is difficult to effect change and also mention that though large organisations as well as government departments employed this kind of management procedure, however, it has its limitations such as: impersonality, rigidity, unnecessary cost of control, rigidity, tendency to ignore the goal of the organisation and unnecessary dependence on superior. All these factors highlighted as limitations are contrary to the management of (Mori, 2017) innovation practice since the adoption of innovation is about change, and this change has a way of reflecting on the entire department of an organisations. • Corruption: the concept of corruption is as vital issue of concern in public sector as it is in private organisations as well. Corruption occurs when people purposely push something off course from the accepted standard or form into a substandard form, in order to obtain their personal selfish interest or achieve group objectives. It occurs at a point when people consider what is impure as pure and what is less capable as capable (Nwokorie, 2017). Corruption in a democracy setting is understood as adversative to progress and attracts serious sanction by the authorities, and hated by the citizens where integrity and honesty is the norm. But institutional corruption demonstrates a moral and practical deviation from the standard norm (Nwokorie, 2017). However, corruption becomes the norms of the society and people who make

effort to adhere strictly to the norm of the society (integrity and honesty) become social deviant as well as a misfit. Corruption becomes a normal, acceptable (Chábová 2016), systematic, regular and conventional manner of doing things in the society at large and public organisations. At this instant, corruption is institutionalised, it has become a norm of the society and public concern, difficult to evade, as it has become the societal usual way of doing things (Nwokorie, 2017). Del Monte and Papagni (2001) suggested that corruption has a negative impact on public sector efficiency. Also, Lessig (2013) revealed that corruption result due to the existence of a widespread strategic, systemic, legal and ethical impact, which reduces the efficiency of organisation with time by shifting the it away from its standardised objectives and goals, hence, it weakening public confidence and trust in such public organisation (Rodwin, 2013). This assertion is in line with the explanation made by Adams and Balfour (2005) concerning corruption in public sector stating that it is “administrative evil”, since there is the presence of evil covered in the entire department of public organisation. Although this practice may have produced immediate positive result since it aids to get things done on time. However, it weakens the efficiency management of public organisation particularly, under condition (Nwokorie, 2017) of moral inversion encountered by Nigeria, which what is evil and bad has been re-defined persuasively as good.

These factors prevent innovation in the system and do not give room for individual to make immediate decision on a critical issue without passing through procedures (hierarchy). It stiffens the work process resulting in the (Klakegg et al., 2016) delay in information distribution. Since research is about gathering of information to aid in making academic contribution, it may be a challenge to the researcher in this case. Also, instability in government may result in changes in organisation’s priorities and this may influence so many things in the organisation such as project funding, valid information, down-sizing of key staff and spending (SKaz, 2019).

2.13.2 Private Sector Private sector on the other hand, is a segment of the nations’ economic system that is owned, managed, controlled and run by individuals or private organisations. This sector is divided into small and medium, and large enterprises based on their sizes. The private organisations can be formed in two ways, for instance either by formulating a new business enterprise or by way of privatization of some public sector organisations (Surbhi, 2015). It also includes small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), financial institutions, famers, co-operatives and large organisations such as private construction organisations (José Di Bella et al., 2013). Businesses in the private sector are established with the motive of making profit as well as developing brand reputation. They offer quality services to their clients to win their trust as well

92 as good will in order to be in business for a long time and (Surbhi, 2015) also to compete with other competitors. José Di Bella et al. (2013) conducted a study on the role of the private sector on the economic growth of the nation, they emphasised that private sector plays a very vital role in the nation building via its regular engagement in business operations, and through good and quality service and job creation. Supporting this claim, Nwakoby and Bernard (2016) stated that the role of private organisations is vital in contributing to the “gross domestic investment” as well as its ability in allocating and employing resource effectively.

Moreover, private organisations have been the hub of employment, provision (Bayraktar, 2003; Nwakoby and Bernard, 2016) of infrastructure, income generation and social services provider. The international body have acknowledged also the private organisations’ role in improving economic growth of countries in the developing nations Especially, European Commission (EC) (2014) noted that private organisations is embedded with potential for sustainable growth and creating inclusive in the developing nations. Equally, the International Finance Corporations (IFC) (2011) also believed that private organisations are vital force aimed in addressing challenges that emerge in the developing nations via contributing in various areas such as, poverty reduction, growth, food security, employment, service delivery, environmental sustainability and mitigating climate change as well as contributing to taxes. This indicates that private organisations’ presence such as (Nwakoby and Bernard, 2016) private construction organisation in the developing countries can spur economic growth as well as poverty alleviation. In Nigeria for example, private organisations have experienced an increasing trend from 1986 to 2010. This reflects the role played by the market force. Continuous efforts aimed at privatising and reforming the public organisations, portfolio investment, eliminating price distortions and allocation of financing resources have added to the segment of private sector in the developing nations (Bayraktar, 2003). However, Nigeria private construction companies still have room to develop its investment performance. This according to Nwakoby and Bernard (2016), would be achieved better when the impact of private sector on the country’s economic is well understood, hence this study focuses also on private sector in Nigeria.

2.13.3 Justification for Private Sector

Innovation in private sector

Private organisation has been known as a flexible institution with ability to adapt to change in order to deliver a quality and sustainable product and service. One of the changes associated with private sector is innovation. Innovation can be “described as a new idea, product, device or novelty. It is a mind-set, a way of thinking beyond the present and into the future “(Stenberg, 2017). Innovation is essential for organisations and when used effectively can become a

93 management technique, process and strategy (Kuczmarksi, 2003). Innovation in business can be viewed as the procedure of creating and bringing together ideas to help in generating a relationship (Baskaran and Mehta, 2016) between current accomplishment and previous experiences in order bring about a solution to future problem. Innovation is considered as significant in business world particularly the private organisations and is maintainable to create organisational value and stand strong in (Baregheh, Rowley and Sambrook, 2009) the competitive business environment (Stenberg, 2017). This is frequently related with technological accomplishment and it (Baskaran and Mehta, 2016) plays a major role in the economy of a given society. Like other concepts in business environment, there is a relationship that exist between innovation, standard of living, job and profit and these variables are characters associated with private sector for instance, the private organisation are profit- driven (Stenberg, 2017). Also, it is often mentioned in the literature that private sector “Given that most of the tools and concepts of strategic management were developed in the private sector, is it valid to apply them to the public sector?” (Alford and Greve, 2017). As a result, since the aim of this study is to investigate the factors that influence the adoption of PMTT (technological tools) practice in Nigeria private construction industry, it will be interesting to focus this study on the private sector in order to have a better perception of the project managers regarding these management tools in this sector.

Leadership and Managership

Another reason for choosing private sector is in the area of “leadership and managership”. Leadership is described as a process as well as a property, leadership is regarded as a process following its ability to coordinate various activities or tasks, and is a property in terms of the leadership qualities this includes, skills, personality, motives, characteristics as well as abilities (Khan and Khandaker, 2016). On the other hand, behavioural approach of leadership differentiates effective leaders by the way they conduct themselves or behave when interacting with their followers. While contingency form of leadership largely view leadership in term of conditions or situations. It involves with identifying the situations or conditions in which a particular leadership behaviour and (Jago, 1982, cited by Khan and Khandaker, 2016) traits are effective. In contrast, there is absolutely no perfect way to lead a team. Since leaders in private companies face several turbulent and unstable environment/situations they require what is known as the strategic leadership. In private organisations leaders can emerge in a bid to response to the situation or business condition (Khandaker, 2016), but this is difficult in public organisations. Several factors such as rules, laws as well as oversight tasks influence the leader’s discretion in public organisation than leadership in private organisations (Hooijberg and Choi, 2001). In reality leaders in public sector have limited autonomy in exerting leadership compared to managers in private sector (Hooijberg and Choi, 2001).

Public sector managers or leaders are influenced by political requirements and time and again seek out to mediate decisions due to a large diversity of pressures. The managers here are also subject to the judiciary and legislative scrutiny that, turn out as a hindrance to their performance and complete freedom to carry out their administrative and executive activities (Allison, 2012). They have less autonomy in making decision and are reluctant to delegate fragment power to their followers (Allison 2012). Based on this, information gathering in this sector such as data collection may be stalled due to the bottle-neck approach. However, it is believed that public sector managers and leaders have the willingness to render service to the people and are not materialistic compared to managers in private sector (Khan and Khandaker, 2016). In contrast, managers/leaders in private sector create considerable time towards building the organisation as well as market development. Also, top management or managers in this sector spend longer time in office (tenure) than the public managers and often train or develop other leaders or successors. Unlike the public, they have greater power and authority in overseeing the subordinates. They are not controlled by judicial or legislative discretions and their key focus is profit making, survival and market performance. They have freedom to perform their duty as manager/leaders (Boyne, 2002) without being chained by pressures from the stakeholders. As a result, getting information in this sector is easy due to their flexible nature of management.

Socio-economic development

The private construction sector plays a vital role in the development of the nation economy, its activities is important to the realisation of the socio-economic development objectives of the nation such as infrastructure, shelter and employment (Anaman and Osei-Amponsah, 2007). The role of private construction industry has been discussed by many scholars (Oladinrin, Ogunsemi and Aje, 2012). Khan (2008) stated that the sector’s activities is viewed as the key source of the growth of any economy, it is also considered as a major source of generating employment providing jobs to thousands of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled work forces. Oladinrin et al. (2012) assert that this sector produces one of the multiplier effects via its widespread “back and forward” connections with other sectors, maintaining that it is a vital and highly noticeable contributor to the growth process of the nation. However, this sector has been criticised by many for its uninspiring performance. Literature indicate that construction sector generally has a high rate of corruption; projects in this sector takes longer time than planned; budget overrun, workers are subjected to unnecessary risk and it demonstrate in most cases variable quality (Woudhuysen and Abley 2004; Wyk and Chege 2004; Edwards 2002). In spite of this limitation, the private construction sector still maintained its unique important to the nation building. Its huge set of activities resulted into a range of road building, factories, houses, airports and hospitals, railways, bridges, as well as municipal works

(Osondu-Oti.2016; Dantata, S., 2007). This attribute also found in the activities in the construction firm in public sector as well. However, literature claims that major private construction companies in Nigeria such as Julius Berger, Chinese Civil Engineering Construction Company (CCECC), Reynolds Construction Company Nigeria Limited, RCC, Dantata and Sawoe Construction Company Nigeria Limited (D&S) and Setraco Nigeria Limited managed multiple projects, players for instance, Julius Berger and CCECC undertakes many projects (from100 to 150 contracts) in the year (Dantata, S., 2007). Also, the award of these contracts stems from them being efficient in their operations and competitive in nature (Cannadi and Dollery, 2005).

Efficiency: scholars claims that public sector is inefficient compared to private sector in project delivery or service (Alford and Greve, 2017). However, there is no conclusive evidence to support this assertion that public sector is less efficient than its private sector counterpart (Cannadi and Dollery, 2005). Efficiency in service delivery in private and public sector has been a subject of debate in several study thus, private sector has been said to have satisfied its clients through efficient project delivery (Eze, 2014). Furthermore, the involvement of private sector in providing the local government with basic infrastructure demonstrate a more competitiveness in the economy (Cannadi and Dollery, 2005), and the increase in this area has also led to efficient allocation of resources.

Technological advancement

The significance of the construction sector comes from its “strong linkages” with organisations from other sectors (Rameezdeen, 2005) of the economy. This linkage allows the industry to be exposed to new technology, new challenges and new opportunities, such as “information technology” industry. A number of evolving technologies (Calie, 2017) are all together driving change in private construction sector. They have a transformative influence on the sector as well as contributing toward addressing the current challenges in the construction sector and simplifying also the process of construction work (Calie, 2017; Holt, 2015). However, private construction sector has not fully achieved the benefit of technology due to absence of integration among the various applications and strong resistance to change which is noticeable among the private firms as a limiting factor to technology advancement in this sector (Olateju et al., 2011; Gallaher et al., 2004). Study notes the need for effective management of construction process, adding that evolving technology provides the best opportunities to develop or improve the private construction process via integration and effectiveness. In the last few decades productivity in construction section (Holt, 2015) had largely remained the same in the developing economy, while construction industry in the developed county has obtain productivity gain via efficient technology in adoption. However,

96 study indicates that technology has grown recently in private construction in Nigeria and this gives room for effective communication and in turn promote teamwork within the organisations (Olalusi and Jesuloluwa, 2013).

2.13.4 Project management practices in Public Sector and private sector Klakegg, Williams and Shiferaw (2016) stressed that public project world-wide encounter challenges such as, unclear criteria for success, political influence, inadequate project definition and poor-quality assurance. All these variables are the major causes of project failure in public mega-projects. Klakegg et al. (2016) conducted a study on evaluating public organisation project using three case study, the study revealed key governing instrument that are common in the three cases. These instruments include documentation, a detailed review and consultations, strong project governance via mandatory intervention on distinct project, key emphasis on high degree on politic and improved transparency through publishing the outcome of reviews on each individual project. Other instruments are: stakeholders and planning, effective risk management, participation and needs and public policy alignment (Al- Hajri, 2017). The study highlights elements that are similar to each other and are different among various countries which includes, “the strength of the authorized administrational bodies, variation of project types and sizes, uncertainty depending on the project development stage, and project duration” (Klakegg et al., 2016).

Secondly, from the empirical finding of Olateju, Alamutu and Abul-azeez (2011) on project management practice in public sector in Nigeria, they revealed that the causes, which prevent the execution of project management, includes; “absence of PM knowledge, absence of professional training, bribery and corruption, rigid organisational structure, continuous change of authority”. The scholars also enquire from their respondents the impact of using PMTT. The respondents signify that the PM tools and techniques aid in “keeping up with work progress, activating communication, good management, better time utilization, better quality, defined goals and objectives, better work organization” (Olateju et al., 2011). They also indicate the existence of more resistance to the application of PMTT in public organisations and that project managers should plan for this gradually.

2.13.5 Project Management in Private Construction Companies in Nigeria

Global comparative studies over the years have centred on Graham Ive’s study in (2004). In Gregori and Pietroforte’s (2015) study to measure the competitiveness of the construction industry in the UK, the scholars examine the relative situation of the construction industry in the UK compared to that of the USA, Germany and France. The global comparisons of construction industry performance are of importance to stakeholders, clients, practitioners and especially, policymakers; however, there is an argument about how this research should be

97 conducted, as often the outcome is rather contradictory or even inconclusive. In spite of the effort put into this study, there is little understanding regarding what needs to be measured or how to measure it (Gregori and Pietroforte, 2015; Pietroforte and Gregori, 2003). The challenges in undertaking this study in this industry are as a result of its low profit, fragmentation, environmental issues, small firm size and design variations. These difficulties are worsened in global comparisons, as it is a challenge to define a normal activity or a project to be compared. Moreover, complicating issues are taxation, environmental standards, climate change, safety, available technology, industrial relations, and unit of measurement (Kapelko et al., 2015). However, literatures extensively addressed the construction sector in a global context, classified as pricing studies, macroeconomic analyses and case studies by Gregori and Pietroforte (2015). These contributions normally build upon macroeconomic, total factor of production, construction cost, labour and input/output data. Graham Ive’s study focused on the input–output of data as construction often pulls together products of other industries and provides investment goods to end users. The input–output performance helps to analyse what it takes for the construction industry to provide its output, as well as interdependencies that exist between construction industries and other sectors making up the national economy: for instance, the extent to which the construction industry contributes to the growth of the economy.

Usually, if the input in the construction industry is high, the corresponding output in terms of performance should reflect the same or higher, instead the output of the construction industry is questionable in most parts of the world, especially in the Nigerian construction industry. Studies conducted by Lankauskienė (2016) assessed the level of output in construction industries in developed, transitional and developing countries; the finding shows a favourable output in the UK construction industry and other developed countries such the USA, Germany, France and Australia. Another study carried out by the Office for National Statistics UK (2016) indicates that though there was a sharp depression in the rate of performance growth in January 2011, there was a gradual increase in output from January 2013 to 2015; this suggests that the construction industry experienced an underlying process of growth, and then became unstable in growth rate with variance of 0.2% in 2016 and picked up again by 2.1% in the same year. Figure 2.14 shows the growth and performance rate in the UK construction industry for the period of January 2010 to January 2016.

Figure 2.14: The growth and performance rate in the UK construction industry for the period of January 2010 to January 2016 (Source: Office for National Statistics, 2016)

In emerging countries such as Finland, studies indicate that the industry experienced a gradual increase in the output from 2005 to 2009. From 2009 to 2012, the industry had a setback, and picked up from 2013 to 2016.

Figure 2.15 shows the increase in output of the construction industry in Finland.

Figure 2.15: Increase in the output in the construction industry in Finland (Source: Statistic Finland, 2017)

Meanwhile, other emerging countries such as South Africa, Mexico, Singapore and Malaysia experienced average output between 2007 to 2016 (Oke et al., 2016).

In developing countries, for example, Nigeria, the construction industry growth rate is very low as compared with advanced and transitional countries (Pour Rahimian et al., 2017). According to the report by the Construction Intelligence Centre (2016), the output rate and growth rate are not commensurate, stating that there is a big gap between the two variables. Oke et al. (2016) argued that the construction industry in Nigeria cannot strive well due rigidity in management, policies and institutional barriers. They further stressed that the inability to recognise and buy into new innovation in the industry seem to be the cause of its low output or performance.

Oke et al. (2016) looked at the factors that enhance the growth rate in terms of performance in the construction industry in both advanced and emerging countries and emphasised that the construction industry is a complex sector with various challenges that need close attention. Supporting this claim, Ishkov et al. (2016) underlined that a construction project comprises of different activities that must be managed using a management approach such as project management tools to enhance successful project delivery. The construction firms in advanced and emerging countries experience project success as a result of flexibility in management, leading to the adoption of project management tool and techniques.

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On the other hand, developing countries are yet to fully embrace this new innovation, but still depend on the project manager’s experience; for this reason, they encounter poor output as identified in Figure 2.16; they also experience project failure, project delay, unfavourable relationships with stakeholders and project overrun (Ogunde et al., 2017; Sowunmi et al., 2016; Baselli et al., 2017; Olateju et al., 2011).

Figure 2.16: The output rate and growth rate in Nigerian construction companies (Source: Construction Intelligence Centre, 2016)

2.14 A Mapping of the Typical Structure of the Nigerian Construction Industry This section provides an overview of a typical Nigeria construction industry. It examines the role play by construction sector in the economy of Nigeria. It indicates some key participants or players in the industry as well as the challenges that they encounter. The section also investigates some sample of projects carried out in the country; the size and the growth of the industry overtime, construction project and labour market in Nigeria. Since this study is focused on Nigeria it will be essential to briefly give an overview of Nigeria.

Overview of Nigeria

As the most populated country in Africa, Nigeria makes-up the highest percentage of the whole continent of Africa. The population of Nigeria is considered to be half of the total population of west Africa (Akinyemi, 2014), about 16% of the entire African and 2.5% of the world population. Nigeria has about 250 different ethnic groups and the dominant groups are the Hausa with 29%, mostly in northern part of Nigeria, the southwestern part which is the Yoruba

101 with 19%, while the (Dantata 2007) (Igbos is about 18% in the south-eastern part of the nation. The Ijaw is 10%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio is 3.5% and Tiv is 2.5% these make up the remaining parts in the country.

The three main Nigerian languages spoken in the country are Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo and these three key languages make up the main three ethnic groups in the country (Nina, 2018). More so, due to several cultures and languages in Nigeria, none of these languages could be imposed on anyone; hence English is the official language spoken in Nigeria, which happens to be the colonial language (Olaniy and Josiah, 2013). The government of Nigeria use English officially and this is also used in western schools for instruction. However, in the north, religious schools adopt the use of local languages to give instruction in classrooms.

In Nigeria, the two religions that are dominant in the country are Christianity and Islam. Muslims comprise the majority of the northern part of the country; nearly all the Hausa-Fulani and a (Dantata, 2007) few other indigenous groups adopt Islam as their religious practice. Majorly the Igbo speaking people in the country practice Christianity (Kitause and Achunike, 2013) while the Yoruba’s in the southwestern part of Nigeria are divided into Christians and Muslims. In order for development to get into the grass root, Nigeria was further divided into six geopolitical zones: South-East region, South-South region, South-West region, North- Central region, North-East region and North-West region (Afolabi et al., 2019). This study was conducted in these regions, except for the North-East where there is a security issue. Figure 2.17 shows the various geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The map offers a general picture of the stakeholders in construction industry in Nigeria. Precisely, the research instruments were physically administered in cities such as Lagos, Port-Harcourt, Abuja, Ibadan, Uyo, Owerri, Enugu, Asaba, Benin, and Kaduna and its environs.

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Figure 2.17: Map of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria (Source: Afolabi et al., 2019)

2.14.1 The Nigerian Economy The economy of Nigeria since independent is said to remain narrow, weak and occupies with production activities such as mining, agriculture and quarrying (as well as crude oil and gas) resulting to about 65% of the nation GDP and more than 80% of the government revenues (Isa et al., 2013). Furthermore, the local production activities of the country account for more than 90% of (NBS, 2011) foreign exchange and 75% of employment. However, secondary activities consisting of construction, building and manufacturing, which generally have highest potential for generating employment, widening the production base of the nation economy as well as producing maintainable foreign change and the gross output of government revenues that accounts to 4.14% and 2%, respectively.

Since the past seven years, some changes have occurred in the structure of the Nigeria economy and this has influenced the output of the economy positively; actually, these changes

103 among other is the introduction of the telecommunication sector into the economy which has witnessed tremendous progress over the past few years and maintained tangible growth in the GDP (Isa et al., 2013). In contrast, the economy of Nigeria continues to face many challenges which has hindered efforts in transforming the nation’s economy. In addition, the economy is until now not achieving the structural changes needed to kick-start rapid as well as sustaining the growth and development, apart disarticulated and poor productive base (Oluwakiyesi, 2011) other sectors that links to the nation’s economy are weak as well. Though the economy has witnessed reputable GDP growth rates, with an average of more than 6.5% in a year between 2006 and 2012, this economic growth neither bring about equal employment nor drive down or reduce the rate of poverty experienced in the nation (CBN, 2012).

2.14.2 The Nigerian Construction Industry The organised construction industry in Nigeria commenced in the year 1940 with a small number of foreign construction organisations coming into (Isa et al., 2013) operation. The event of the independence in 1960 and the oil boom in Nigeria resulted in an upward movement in the Nigerian construction industry and up on till the end of Second Republic in 1983s, the industry has experienced an awesome improvement in construction projects and was mainly dominated by foreign organisations with very few local (Idoro, 2009) construction organisations. Unfortunately, this period as well expose the nation’s indigenous firm’s low skills workforce needed for: planning, monitoring, designing, executing and managing project multiple construction project of different sizes conceived by the three tires of governments (Isa et al., 2013; Mbamali and Okotie, 2012). In contrast, with better-quality of training, involvement of expertise, collaboration among the indigenous firms and foreign industrialists, stable policy, favourable government policies and the ostensible resource gaps required for adequate implementation of multifaceted projects among indigenous firms and foreign companies are now filled compared to the era of pre-independence (Mbamali and Okotie, 2012).

In spite of this development, Nigeria construction companies still struggles with so many intrinsic challenges (Ofori, 2001), ranging from material, equipment, inadequate managerial and technical knowledge and poor financial base. However, the construction sector is blessed with inherent potentials to drive growth and development, and these potentials includes; independent producer of cement that addresses the issue of material, vast deficit in infrastructure (airport, sea port, rail and roads) that is considered as key that generate opportunities for a sustainable development (Oluwakiyesi, 2011; International Council for Building (CIB), 2004 ).

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2.14.3 The Size and Growth of the Construction Industry in Nigeria The size of construction industry in Nigeria is comparatively small compared to some other sectors in the economy. The industry consists of a global value of about 0.2% in 2008, which was estimated to be about $3.15bn. (Ibrahim, 2013) in spite of this, the sector is considered the highest in West Africa. Its level of growth has been remarkable over the past few years, the industry’s growth rate is higher than the average global industry’s growth rate and as long as price of the crude (Dantata, 2007) oil remains high and investment in the infrastructure by the government remains constantly high, the construction sector is expected to persistently grow at a high rate.

The industry has out-grown some of the sectors in the economy over the years. Precisely, in 2005, the sector’s growth rate was (Ibrahim, 2013) extraordinary with a rate of 12.1%, which was said to be far more than the average growth of the entire economy of 5.6% in that same year. Since the nation’s economy has a tendency to grow at an increasing rate, the construction sector is projected to grow and perform excellently well (Dantata, 2007). According to the “Nigerian National Bureau of Statistics” (NBS) (2017), the construction industry is said to have grown by 16.69% in the 3rd quarter of 2017, with an increasing rate of 13.88% compared to 2.81% rate documented in the similar quarter in 2016. Figure 2.18 shows the actual growth rate of construction industry in the 3rd quarter of 2017, though the graph indicates a reduction of -0.88% in the previous quarter but it recorded an increase of 0.46% which presents the real growth at end of the 3rd quarter of 2017.

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Figure 2.18: Real construction year on year growth (Source: NBS, 2017)

2.15 The Economy and Construction Industry The construction industry according to scholars are the key drivers of economic of growth and development in a nation. This is actually based on the fact that nearly all other industries in the economy depend on the “products and services” of construction industry in some ways, it reflects a strong investment in both commercial and private buildings (Isa et al., 2013; Ibrahim, 2013). For instance, it will be difficult for manufacturing industries to flourish without adequate structure (building) as well as infrastructure for instance office building, roads that links to material depot and plants for manufacturing (Dantata, 2007).

The Nigeria construction companies is sub-divided into two main categories: the formal and informal sub-sector of the industry (Oladipo, 2006). The informal sector consists of activities that lacks accurate and consistent data. It comprises of regular residential building and the same structures are built by citizen or community via the effort of the unskilled (artisans) (Odediran, and Babalola, 2013) labour. Multiple methods are used here with the supervision of the project owner. The government has no influence on the activities of this sector and not receiving any revenue such as tax from them; therefore, it becomes very challenging obtaining any reliable empirical data in this sector (Dantata, 2007).

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Formal or organised sector on the other hand, is the sector that comprises of the major construction organisations in the country, the formal sector in the country is made up of foreign and indigenous companies, which (Oladipo, 2006) are further grouped into small scale, medium and large scale according to annual turnover and capitalization. The construction companies in Nigeria involves the regulated formal sector as well as unregulated informal sector (Mlinga and Wells, 2001), while the informal are unskilled labour. The formal sector consists of both highly skilled (expertise) and the unskilled (laborers). The formal (Odediran, and Babalola, 2013) sector carries out its operation under “set rules and regulations” such as compliance to the nations laws on procurement, employment as well as tendering (Dantata, 2007), moreover, the government has a significant influence on their operations and collects taxes frequently. Generally, the formal sector economy was described by International Labour Organisation (ILO) as a sector of economy that is stable, regular and legally regulated business and with a protected employment (ILO 2002).

In Nigeria, the sector (construction industry) significantly impacts the national economy in some ways; nevertheless, the contribution of construction industry is (Isa et al., 2013) still small compared to other sector of the country (Dantata, 2007) economy such as Mining, Agriculture and Quarrying. Generally, construction industry has made an imprint in the economy by contributing 3.12% to the GDP in the 3rd quarter of the 2017 compared to 2.97% rate in 2016, but lower rate compared to 4.32% in the 2nd quarter of 2017 (NBS, 2017).

2.15.1 Construction Sector and Labour The data in Table 2.9 indicate the number of the people that engage in the construction industry. It presents the total number of workforces in an organised construction sector in a year. In 2010 the total number of the people engaged in the construction industry were 6,415,082, this number increased by 205,760 or 3.21% and make a total of 6,620,842 in 2011 this further increased in 2012 with 292,694 or 4.42% to 6,913,536 in 2012 (NBS, 2015). The employee in this sector is made up of both Nigerian male and female, where the male constitutes the largest number with the total of 398,403 in 2010, 396,602 in 2011 and 420,779 in 2012. The female employee on the other hand constitutes a total number of 7,202 in 2010, 8,488 in 2011 and 7,716 in 2012. While the number of male employees is seen to be at an increasing rate each year, the female employee’s rate decreases in numbers between 2010 to 2011, but in 2012 it increased by 6.10% (NBS, 2015). Figure 2.19 shows the rate of increase in the construction labour.

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Figure 2.19: Employment in construction

(Source: NBS, 2015)

2.15.2 Construction Industry Clients Like any other construction industry in the world, Nigeria has couple of stakeholders associated with the construction industry. These stakeholders include government, general contractors, architectural and engineering sectors, and subcontractors, financial bodies, management and engineering consultants, labour unions, materials and equipment suppliers and subcontractors (Alinaitwe, 2008; Dantata, 2007).

Key Clients

Apart from making decision and policies that influence the economy (Aniekwu, 2003), the government are also the main client or stakeholder for construction industry. Essentially, in Nigeria the leading client for this industry is the government via its agencies and various ministries. Also, the greater part of the contract’s value is carried out by the government. Other main clients are the private sector and this involves international body, individuals, estate developers, World Bank, oil companies and small and medium private companies (Dantata, 2007).

Dantata (2007) highlights the clients that are under government and their activities; this is presented in Table 2.9.

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Table 2.9: Government agencies as a client

Government agencies Activities Ministry of Transportation Roads building and Bridges for the entire country Railway lines Aviation (Airports and runways) Maritime (Docks.) Ministry of Water Resources Water distribution channels and networks Dams Irrigation channels Ministry of the Federal Capital Roads, rails, bridges, sewage treatment plants, Territory water distribution systems, infrastructure for the capital city as well as its satellite towns. Ministry of Environment and Housing Main housing projects in the entire country Natural environment preservation Power Holding Company of Nigeria Generating Stations Distribution and Transmission networks State Governments in Nigeria Infrastructure, Housing projects, Roads, Bridges, (comprising of 36 State Water distribution channels and networks. governments) Local Governments Areas (with 774 Small scale infrastructure projects and Access Local Governments) roads. (Source: Dantata, 2007)

2.15.3 Private clients For the past years, private clients or stakeholders was not playing a key role in the Nigeria construction sector. Most of the construction project carried out by the private sector were generally small in terms of (Ugochukwu and Onyekwena 2014) magnitude and less complex. On the other hand, as the nation experience continuous development and with government determination to deregulate several sectors in the nation’s economy, the private sector has begun undertaking (Dantata, 2007) much more complex projects. They make a significant amount of the entire “construction volume” in the nation economy. Most of these giant private construction company are indicated in Table 2.10 with their activities (project type) and location and source.

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Table 2.10: Private Clients or Private Companies

Companies Project Type Locations Source Julius Berger National Stadium in Abuja, Julius Berger. Abuja, 18-hole IBB (2006, 11, 13, 15). Lagos International Golf Julius Berger. Course in Abuja, Obajana, Uyo, Port (2004, 01). Central Bank of Nigeria Harcourt, Kano, Head Office, completed Kaduna, Maiduguri, Calabar, Benin, The world class Asaba Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport Obajana Cement Plant Akaw Ibom stadium Dantata and Roads, Infrastructure Maiduguri, Kano, Alec. (2006, 01 08). Sawoe Const. project, Bridges, Abuja, Obajana, Co. Nig. Ltd Offices, Residential Lekki, Lagos houses, Cement factor, Dams, and Drainages CCECC Nigeria Railway system, Lagos, Abuja, Akaw RCC. (2006, 10 10). Limited Bridges, Roads, Ibom, Port Harcourt Stadium complex, and Banks Setraco Nigeria Roads, Bridges, Dams, Maiduguri, Kano, Setraco. (2007, 11, Ltd. Office complex and Abuja, Lagos, Asaba, 12, 14). Residential houses Benin and Calabar RCC Nigeria Ibadan - Ife road Jos, Ife – Ilesha, RCC. (2006, 10, 11, Ltd. dualization, Jos Bukuru Ibadan, Uyo, Lagos, 14). Water Project, Ife - Ogun State Ilesha road dualization, Katampe extension and infrastructure and Roads and Bridges in other major cities Costain West Roads, and Bridges. Ibadan, Lagos, Abuja (Abiodun, 2007). Africa Plc. Commercial houses, Residential houses, and Office buildings, Dams, Railways.

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PW Nigeria Ltd. roads and bridges, Jos, Ibadan, Abuja P.W. Nigeria (2013) water supply and sewerage, and commercial, residential, and office buildings. Water Supply project, International airport, topsoil strip, Mine site development works (Source: Dantata, 2007)

2.15.4 Projects in Nigeria Large project in time past were usually implemented by public sector (government organisations), however, several large projects are being executed over the years or presented being executed all over the country by both public sector and private sector (Ekoatlantic, 2016; Dantata, 2007) most of these large scale projects are carried out in Lagos and Abuja and some other developed towns in the county such as Port Harcourt and Calabar. The major project executed in the country are highlighted below.

Eko Atlantic

The Eko Atlantic is a well-planned city sited on the high land of Lagos Nigeria, it is built on a reclaimed property from the Atlantic Ocean (Elumoye, 2007). The city is said to accommodate 250,000 residents and everyday flow of about 150,000 commuters. This development is designed to aid in bring to an end the current erosion in Lagos state coastline (Dada, 2009). The project is anticipated to be apex of the coming generation of property in the entire continent of African; containing a total of ten square kilometres, the city meets the needs for commercial, residential and financial as well as tourist accommodations (Dada, 2011). Figure 2.20 shows a picture of Eko Atlantic City.

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Figure 2.20: Eko Atlantic City

(Source: Oluseye, 2016)

Centenary City

Abuja Centenary City came as a result of the vision for the country to become a world class commercial destination, putting the nation in the global business or property map. This project has received a vast boost with the rapid development of hotels and resorts in Abuja. The project which is already being developed rapidly, promised to initiate a new initiative in Nigeria for residential homes and hospitality with apartments and service villas (Ibrahim, 2015). The project is expected to provide thousands of jobs, serve as a centre of attraction to foreign investors. Figure 2.21 shows the picture of the Abuja Centenary City.

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Figure 2.21: Abuja Centenary City

(Source: Ibrahim, 2015)

Akwa Ibom International Stadium

The Akwa Ibom International Stadium is an “all seater national stadium” (Business Today Nigeria, 2015) that is located in the state capital Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. The stadium is said to serve as a home-base for the Nigeria national football team, the Super Eagles and a centre used for several social, religious and cultural events. The contract for this project was awarded by the state governor in 2012 to Julius Berger Construction Company. This ultra-modern stadium (multipurpose sports) with 30,000-seater was designed after the Allianz Arena (Crentsil, 2014). The multipurpose sports concept which situated on the forty-eight hectares of property has an exceptional feature which include collapsible seats, digital playback screen, bullet proof section for VIPs and 2 digital score boards, flood lights which is digital as well as thirty emergencies exist (Okpara 2014). Figure 2.22 shows the picture of the ultra-modern stadium.

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Figure 2.22: Akwa Ibom International Stadium (PunchNG, 2017)

Tinapa Resort

The Tinapa commercial Resort centre is an export processing region or zone is a free trade zones situated in Cross River State Calabar. While Tinapa business centre is established by state government to boots (Ajake, and Amalu, 2012) the tourism in the state, both the manufacturing and the Export process activities contribute to the development of the state economy. The tourism plays a very vital role in impacting on the economy diversification of the state (Eneji, et al., 2016). This project was jointly built by both public and private sector, its first phase was delivered in 2007, the other three stages of the project commenced immediately. The contract was awarded to Julius Berger Nigeria Plc, it was delivered on time with the cost of $350 million. The resort provide service such as entertainment, retail, casinos, movie production studio, hotel and exhibition centre (Dantata, 2007). Figure 2.23 shows the Tinapa Resort in Calabar.

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Figure 2.23: Tinapa Resort, Calabar (Maimo, 2007)

2.16 Construction Project Management Practice in Nigeria

2.16.1 PMTT Adoption

The adoption of PMTT in the construction industry has been a burning issue as the industry evolves from the traditional practice to modern practice (Olateju et al., 2011). Studies show that PMTT have gained ground and reputation over many years as a business practice that assists organisations and project managers to achieve their objectives (Marcelino, 2014; Ofori et al., 2016). Patanakul et al. (2010) added that PMTT help organisations to identify and manage risk, assist in precise estimation for project staffing to save cost, and help in allocating and delegating responsibility to aid in accomplishing various tasks or activities. Several studies have shown the inconsistency in the adoption of the PMTT in construction companies (Olateju et al., 2011; Grover and Froese, 2016; Lin et al., 2017). While some are debating its usefulness, others view it as a substitute to the traditional methods (Doumbouya et al., 2016; Mir and Pinnington, 2014; Ofori et al., 2016). Olateju et al. (2011), claim that the majority of construction companies in developed counties adopt PMTT to enhance their practice in terms of planning, budgeting, controlling and managing each phase of the project. Turner and Ledwith (2016) added that the application of PMTT aids in the improvement of management

115 capabilities, monitoring shrinking schedules, and enable private industries to effectively complete projects as well as attaining developmental objectives. Arnaboldi et al. (2004) assert that PMTT is a key enabler which private construction organisations adopt as their best practice. In contrast, Akomah and Jackson (2016) argued that regardless of the success story on PMTT in developed nations, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the UK and private companies in Greece, Germany and the USA have a different view about PMTT practice. Olateju et al. (2011) confirmed that the project manager’s past experience in these domains is the key factor to project success and not the adoption of PMTT as best practice. Although they seem to enjoy a certain level of success, this seems to be applicable only to large business. White and Fortune (2002), cited by Patanakul et al. (2010), examined current PMTT use in the public and private sector in the UK by collecting data from 236 project managers in public and private institutions. The study asked the respondents to list the PMTT that are adopted in their organisation. The result indicates that Gantt chart and Cost-Benefit Analysis are the most frequently used tools across different organisation and construction companies seem to adopt almost all the PMTT. Some scholars raised concern as to why there are project failures if the company across board adopts these tools, and to what extent do companies such as private construction companies engage in the adoption of these tools (Ofori et al., 2016; Akomah and Jackson, 2016; Grover and Froese, 2016). Table 2.11 shows the most frequently used project management tools and techniques in various industries.

Table 2.11: The Most Frequently Used PMTT by Various Organisations

Technique/tools Organisations Work Breakdown Structure Construction, Manufacturing, Service Statement of Work Service, Manufacturing Critical Path Method Manufacturing, Construction, Textile, Project Sensitivity Analysis Textile, Service, Manufacturing Earned value management IT, Manufacturing, Construction, NGO Gantt chart IT, Manufacturing, Construction, Textile Cost Benefit Analysis Construction, Textile, Manufacturing, IT

(Source: Patanakul et al., 2010)

Furthermore, Grover and Froese (2016) observed the adoption of these tools and techniques in the construction industry in advanced countries and concluded that its impact on the industry has positively reduced project failure. Also, it helps construction companies in advanced countries to invest their resources in the possible way to realise recurring success as well as meeting stakeholder requirements. However, Anantatmula and Webb (2016) seem to view

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PMTT practice in a different light when undertaking a study in emerging countries such as Mexico, South Africa, Poland, Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea, Morocco, Brazil and Russia. The study argued that although most establishments in these countries are still trying to find their footing with this new management approach, many of the construction organisations in these countries have engaged in the adoption of PMTT, though not very deeply. Similarly, the few who engage in the use of this approach experience a dramatic improvement in project delivery, stakeholder relation, meeting project scope and budgeting. While their counterparts, who are yet to employed this approach, still have difficulty in delivering project that meets stakeholder requirements. Anna (2008) noticed certain barriers they all encountered which seem to be common among transitional countries. Rostami et al. (2015) described these barriers as those factors that influence the adoption of PMTT in emerging economies. These include the following: misunderstanding of the PMTT, lack of adequate skills, knowledge of the new approach, training, expensiveness of PMTT, cultural barriers and emerging characteristics of the developing economy. In spite of the presence of this barrier, Javani and Rwelamila (2016) claim that adoption of PMTT has generated a significant difference in their practice.

In developing countries, such as Ghana, Botswana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal and Zimbabwe, the practice of modern PMTT is so far not well recognised or established in the private construction industry, especially in Nigeria (Sarhan and Fox, 2013). This resulted in abandoning construction projects and total project failure in private construction organisations in Nigeria. Though the situation in Ghana seems different in terms of best practice, several researchers have looked at the rate of PMTT adoption in Ghanaian construction industries. The result confirmed that the level of application is extremely low considering the increasing technology, competition in the industry and global market, which establish some aspect of economic development (Ofori-Kuragu et al., 2016; Akomah and Jackson, 2016; Anantatmula and Webb, 2016). Ogunde et al. (2017) carried out a comprehensive study on project management practice by focusing on Nigerian construction companies. The finding demonstrated two major issues: Organisational culture and policies are considered as posing a significant impact on the project management practices of Nigerian construction industries. Conversely, from the perspective of PM in contemporary Nigeria, it is currently obvious that alternate maintainable methods as well as strategies are necessary to address issues of PMTT practice; which shows the landscape of PMTT implementation in construction companies is not smooth within Nigeria.

Essentially, the PM practices implemented by construction industries in developing countries, especially in Nigeria, are largely behind the PM practices that are executed in developed

117 countries (Okafor, 2016; Olateju et al., 2011) As a result, more project (Okafor, 2016) failure is recorded in this region; in addressing this issue, therefore, there is a need to fully incorporate the PMTT approach into the institution or the system.

2.17 Chapter Summary

This chapter has provided an understanding into the major subjects being investigated critically in this study, namely tools and techniques (traditional and software tools) complexity, project management office, maturity model, culture, private and public sector and factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in private organisation in the context of private construction industry in Nigeria. It discussed in detail tools and techniques presenting them accordingly in a systematic approach in order to have better insight of the various PM tools available in the industry. It highlighted its benefits and limitations of adopting these tools as a practice in private construction companies. Since this study focuses on private sector, a detailed discussion on both private and public sector has been provided to justify the reasons for focusing on private sector, the chapter also presented a mapping of a typical structure of Nigerian construction industry. The findings from the literature shows that PMTT is not heavily used in Nigerian private construction due to certain factors.

Finally, the chapter identified these factors as Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture influencing the adoption of PMTT in construction industry, these four factors form the various pressure in institutional theory which is used as the theoretical lens underpinning this research and it is discussed in the next chapter, Chapter three.

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CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION AND ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

3.0 Introduction The major aim of this chapter is to critically evaluate various theories related to the adoption of management tools such as project management tools and techniques and to develop a conceptual framework for PMTT implementation. The rationale behind the development of such framework is to capture the private construction sector perspective of implementing PMTT, to map-out the complex concerns influencing the implementation of PMTT. This will give room for the study to investigate the reason why the implementation of PMTT has been (Olateju et al., 2011) fully adopted in most of the construction companies while some few numbers have made progress to fully adopt this service in their business. This will also allow the research to consider the different challenges that could prevent PMTT adoption from private construction organisation perspective. The conceptual framework will be employed as a road-map for collecting empirical data and also use for data analysis. Secondly, it will aid to establish a detailed overview of PMTT implementation in private construction companies in Nigeria.

As indicated in Chapter two, the implementation of PMTT often encounters several challenges. Though many PMTT scholars have discussed these challenges however, many of these researches conducted have been shallow and failed to employ theoretical stance when identifying as well as analysing the several factors and challenges affecting PMTT implementation. Although, few scholars that have employed theoretical models/concept have established the need for appropriate usage of theory to (Al-Busaidy 2011) study PMTT implementation. One of the outstanding studies in this respect is the study conducted by Hu and Quan (2006) to investigate “institutional influence for studying corporate IT budgeting”; the study carried out by Pardo and Jiang (2007) to “examine organisational transformation in the public sector using institutional aspects”; the study conducted by Orange et al. (2007) to “analyse the culture of local government organisations to create an integrated framework to support e-government systems”; the study of L una-Reyes and Gil-García (2011) to “explore the use of institutions to understand integrated e-government implementation” and the study conducted by Tan et al. (2005) to “study the relation between organisational barriers and institutional hindrances to facilitate e-government implementation in Singapore”. Based on the theoretical standpoint it is understood that research has contributed essentially to the understanding of technology adoption (PMTT) however, greater number of studies still remain stuck in conventional theories of (Goulding, 1998, cited by Al-Busaidy) organisation. This subjective theoretical framing used in analysing implementation of PMTT and its associate complexity as well as challenges are not new in research particularly when reflecting other

119 research that have been carried out to study new phenomena. This chapter analysed a collection of suitable theories to study technological PM tools and suggest institution theory as the underpinning theory to aid in understanding the implementation of these tools.

Several studies have investigated the adoption of technology and organisational change, employing different theories. These theories according to Cordella and Shaikh (2006) can be categorised into three categories; the social construction, technology determinisms and those theories that address the issue of interplay that exist between the technology as well as users. However, Desanctis and Poole (1994) cited by Sunday (2013) categorised the theories into different schools of thought such as decision-making school, institutional school as well as social technical school. These schools of thought help the researcher to categorise their study by the significance attached to either technological adoption, society or both in influencing the other. These different schools are studied first, before deliberating on the theories that are related to the features of the three schools of thought in order to make selection on the options appropriate for this research.

3.1 Decision Making School The decision-making school stem from psychology, this approach is associated with positivist (Bostrom et al., 2009) research where the outcome of a certain change in the first group of technology can be foreseeable. The decision-making theorists believe that technological innovation is largely the reason for change in any organisation. They suggested that belief for a given result for instance, benefit associated with technological adoption enables a firm to become more conscious of the benefits that are related to a new innovation or technology (Xu et al., 2007; Bostrom et al., 2009). Scholars in this school assert that adoption of technology reinforces or transform organisational intellectual properties and also enhances or restricts individual behaviour, organisation and group (Jones and Karsten, 2008).

The decision-making theorists consider the concept of technology as a feature embedded in an organisation to solve organisational problems. It stresses on the rational decision-making which is coherent with technology (Bostrom et al., 2009) imperative, where its external force strongly restrains individual and organisational performance. The decision-making school emphasises on separate actors, they are known to be independent and relate to causal relationships as well as having a considerable (Orlikowski and Scott, 2008) determinant impact on one another. Though numerous researches within this domain have made salient assertions such as “failure to achieve a change implies a failure in technology implementation,” however, mixed responses besiege these studies (Desanctis and Poole (1994) cited by Sunday, 2013). Studies have suggested various ways technologies of similar characteristic are implemented and employed across organisations or systems which generate diverse

120 perception as well as behaviours that vary from the intended (Johnson et al., 2008; Moon, 2003) impact. For instance, literature argued that in spite of the help provided by technology on daily performances of activities in the organisation, it has generated a change where these changes were unexpected or required. Study also criticised that this school of thoughts are static and deterministic in nature (Sunday, 2013).

3.2 Institutional School The institutional school of thoughts rest their beliefs on social change rather than technology and consider technology not as a reason for development or change instead as an opportunity for development (Desanctis and Poole (1994) cited by Sunday, 2013). These theorists criticised the previous school of thought (decision making school) for basing their belief only on technology as the medium of organisational change, where technology changes and shapes people’s behaviour, attitudes and belief by means of over emphasising technology and neglecting the social aspect of technology (Bostrom et al., 2009). The sociology of technology offers set of tool/techniques that may be useful in shaping the organisation; the organisational imperative is similar to institutional school of thought where individual actor in both concepts construct technology used in satisfying the needs of the organisation (Pinch, 2008).

The main idea behind this school of thought is that individual interaction is actually the determinant for social construction or creation of technology. Literature explained that designers of technology are capable of managing the impact that is related with technology through attending to technical concern as well as social concern. Accordingly, institutional theories were initiated for organisations and emphasizes on the study of social concern (Markus and Robey (1988) cited by Sunday 2013).

However, theories that fall under this school neglect the role of technology played in changing or shaping the organisation. Several study in this domain failed to recognise designer’s intention (Orlikowski and Lacono, 2001). Hence, it is contended that theories that relate with the institutional school may not be seen as “an absolute test of the organisation imperative” (Orlikowski and Lacono, 2001). Theories in this field fall under social constructivism and others have criticised this school for concentrating mostly on social structure.

3.3 Social Technology School (STS) Social technical school was developed by Emery and Trist in 1960, to define organisations involved with complex interaction among humans, technology and organisation; it also suggests the interaction among the society’s complex (Baxter and Summerville, 2011) infrastructure and the behaviour of human. As a result, society in itself, as well as a large number of its substructures maintain a complex “sociotechnical system” (Sunday, 2013). This

121 interaction is observed as true in most of the organisations existing currently. The significance of the definition of STS is that its entire factors such as human, technology and organisation need to be taken into account when developing any system or organisation using this theory (Baxter and Summerville, 2011). Davis et al. (2014) added that this theory considers both technology and social factors when it seeks to promoting change in an organisation or system, whether it relates to the initiation of new business change or new technology. Organisation or system can be seen as complex systems, consisting of several interdependent factors. Furthermore, Davis et al. (2014) claims that creating change to a single aspect of the organisation without taking into account how this change might influence other aspect or part of the organisation can limit its effectiveness. Social technology school has achieved significant success in aiding to design new technologies as well as technology that promote changes in most organisations (Baxter and Summerville, 2011; Davis et al., 2014). Klein (2005) asserts that this principle helps in guiding designers on the possible roles of the end users and on creating a better understanding of how modern technology can be employed and integrated together with the existing social system. However, theories associated with this school of thought claims that adoption of technology depends on the extent to which this innovation and the environment or social system supplement each other. Equally, Markus and Robey (1998) cited by Sunday (2013) also noted that individuals involved in making decision are frequently segmented and are irregular in such a way that decisions made are often changed continuously. In addition, the understanding of individuals’ action varies from one person to another. Theories that linked to this school agree with the emerging perspectives (Markus and Robey, 1998 cited by Sunday, 2013).

The fundamental premise with regards to emerging perspective is the existence of the interplay of contradictory preferences, views, and prejudices of diverse individuals. Gasser (1986) cited by Dhillon et al. (2009) examined the way individuals adapt and manage technology; the study also shows how the nature of repetitive work comprises the “dynamic interaction” between human and non-human. Theories linked to this school of thought varies from the former schools. The decision-making school for instance lays more emphasis on technological development with limited importance on society, while institutional school beliefs that human beings have unlimited (Barrett et al., 2006) choice as well as influence over the significances related to the technology. Furthermore, the decision-making theories are static, deterministic and are positivist in nature. Theories under this school, view technology as a separate entity and are used by organisations to achieve tasks. Most studies consider technology as “independent variable” whereas others view technology as “moderating variable” that controls other variables in the organisation (Orlikowski and Scott, 2008). However, institutional school promotes the adoption of process models, adoption of

122 interpretative approach as well as focusing on the human agency roles (Barrett et al., 2006). Theories under institutional schools and decision-making schools are not appropriate for this research considering their characteristics. To understand technology adoption a detailed investigation is required on the dynamic nature of organisation procedures, knowledge regarding the intentions of different users and features that associates with technology, as a result, social technical school that integrate as well as showing the recursive interaction that exist among human agency and technology may be suitable for this study (Orlikowski and Scott, 2008).

The subsequent section in this study reviews theories that somehow relates to these schools. In particularly, this review emphases on adoption theories and those focusing on the interplay of both social as well as technical.

3.4 Technological Adoption Theories There are several theories of adoption used in the literature that are relevant in describing the influence of innovation adoption decision in the organisations. Some of these theories include; theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behaviour and diffusion of innovation theory (Parker and Castlemen 2009). This review is not limited to the theories mentioned above since there are many other theories that have been employed to study innovation (PMTT) adoption in construction organisation. It is essential to emphases once again that this study does not have the intention of integrating any of these theories; rather, the aim is to review each of them, show how various studies make distinctions concerning each of them and the reason they may not be appropriate to underpin this study.

3.4.1 Technology Acceptance Model The technology acceptance model (TAM) has been viewed as one of the key traditional adoption models used in the last two decades. Though some other models have been suggested to predict and explain the use of technology, hence, TAM has captured the attention of both the practitioners and academia in the technology community (Chuttur, 2009), and it is widely cited among the technology adoption models (Mugo et al., 2017).

TAM was developed by Davis in 1986 and has gone through series of modification since then, it is an extension of Ajzen and Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Priyanka and Kumar, 2013). TAM helped in simplifying TRA and allowing many scholars to carry out studies relating to the adoption of technology that support several findings in various contexts (Benbasat and Barki, 2007). The aim of initiating this model by Fred Davis was to explain factors that influence technology acceptance, the technology usage behaviour as well as providing a theoretical explanatory theory or model (Olumide, 2016). The foundation for this theory is built on the principle that when a new technology is introduced to the users, their

123 decision to accept or reject it is influenced by three key determinants (Mugo et al., 2017), these includes; perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and attitude towards usage (Duccy, 2013).

Teo (2013) highlights several factors that support the acceptance and use of technology, stating that factors such as, social influence, attitudes, individual difference, situational influence and belief are main factors that support the intention to adopt technology as well as promoting the ability to either accept or reject technology. The author further explained that a person’s behaviour is affected by the behavioural intention to engage in a behaviour or activity (Teo, 2013). Most studies have assessed the present positions of TAM and (Silva, 2007; Chuttur, 2009; Olumide, 2016) underline its challenges. TAM has generated an “illusion of accumulative tradition” which implies that most of the research in this domain have reinforced (Sunday, 2013) scholars’ awareness on what the fundamental relationship of TAM are. Such awareness has not expanded to larger areas for instance technology development; hence, studies supported by this theory failed to address how various actors shape technology (Benbasat and Barki, 2007). This has impeded the development of TAM especially in the field of technology and has not produced actionable guidance for upcoming researchers (Benbasat and Barki, 2007; Sunday, 2013). Supporting this claims Chuttur (2009) observed that though TAM is a highly accepted model, scholars share different opinions concerning its practical efficiency and theoretical assumptions. It is established that studies in TAM lack adequate rigor as well as relevance. According to Lawrence (2010) the model is deterministic in nature as it considers a single interplay such as “technology adoption”, and ignores the aspect of human factor. TAM cannot explain adequately how different actors exercise influence, which tends to be the fundamental in describing the emerging technology adoption (Lawrence, 2010).

3.4.2 Theory of Reasoned Actions Several theories as well as models have been developed or used over the decades to understand and study user’s adoption behaviours. These theories and models’ emphases on individual aim to engage in a particular behaviour or actions such as the use of a new technology or the adoption of new management approach (Otieno et al., 2016). One of such adoption theories is the Theory of Reasoned Actions which is used widely in the business management. TRA is among the influential theories of individual behaviour that is used mostly in the adoption of management approach such as technologies (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Kratochwill (2005) observed that TRA is a universal theory that has been employed to describe and envisage various individual behaviours; it has been employed by the researchers to effectively predict the behaviours of people in different domains (Kratochwill, 2005). The theory is derived from social psychology in response to inadequate or weak relationship that exists

124 between the level of performance and attitude of volitional and simple behaviour (Hale et al., 2003). In addition, this theory makes effort, among other things to describe why and how behaviour is influenced by attitude, which is also very vital in mirroring this research. Specifically, why and how people’s belief influence or change their actions (Otieno, 2016). TRA highlighted three common constructs known as: attitude, intentions and subjective norms. This has been experimented in several studies conducted across different field of study and cases such as “dieting, limiting sun exposure and consuming genetically engineered foods” (Otieno, 2016). TRA is similar to hierarchy theory of effect of “high involvement behaviour” as it contains certain courses of action such as; attitude, awareness and behaviour (Awa et al., 2010). TRA is of the opinion that attitude as well as subjective norms shape human intentions, however, intentions therefore determine the behaviour of individual (Awa et al., 2010). Attitude in this context represent either negative or positive evaluative pre-disposition of an action whereas subjective norms stands for the enhancement of individual’s image or social status (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000) as well as other people’s perception about behaviour. Kratochwill (2005) noted that attitude is a function of an individual’s beliefs that carry-out certain behaviour resulting in certain outcome, also evaluation of the assumed outcomes or result forms a person’s indirect attitude. TRA is further employed to conceptualise individual pattern of behaviour in the decision-making strategy on the use of technology or new business innovation, such as adoption process. It has the ability to explain whether a person’s behaviour such as the use of new business strategy is motivated by behavioural intentions. However, this TRA has not been widely used in assessing studies such as adoption of PMTT (business strategy) (Otieno, 2016).

In spite of the contributions and the application of TRA in adoption research, this theory has been criticized by many scholars. First, the theory focuses on predicting the behavioural intention of an individual but fail to explain the behavioural change which is considered as the primary concern in the adoption process. Hence, a clear detailed and particular guidance concerning behaviour modification is not specified by TRA (Sharma, and Kanekar, 2007). Another limitation of TRA observed by Sharma and Kanekar (2007) is that it does not take into consideration demographic variable, cultural factors as well as personality related factors that also influence or shape behaviour.

Secondly, Jane (2003) noted that TRA is a pragmatic theory; however, criticised its conceptual bases and questioned the TRA testability. Sheppard et al. (1988), cited by Sunday (2013), emphasis that when certain action require resource, knowledge as well as skills, the conditions of TRA model is not likely to be met. In such circumstances, individual may be limited in performing the action even though the intention to carry out the action is so strong. For instance, an individual may be limited to adopt PMTT if such individual does not have

125 adequate knowledge on how to do it. This suggests that the individual or organisation’s ability to attain its intention is not definite irrespective of the effort. Therefore, this theory may not be suitable for this study since a person’s behaviour concerning adoption of management strategy (PMTT) can be forecasted or predicted if their intentions, beliefs, attitudes are well understood.

3.4.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed successfully to predict behaviour as well as intentions for controllable action and volitional (Kratochwill, 2005). Ajzen (1985) cited by Sunday (2013) however contended that TRA was inadequate where volitional actions are incomplete. As a result, Ajzen proposed a new model or an extension of TRA known as Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to allow prediction of behaviour that seem difficult to perform (Lin, and Chen, 2011) at will. TPB has been considered as one of the influential models used in predicting human behaviours (Ajzen, 2011). It is used widely across different field of studies to aid in understanding various problems and issues in the societies (Hasbullah et al., 2014). TPB play a vital role in the concept of behavioural control by introducing additional construct such as perceived behaviour control to TRA model, this construct aid in improving the predictions (Hasbullah et al., 2014) of human intentions. TPB comprises of three key constructs, the first TPB construct is attitude, this refers to the degree to which an individual has a favourable (positive) or unfavourable (negative) evaluation or appraisal of behaviour. The study on the theory of TPB behaviour strongly establish that attitude is a dependable predictor of intention as well as behaviour (Hasbullah et al., 2014; Lin and Chen, 2011). Hasbullah et al. (2014) observed that individual’s attitude with regard to object will arbitrate all response regarding the object (Crano and Prislin, 2006).

The second construct subjective norms, it is described as the “perceived social pressure” that exert social pressure or influence to carry out behaviour. The theory suggested that individual can establish a belief based on (Hasbullah et al., 2014) what people expect this individual to do or depending on the observation of other important actions. Armitage and Conner (2001) argued that this construct (subjective norms) is the weakest variable in this theory. After an intensive review of 185 studies, Armitage and Conner (2001) concluded that the contribution made by attitude was 49% in predicting a person’s behavioural intention while subjective norms intention was 34%. Although TPB have been assessed across various behaviours, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) cited by Sunday (2013) assert that most of these studies that examine variables involving attitude are likely to utilise the theory of planned behaviour model.

The last construct in this theory is perceived behavioural control (PBC), this determinant was also added to the previous TRA and it became the third construct of theory of planned

126 behaviour. PBC shows the perceived belief (Hasbullah et al., 2014) of difficultness or easiness to perform behaviour. The study of Yakasai and Jusoh (2015) indicates that PBC construct is determined by beliefs relating to the level to which individual has access to opportunities or resources that is necessary to effectively perform the behaviour. However, if an individual does not have the will power to perform behaviour, it may influence the prediction of the intention as well as behaviour (Hasbullah et al., 2014), consequently, the TPB has been suggested to remedy this situation which was impossible to address in TRA.

Despite the TPB contribution in the adoption of management tools, the theory has reached the maturity point, also study in this field is now changing the fundamental constructs as well as finding alternative constructs for predicting behaviour (Venkatesh et al., 2007). Most of the research that has employed TPB ignores the inter-relationships and complex interactions between customer, stakeholders, government agencies and designers in the adoption process of new management tools or strategy (Ukoha et al., 2011). This theory also disregards the aspect of emotion which include; fear, threats as well as feelings such as positive or negative emotion with relatively no argument on them (Ke Zhang, 2018).

3.4.4 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT) Diffusion of innovation theory provides a different theoretical perspective. It seeks to describe when, why, how as well as to what extent new ideas and management strategy is adopted or rejected (Sunday, 2011). Rogers (2003) argued that “adoption is a decision of full use of an innovation as the best course of action available and rejection is a decision not to adopt an innovation”. This theory was developed by Rogers to explain the process of innovation diffusion. The dissemination of innovation or new idea is the process whereby ideas are communicated within members of an organisation through certain medium or channel over time (Dibraa, 2015) subsequently, it is a management process that spreads out innovation from its conception source to its adapter or user. Subject to the existing evaluation practice, new ideas are adopted or rejected and also decisions are taken if the users have adequate awareness of the innovation as well as being able to assess its perceived benefits (Sunday, 2013). DIT is a decision process that aid in measuring the rate of adoption possibility (Rogers, 2003).

Studies claim that experience and knowledge of experts acquired via learning significantly influence the adoption of technology, stating that such management resources are vital for efficient innovation or technology acceptance (Shiau et al., 2009; Chuang et al., 2009). Rogers (2003) suggested the use of change agents and opinion leaders. Gerwing (2016) defined change agent “as those people either inside or outside the organization who provide technical, specialist or consulting assistance in the management of a change effort”. Roger (1971, 1995)

127 cited by Gerwing (2016) refers to change agent as an individual (a professional) who influences others innovation decisions such that their belief is acceptable. While opinion leaders are defined as the "act not only as channels of information but also as a source of social pressure toward a particular choice, and of social support to reinforce that choice once it has been made" (Chaudhry and Irshad, 2013). Sunday (2013) also refers to opinion leaders as the level to which an individual is able to influence a potential customers’ or adopters’ way of thinking in manner that is considered acceptable. Wang (2016) went further to state that the opinion leaders exert their influence on the decision of others for instance end user of the innovation such as team members. The change agents and opinion leaders might aid in reducing the knowledge barriers or resistance to change of the prospective adopters as most of their knowledge and experience can help as valuable information to minimise the perceived risk of prospective adopters and also build expertise (Sunday, 2013), however, organisations are well informed and may not depend only on the knowledge of the expertise since they are capable of influencing the system negatively. Moreover, construction firm often establish regular interactions between its different stakeholders such as contractors, designers, project managers, clients and engineers and other organisations each with various behaviour and norms which can impact on the adoption (Jin, X et al., 2017). Stratopoulos and Lim (2010) believe that such collective knowledge and experience can have influence on the business.

Also, the DIT revealed five different variables in its model these includes; compatibility, relative advantages, complexity, trialability and observability. Studies show that DIT is used to study both pre-adoption as well as post-adoption, explaining that the actual adopter and potential adopters of new idea use various variables that are related to attitude. However, DIT is a variance model and cannot explain adequately the diversity and complexities associated with the adoption of new idea in organisation (Lawrence, 2010).

3.4.5 Technology Organisational Environment Framework (TOE) The theory was basically developed to study the factors influencing the adoption and diffusion of technology or the characteristic of developing technology (Merono-Cerdan, 2008). The model comprises of a group of detailed factors that aid in explaining the adoption as well as implementation of technology in organisations. The model or theory acknowledged three contexts influencing the firm’s technology adoption, these includes; Technological context, organisational context as well as environmental context (Ukoha et al., 2011). The technological context includes the entire technologies that are useful to the organisation, both technology that are presently in use in the organisation and the new ones that are in the market currently (Baker, 2011). Chong and Olesen (2015) observed that technological context in TOE share the same constructs that Rogers tradition technological diffusion innovation does, these constructs are; relative advantage, compatibility as well as complexity. These variables have

128 a significant influence on the adoption of technology in the organisation. The second context in this theory is organisational context, according to Awa et al. (2012) this context consists of organisational innovativeness, quality of human resource, intra-organisational communication procedure, top management support, organisational size, organisational culture and the level of slack resources (Baker, 2011). Chong and Olesen (2015) studied TOE on eco-effectiveness and concluded that the quality of human resource shows the level to which the technological knowledge is made available in an organisation. Cooper and Molla (2014) offered an empirical study revealing that the more the “employees’ absorptive capacity to generate technological knowledge, it is more likely for the organisation to adopt successfully technological initiative”. The top management in an organisation explain the role played by executives in facilitating as well as encouraging technological innovation within the system as organisational strategy; they are committed in ensuring that they drive the adoption and implementation of technology in various stages (Chong and Olesen, 2015). The third context is environmental context, this context identifies three factors that influence the adoption of technology, this include; industry characteristics, the regulatory environment and technology infrastructure providers. The industry has been examined in various ways. For example, strong competition by other industry motivates the adoption of technology innovation. Also, dominant organisations within the similar value chain are capable of influencing others in the same value chain to innovate (Baker, 2011; Chong and Olesen, 2015). Baker (2011) asserts that organisations in a rapid growing business tend to adopt innovation more rapidly, while in declining industry, however, technology adoption is not definite. The next factor in this framework is government regulator; regulatory body has been recognised as critical factor influencing the adoption of technology within the TOE model (Kraemer et al., 2002). The regulatory body can either discourage or motivate organisations from adopting technology innovation. When regulatory body or government agents impose new laws on industry, for instance requiring a device for controlling pollution for energy industry, technology is fundamentally mandated for this industry. Likewise, stringent safety as well as testing requirement may retard the adoption of technology in many industries. For example, in construction firm, where modern material needs to be tested extensively before it can be used or in banking, where privacy (Baker, 2011) requirement may stop banking industry from employing new ways to aid their customers in accessing their account. Hence, the regulation from government can influence the adoption of technology positively or negatively (Chong and Olesen, 2015). The technology infrastructure providers being the last factor in this framework also influence innovation. Organisations that need to pay their skilled labour high wages are often required to innovate via labour-saving technology. Also, literature asserts that the availability of the professionals, service providers of technology and consultants also fosters the adoption of technology (Baker, 2011).

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However, Rogers (1983) cited by Sunday (2013) identified a set of adoption characteristics such as the internal and external organisational characteristics and leaders’ characteristics. The internal characteristics of an organisation is associated with the organisation design while the external characteristics of a firm is associated with the system’s openness as well as the importance of the characteristics of the technology, also the leaders’ characteristics involves the persons attitudes regarding change (Ukoha et al., 2011). Based on the review since decision makers in the organisations can be perceived as distinct (Zhu et al., 2003) internal properties of organisation, Rogers’s framework is similar to this model (TOE) in terms of internal characteristics, adoption predictors, external characteristics and high-level management characteristics (Ukoha et al., 2011). The diffusion of innovation model and TOE model laid emphasis on the characteristics (Sunday, 2011) of a technology which are quite similar to that of TAM’s two construct, such as the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness.

However, the key disadvantage associated with this model is that it focuses on drivers and barriers of technology adoption; also, it is not flexible in nature. TOE framework fails to show the dynamic and complex nature of technology adoption activities within the organisations (Sunday, 2011). TOE appears to be inappropriate for this study as it ignored the complexities and flexible nature associated with organisation such as construction firms. Ofori (2015), affirmed that construction firms are engine of development, but "the intensity of the driving force and the consequences of applying it in development programmes are much more dynamic”. This implies that the construction firms’ follow a more flexible path since the adoption of innovation in most cases may often be carried out by trial and error. Even though TOE differs from the formerly discussed framework, as it offers several variables which make the model a more robust theory, it is not suitable for construction firms due to their peculiarities. Based on this, Rantapuska and Ihanaine (2008) contend strongly that most frameworks developed in this domain were developed initially for something else and not for studying technology adoption in an organisation.

3.5 Social Technical Theories (STT) The following section reviewed theories which emphasize the significance of interplay of both the society and technology. Though scholars observe these theories in a different manner, most of the STT such as “social construction of technology” tend to ignore the way in which technology influence the social relations (McGrath, 2003); whereas others believed it as the “role played by society”. The focal point of this section is to review earlier studies on the social technical theories, to show how their contributions make more distinctions, also to reveal which school of thought these theories fit in and their suitability for investigating emerging

130 technology. It is essential to note that the aim is to help in the selection of suitable theory to underpin this study.

3.5.1 The structuration theories (ST) Organisational research over time has developed interest in Anthony Giddens’ Structuration Theory; this theory has been used in many studies relating to both technology and organisational change. It showed the substantial insights into social-change process that relates to the adoption and application of technology and the significance of social structure (Albano et al., 2010). The key argument associated with this theory is that social structure or “structures” are represented only in humans’ mind (Bostrom et al., 2009). This theory was established to justify the interplay between persons’ action as well as social structure or a relationship that exist between user and technology (Kort and Gharbi, 2013) which are based essentially on the abstract notions without any material basis (Sunday, 2013). It signifies a condition that governed the structural change. The structural change in this context usually leads to the initiation of (Bostrom et al., 2009) social system. The Giddens theory focuses on the characteristics of a human actor and gives opportunity for scholars to study the social system or society (Kort and Gharbi, 2013).

Literature observed that the major elements related to ST are the manner in which both the structure and human agent are traced; these two concepts are associated via structural duality and modality (Albano et al., 2010; Whittington, 2010; Kort and Gharbi, 2013). Duality of system structure is highlighted in this study because structure prevents actions, and on the other hand established structure is considered as human actions. The interplay of both structure and human actions are obtained through modalities. Modality in this context is what connected both the structure as well as action together and these two are mutually related (Sunday, 2013).

Several studies have acknowledged key contributions made by this theory; however, this theory is criticised by many scholars. Literature have acknowledged the fundamental contributions made by these theories; however, their use has suffered a lot of criticism (Bostrom et al., 2009). It is noted that ST has not given sufficient attention to the concept of technology, rather to society. It does not give room for the study of casual relationship between both concept and relationship and cannot be viewed in a broad perspective (Joseph, 2006; Bostrom et al., 2009). Again, it failed to consider the roles that technology play as well as associated characteristics (Sunday 2013) in the context of the society.

3.5.2 The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) The SCOT is among the sets of heterogeneous methods in social-science, which occurs from sociology, SCOT was developed by Pinch and Bijker (Bruun and Hukkinen, 2003). Supporters

131 of SCOT claim that technology does not shape or determine the action of human actor, rather it is the human action that determine and sharps technology. This theory studies how as well as why a particular technology emerges and why they are adopted at certain period of time (Jones and Bissell, 2011; McGrath, 2003). SCOT believed that change in technology is determined by social process whereby various technologies are developed and are negotiated via several individual that are involved in it within a (Sunday 2011) social context.

Pinch and Bijker’s social construction of technology theory according to Bruun and Hukkinen (2003) is the well-known theory that stresses that the construction of old-wheeler machines to a modernised wheeler was realised via the contribution of different set of individuals and not by natural route of improving its design. In addition, the construction as well as the change was handled by a set of heterogeneous actors that both agreed and disagreed on the designers’ intention. Therefore, this theory believes that there are multiple ways to interpret technology and its interpretation can be flexibly in nature (Jones and Bissell, 2011; Bruun and Hukkinen, 2003). Another perception that guides SCOT is closure. This suggests the rationalisation of interpretations and it subsequently fades away, also in practice, it indicates that those (Bruun and Hukkinen, 2003) interpretations that are prevailing are stabilised. However, the limitation associated with this theory is that technological roles are less (Bostrom et al., 2009) accounted for. SCOT focuses much on the human actors than technology and this makes it a one-sided theory (Cordella and Shaikh, 2009).

3.6 Institution Theory Since the development of institutional theory in the 1970s, the theory has turn out to be the dominant method or approach for studying organisations as well as organising; and took to the name institutionalism. Certainly, although the theory moored to orthodox institutionalism, the current provocative assertions of modern institutionalism concerning embeddedness as well as associations with the environment and the power of legitimacy (Zucker, 1977) and of rationalisation have turn out to be the axioms for various strands in (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983) organisational analysis (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). From this strong foundation grew a diversity of theoretical focal point: comparative as well as worldwide tradition of (Meyer et al., 1997) universal society theory, transition, and institutional logics as well as institutional work (Lawrence et al., 2009; Thornton, et al., 2012). These elements go together with multiple concepts to explain institutional procedures in the organisation and (Bromley and Powell, 2012) field level such as loose coupling, ascription of agency to different actors, network analysis, field configurations as well as emergency (Garud et al., 2007; Powell et al., 2005; Strang and Sine, 2002).

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Given the diversity of the theoretical as well as methodological approaches, institutional theory is described as a larger tent approach and it is recognised more than other set of organisational theories. The theory offers a theoretical lens whereby scholars can examine and identify influences that support survival as well as legitimacy of business or organisational practices, these include factors such as, tradition, culture, regulation, social environment, economic incentives and history (Lai et al., 2006; Baumol et al., 2009; Brunton et al., 2010). Legitimacy in this context means the adoption of best practices in an organisation and is approved by stakeholder as the appropriate practice (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983). Institutional theory is concerned mainly with how organisations and groups secure both their legitimacy as well as their positions by following the rules (for instance; government agencies, regulatory structure, laws, professions, scripts, courts, and culture) and institutional environment norms (Scott, 2007; Meyer and Rowan 1991; DiMaggio and Powell 1983). According to this theory, external political, social and economic pressures effect organisational strategies and the decision making of organisations as they work toward the adoption of legitimate (Glover et al., 2014) practices or legitimise the organisational practice base on the approval of other stakeholders.

The institutional theory can also be employed to describe how changes in technological advancement, social values and regulation influence decisions in adopting new technology in an organisation (Glover et al., 2014).

Scholars from early studies looked at institutional theory in various perspectives; one of earliest whose work has been accessed by many, Veblen (1906) cited by Al-Busaidy (2011) indicated that institutions operate as “habits of life, particularly with the changes which the modern era brings in industry and in the economic organization of society”. Therefore, institutional theory has no particular and universal or general agreed definition among the scholars as well as practitioners. For example, Powell and DiMaggio (1991) argued that “The new institutionalism in organization theory and sociology comprises a rejection of rational- actor models, an interest in institutions as independent variables, a turn toward cognitive and cultural explanations, and an interest in properties of supra-individual units of analysis that cannot be reduced to aggregations or direct consequences of individuals’ attributes or motives”. In contrast, several authors (Avgerou, 2000; Lawrence, 2003; Lamb et al., 2003) have provided diverse definitions to describe the idea of institutional theory, however the most valuable and appropriate definition for this study is the subsequent definition by Scott (2001): “Institutions are social structures that have attained a high degree of resilience. [They] are composed of cultural-cognitive, normative, and regulative elements that, together with associated activities and resources, provide stability and meaning to social life. Institutions are transmitted by various types of carriers, including symbolic systems, relational systems,

133 routines, and artefacts. Institutions operate at different levels of jurisdiction, from the world system to localized interpersonal relationships. Institutions by definition connote stability but are subject to change processes, both incremental and discontinuous” (Scott, 2001).

In the current business environment, the term institution is becoming wider and complicated with a mechanism and rules to achieve key business objectives (Scott, 2008). Accordingly, Zucher (1977) suggested that “Institutionalization is both a process and a property variable… Institutionalized acts, then, must be perceived as both objective and exterior”, although both the process as well as the property mainly depends on institutionalisation level.

Hence, scholars treat organisations in the early days as common social problems, on the other hand, both Merton and his students’ focus on analysing the field of studies. They realised that the concept following the expression of organisations largely signifies individual social actors in contemporary societal processes (Al-Busaidy, 2011). Therefore, scholars such as Michel (1962) and Weber (1946) have noted that the key role of conventional organisations is to operate as possible initiators of modern institutional structure (Zucker, 1988). Therefore, scholars in this school of thought (institutional research) suggested that the quest for organisational research arise when there is a demand to create a “general logic of functionalist social theory and this can be done only by empirically testing a phenomenon” (Tolbert and Zucker, 1994). Subsequently, organisations such as manufacturing, construction and others offer an opportunity for scholars to conduct different comparative studies with several focuses. Thus, such study requires empirical investigation of different issues associated with the organisations (Liang et al., 2007).

Furthermore, the success of particular objectives is essential in the context of an organisation structure, also each action occurring in the organisation need to be in accordance with the key goals of the organisations. Supporting this assertion Selznick (1949) in his early study noted that “Because organisations are social systems, goals or procedures tend to achieve an established, value-impregnated status”. The scholar added that once the objectives and process become approved by the business entity or organisation, it than becomes institutionalised. Other researchers acknowledged two key concerns when undertaking a study on organisations, and these include; investigating the nature of various features of the structure of the organisation and examining the strength of positive effects of a specific organisation or a given business entity (Tolbert and Zucker, 1994).

Drawing from the above concerns Al-Busaidy (2011) suggested for an organisation to obtain its organisational objectives and achieve success, the structural component of the entire organisation must interrelate and integrate together (Tolbert and Zucker, 1994). However, any change in the structural component in the organisation will bring out changes in the entire

134 organisational structure. Base on this first concern, the challenges of this study will be to investigate the integration and interrelationship of new technology among the private construction industry in Nigeria.

Secondly, the strength of positive outcomes of a specific organisation, where in this case the current system or structure offers the social structure’s functioning with steady results that are efficient continuously (Tolbert and Zucker, 1994). Given this concern as the second in the theoretical model, it represents another challenge in this study by adopting new technology in private construction industry in Nigeria. It is a problem changing from the existing practice that works to a new one.

Reflecting on the increasing rate of the institutional research, scholars argue that it is vital to change focus from what is known as social-problem to a more in-depth influences of environmental pressure in determining the functions, formal structure, as well as the related aspect of business structure (Scott, 2008; Teo et al., 2003). As a result of the new insight, institutional theory has embraced some aspects of the businesses entity such as economic, political as well as social pressures (Teo et al., 2003). Reflecting back to the influence of environmental pressure on business entity or organisation, this theory employed different aspect or facet of the organisations by investigating three different pillars (DiMaggio, 1983). These three organisational pillars have been recognised by several scholars, such as Scott (2008), Teo et al. (2003), Tolbert and Zucker (1994), DiMaggio and Powell (1983) as the isomorphic influence or pressure and is usually motivated via structural equivalences or interconnected relations. Therefore, the subsequent section in the study will discuss the different pillars and isomorphic pressures of institutional theory as well as relating these various pressures to the adoption of PMTT context.

3.7 Institutional Theory (Isomorphic) The first definitions of institutional theory given in this chapter make effort to identify a number of varying opinions and highlighting early institutional philosophers or theorists. Scott (2008) however, gave a new definition to this phenomenon, stating that “Institutions are comprised of regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive elements that, together with associated activities and resources, provide stability and meaning to social life.” Furthermore, scholars such as Scott (2008), Liang et al. (2007), Teo et al. (2003) and DiMaggio and Powell (1983) categorised the three different pillars of isomorphic mechanism that organisations or institutions face and these includes; coercive (or regulative), mimetic (cultural-cognitive) and normative, whereby both coercive and normative barrier are controlled through interconnected relations and mimetic barrier is controlled via structural equivalence.

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Also, the implementation of the PMTT in the private construction industry involves introducing vital changes to initiate business practices in private institutions. Hence, in studying construction project, it is necessity to have adequate understanding of how these changes will influence private construction institutions as well as the resultant challenges they enforce. In a situation where individuals’ desires and demands changes continuously, organisations need to address or respond rapidly to such changes. In this regard, the response to change from organisations largely depend on political, organisational culture, economic and technological improvement and trends in several market contexts (Centeno et al., 2005). Many theories have been developed for many years by institutional scholars to research on organisational change, these includes; system theory, social theory as well as the theory of reasoned action (Snooks, 2008; Baert and Silva, 2010). The earliest and most extensively adopted organisational change theories are Lewin’s model, Lippitt’s model and institutional theory (DiMaggio and Powell, 1991; Scott, 1987; 2001). In construction industry context, institutional theory specifically has been used by several researchers, such as Mahalingam and Levitt (2007), Lassen and Merschbrock (2015) to study the execution of management approach in private construction sector. Based on this, other scholars suggested that the field of organisational study and its element are influenced by a broader institutional environment via a complex unification of three unique pillars such as coercive (regulative) and normative as well as mimetic (cultural-cognitive), pressure.

3.7.1 Regulative Institution (Coercive) Generally, coercive or intimidating pressure is mostly a compilation of different rules; strategies and collective understandings, whereby all individuals’ interrelationship and performance with the organisation are mostly influenced agreeing to the standard set by the organisational structure (Kondra and Hurst, 2009). Putnam et al. (1993) and Huntington (1968) cited by Al-Busaidy (2011) also affirms the necessity for structure as well as formal organisation that holds legal influences to develop efficient and a stable democracy around the entire state; though, both reports referred this type of organisation or institution as government itself (Peters, 2000). Accordingly, King et al. (1994) argued that institutions for instance, governments will put into action regulation that will strengthen the conduct or guide the behaviour of its people that are under its influence. Coercive pressure however, can be viewed under the parasol of the deployment of various technology or management innovations within the formation of standard or guideline directives of the legislative services (king et al., 1994).

While this study centred towards the adoption of PMTT in construction industry domain, and PMTT is a project management tools that is basically adopted, managed and executed by institutions such as private construction institutions and government institutions, therefore,

136 coercive pressures established in this thesis are essential elements for private construction organisations, particularly when it comes to the adoption of new management approach (Hu et al., 2006). This is due to the fact that coercive pressure or force stem mainly from political influence which are generated either from government or professional institutions to enforce the implementation of any management change (adoption of new technology) in an organisation (Al-Busaidy, 2011). Park and Luo (2001) further stated that the developing economy is giving more consideration to the creation of policies to help influence various institutional practices; hence, coercive pressure mainly occurs from the side of government as well as its stakeholders. Liang et al. (2007), Toe et al. (2003) and Powell and DiMaggio (1991) affirm that they are two types of coercive pressure that might affect the technology adoption; these are either direct or indirect. However, the direct pressure is used to describe report received or required for a certain process, while indirect pressure occurs within firms that are linked to governmental bodies. For instance, in the construction industry context, direct pressure can be related to different regulations (Mahalingam and Levitt 2007), put in place by government or professional institution and top management, organisational leaders that organisation in this domain required to replicate in order to build a similar or more interactive management approach within the industry (also, this same procedure occurs when implementing organisation policies, work environment procedures and Information system standards, that wish to be replicated). Consequently, indirect pressure influences the rules that are executed by one part of an organisation which are to be followed and reciprocate by another (Al-Busaidy, 2011; Mahalingam and Levitt 2007).

Powell and DiMaggio (1991) claim that any time government body operates certain rules and regulations of certain phenomena, institutions that relates with this government phenomenon will normally be subjective to a common legalized framework (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991). Scholars further argued that the presence of a common legalized setting affects different aspects of the behaviour, services and structure of an organisation (Weerakkodt, 2009). Some construction firms in the developing countries using digital tools for construction project documentation find it challenging to comply with this regulative pillar (legal requirement) due to the process in getting approval from the appropriate authority, for instance a place like Norway, the construction firm takes permission from Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) body in order to process the adoption of digital tools for their drawing (Lassen and Merschbrock, 2015).

Similarly, some construction organisation usually set up an in-house legal department that performs as a regulatory body in order to ensure the implementation plan of the new technology (PMTT), whereas other department within the organisation will abide with the set

137 of rules and regulations assigned by the regulatory body and this is influence by regulative pressure (Weerakkodt, 2009).

3.7.2 Normative The concept of normative pressure is considered by scholars as a common social action that perceived some kind of behaviour or procedure (Scott, 2008) as legitimate. Scott (2008) further stressed that normative pressure normally consists of norms as well as values. While norms describe how citizens ought to behave or conduct themselves in order to realise their desire. On the other hand, values can be explained as a person’s desire under a current standard framework of attitudes and behaviour of others. For instance, if one requires acquiring money as a result of selling of cloths, the commercial organisation of the country will demonstrate the legal way of doing it (Al-Busaidy, 2011). Within any establishment, there are structures for each behaviours and norms, hence, facilitating and partaking of these behaviours and norms between members of the organisation will generate and intensely increase the impact of organisational behaviour; thus, these behaviours and norms will delineate the rules (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991) of the organisation. Therefore, the concept of normative force proceeds as a key influencing pressure of social actions enforcing constraints on the behaviours of the organisational members. Lately, this will create a political structure or system which provides a routine for individuals to follow (Scott, 2008). Furthermore, normative pressure plays a major role in impacting the organisation through several norms; consequently, these impacts control the belief, norms and the practices of those individuals under the organisational system. In this regard, normative pressure is considered more vital compared to other pressure. (Teo et al., 2003).

The perception of PMTT innovation within a formal organisational institution can be integrated under normative pressure as this is concerned with the way institution or organisation adopts and executes various management approaches that it requires (Silva and Beckhouse, 2003). Once the necessary management approach is implemented in an organisation then the individual and corporate institutions outside the organisation will regard these as lawful or legitimate (Haggerty and Golden, 2002).

Scholars in the field of institutional theory claim that normative isomorphic stems largely from “professionalization” and “best practice”. According to researchers, once any project irrespective of the size attains success and (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991) becomes “best practice” (Liang et al., 2007) among other rivals then normative isomorphic pressure will occur. However, from the study conducted on institutional PM in rail-way construction projects both in Taiwan and China, Chi and Javernick (2011) highlight facets of institutional pillars that are challenging in constructing rail projects: Legitimacy, strict regulatory as well as normative

138 requirements restrain projects nevertheless, parties involve can negotiate these. On the other hand, normative institution is a long lasting one and it is not easily changed over to a short project lifecycle (Biesenthal et al., 2018). Construction project depend on normative pressure via infusing professional values as its key regulatory device, moreover (Biesenthal et al., 2018) once there is an established regulatory device to drive any innovation in construction organisations and are approved by organisations, stakeholders and other suppliers and citizens, then shaping of the user’s attitude and norms towards PMTT adoption will effect several changes in the organisation. Though, this process might be lengthy and may not take into account the entire requirement from the citizens, rather will essentially shape the innovation (PMTT) according to the prevailing number of PMTT stakeholders (Teo et al. (2003).

Haggerty and Golden (2002) suggested that normative pressure could take place when any institution adopts a new management approach or an innovation; then other institutions in the same field of specialisation are likely to use or adopt the same innovations. Accordingly, sharing such innovation will enhance the competitor’s desire to progress and change. In construction industry, these norms will influence the execution of PMTT practice and similarly will encourage best practices among organisations in the same industry. Also, normative isomorphic might appear in the PMTT implementation via inter-institutional channel starting from strategic phase to the phase of establishing the project (Burt, 1982).

Several researchers maintain that top management involvement as well as norms towards the adoption of any management approach is a significant factor that is considered as a vital antecedent in the direction of ensuring a faster adoption of technological changes (Haggerty and Golden, 2002). Liang et al. (2007) further explained that hiring top personnel who are skilful for specific jobs will shape the institutional norms within inter-organisational networks (Teo et al. (2003). Hence, such norms will steer PMTT implementation as well as its management to develop work routines and business procedures of PMTT system, and equally study what features of the PMTT execution can be improved to carry out its routine and procedures better (Liang et al., 2007)

3.7.3 Cultural-Cognitive (Mimetic) Different researchers have identified cultural- cognitive as the distinctive aspects among traditional and modern ideas of institution philosophy (Haveman, 1993; Scott, 2008). Cultural cognitive symbolise output of the actual subject of notions, values and opinions in expressive system (Scott, 2008). In culture and organisations book written by Hofstede (1991) it explains the impact of culture that can specify standards of thinking and acting among every individual, the study also lay emphasises on how it can be implemented in the practical idea that explain

139 the outcome of cultural cognitive pressure. The interesting notion behind the result of mimetic pressure justifies the cultural cognitive, showing that the external issues of institutional culture structure the internal process of an organisation within the same business environment (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; 1991).

Mimetic isomorphic may create change in institutions to comply with the action, structure, economic plans as well as internal procedures of other business institutions in a similar environment (Teo et al., 2003).

Mainly, mimetic force brings about the structural similarity among institutions, which will determine the business best practices within organisations that operate in the same domain. Moreover, the best practice implemented, will help organisation to control the business domain by gaining advantage over competitors (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983).

Different researchers such as DiMaggio and Powell (1983; 1991), Hoveman (1993) and Teo et al. (2003) have classified the basis why different organisation copied or mimic another organisational set-up or structure. These researchers argued that the identical economic position, same organisational goals and objectives, same industry, facing similar challenges, same conditions and finally most organisation share same clients and merchants, these are some of the major reasons organisations imitate each other. Furthermore, Teo et al. (2003) have categorised some reasons why organisation imitate each other and the reasons are stated below:

➢ For an organisation to attain the same legitimacy position.

➢ To prevent organisations from facing issues with an indefinite solution.

➢ To help organisation control wider social set up

➢ Help organisation to control the cost of research, experiment as well as test.

Previously in the area of project management adoption, the construction industry as a formal institution were adopting the current technology in solving a particular problem, whereas now, construction organisations adopt this technology (PMTT) for advance purposes and for securing a competitive edge over other organisations within the same business environment (Tolbert and Zucker, 1983). Al-Busaidy (2013) noted in the work of Scott (1995a) that the formal institution comprises of complex system that involved the collective partnerships, which includes an internal and external partnership. Hence, in the context of PMTT, when the system network that exists within internal and external institutions expands, the intricacy of the PMTT

140 will also increase; afterwards, the establishment of competitive edge among the external institutions and internal subdivision will appear (Al-Busaidy, 2013).

In addition, PMTT phenomenon influences the institution as well as its structure such that institutions becoming the same as other institutions in similar environment, particularly as a result of the effect of those phenomena associated with the new technology, which might aid in achieving various advantages. (Thompson, 1997; Al-Busaidy, 2013). Thus, PMTT influence construction sector in the way that individual organisation will be inspired to adopt the new management approach. In the same way, in PMTT context, there exist numbers of factors that plays a vital role in imitating both the behaviour and process of various businesses in a similar environment, particularly those institutions that used management approach to modify interdependencies (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991).

Powell and DiMaggio (1991) assert that in any innovation, those institutions which share a similar environment becomes isomorphic with their make-up (structure). But, within the PMTT context, these similitudes in isomorphic behaviour or work process in the structure will eventually result in the same services. However, it will encounter some difficulty as regards the uncertainty in a different work procedure which might be initiated as the organisation has a tendency to be reshaped (Teo et al. (2003).

Also, in organisational procedure reshape or redesign, Liang et al. (2007) have shown examples of organisations that embrace other successful organisations in the business environment and reshape the process of their business to realise success in their key business area. Therefore, the concept of institutional theory through the numerous pressures or factors that can explain why various companies, operating in diverse business domain are often the same in their structure (Tolbert and Zucker, 1994).

In spite of contributions made by the institutional theory, literature argued that this theory has some drawback. Ibrahim (2017) examined the work of Marx and Weber and assert that institutional theory is associated with both power and interest. For these elements, understanding the functioning, emergence, and institutional change required understanding the (Ibrahim, 2017) ability of a specific social stakeholder in order to ensure that the stakeholders’ interests are served through a given arrangements. Moreover, Weber states that the “dominance of bureaucracy” functioning as an institution in different societies characterised via rational legal authority that reflects its significant advantages above other forms of organisations. Tolbert and Zucker (1999) maintained that the theory lacks a better documentation, suggesting that it is vital to develop an appropriate measure as well as better documentation relating to the institutionalised structure. Other researchers also claim that institutional theory fails to give full explanation on the range (Morphew, 2009) of empirical

141 studies in the literature as well as presenting various challenges (Morphew and Huisman, 2002). For instance, institutional theory proposes a supposed unidirectional coercive influence of laws as well as regulations (Morphew and Huisman, 2002). Guy (2000) noticed that institutional theory is static in nature while the institutional society which it tries to explain is dynamic in nature. Also, institutional theory is a variance theory. Guy maintains that the theory is better at describing differences between types of institutions rather than describing the development of individual institution.

Following the above discussion, evidence shows that numerous researches have adopted the institutional theory to examine how structured organisation, for instance, the construction industry is institutionalised (Al-Busaidy 2013) through different context, such as political, organisational culture and economic regarding meeting the requirement of the society or stakeholder. Hence, this study adopts an institutional theory to examine PMTT related changes through looking into several barriers that influence the adoption of the PMTT from political, organisational culture, economic and technological perspectives. Although the conventional research does not take into account the impact of technology for instance Scott (1987) and DiMaggio and Powell (1983), several recent researches have considered the role of technology when undertaking a study on organisational change that are affected by management approach such as technology innovation (Biesenthal et al., 2018; Lassen et al., 2015; Palthe, 2014). Thus, the adoption of these technologies is influenced by factors such as political, social, economic and technological barriers and will be discussed in detail from the viewpoint of institutional theory, where this theory is essentially applied as a structure for classifying the various factors in institution influencing PMTT implementation.

3.8 Institutional Barriers The execution of the project management approach in the private construction industry involves the introduction of basic changes in order to establish best practice or business process in construction institutions. Hence, in studying the construction project, it is necessary to have adequate knowledge of how these fundamental changes will influence private construction organisations and the challenges they enforce at the end (Brammer et al., 2012). In a society where individual demands and needs change continuously, institutions are required to respond swiftly to these changes. In relation to this, the organisation’s response to these business changes depends a lot on political, social, economic and technological improvement as well as trends in various national contexts or market (Wheelen and Hunger, 2002; Centeno et al., 2005). Over the past years, several theories have been offered to study the concept of organisational change, this includes; theory of reasoned action (TRA), social theory and system theory (Kritsonis and Student 2004).

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However, Lewin concept or model, Lippitt’s model and institutional theory are the most broadly used theory and most basic theories employed in organisational change (Lewin, 1958; Lippitt et al., 1958; Scott, 2001; DiMaggio and Powell, 1991). In the context of a construction project, institutional theory has been employed, particularly by various scholars to study the adoption of the PMTT in a private construction organisation (Wheelen and Hunger, 2002).

Drawing from the above argument, this study employs an approach which aid in studying the related change in management approach in the construction sector by considering the major institutional theory pressures influencing adoption of PMTT from the perspective of political, social, economic and technological barriers. Obviously, as the nature of individual pressure has a diverse influence on the processes and the structure of the organisation, the three pressures of institutional theory are assumed not to have a direct influence on the above- mentioned barriers. These barriers are discussed below following the perspective of institutional theory where the institutional theory is adopted as the underpinning theory for identifying the different barriers influencing the implementation of PMTT in the private construction organisation.

3.8.1 Political Barriers Hannaway (1993) cited by Al-Busaidy (2013), asserts that political pressure or factor is a major factor for an institution operating in a similar business environment and with the same management approach. Correspondingly, in this study, the political force of PMTT could be operated to cover a wider scope of political positions under which institutions implement and adjust their rules and regulations via a larger organisational environment. With respect to literature on institutional theory, political pressure is considered as a vital force that produces diverse changes and describes the way organisation function within the same environment and with the same business approach. Furthermore, Scott, 2001 stated that institutional theory describes how political barrier impact on the shaping of new organisational rules, process and institutional activities which are needed to establish a successful institution (Al-Busaidy, 2013). Another school of thought claims that new rules and processes will direct and force new decisions from management executives in the organisation; hence the support from top management is significant in adoption of new business approach (Henriksen and Damsgaard, 2007). In addition, Doherty and King (2005) suggested the need for effective political consideration any time there is a new organisational strategy such as a technology; however, the new strategy will generate opportunities as well as problems that may be managed using new regulations. In the context of PMTT, project managers need to execute a new concept which will demand new regulation that will enhance the adoption of new business approaches such as PMTT in order to attain new kind of practices that will assist private construction transformation. Based on this, to ensure effectiveness of this transformation, there is a need

143 for the PMTT users to guarantee the support of the stakeholder with respect to reducing the influence of political barriers during the process of implementation (Irani et al., 2003; Doherty and King, 2005).

3.8.2 Organisational Culture There is a limited usage of the new business approach such as adoption of the PMTT by the construction industry in developing society. While construction organisations in the developed society concentrates on modern innovation in delivering quality project as well as transforming traditional method to more improve the level of construction business via PMTT adoption, the implementation of these new concepts by the developing society remains ambiguous (Liang et al., 2007; Teo et al., 2003). In this respect, institutional theory describes how organisational culture can influence the adoption of new management tools or organisational decision, resulting in actions that could eventually increase or reduce the quality of project deliverable and or enhance stakeholder satisfaction (Olataju et al., 2011). By securing stakeholder satisfaction, companies are able to manage any undesirable pressure or constraint from social behaviour that may exist within PMTT context. This process will aid, private organisations in this domain to transform from conventional practice or old method to project management practice with regard to social behaviour. It is important to mention that transformation will influence the execution of regulation, process and organisational procedures that connect to and influence social behaviours (Liang et al., 2007; Teo et al., 2003).

3.8.3 Economic Barriers A close attention has been paid by various scholars concerning the influences of economic barriers on organisational behaviours. As stated by Starbuck (1976), the objectives of the organisation are intensely related to the economic position, whereby these barriers are the key driver for the existence of the relationship that exist between the economic position and the method adopted for effective performance of workers in the construction sector. Traditionally, it has been suggested that to achieve a subsistence economic situation or position, the practices as well as adopters which the organisation depend on must remain in stable condition. Hence, economic barriers are regarded as the major motivator of change in management approach that employed a communication system to facilitate relationship within the organisation in private institutions.

In the context of project management in construction projects, though PMTT is considered by various scholars as an effective tool used to assist project managers to improve the private construction sector and reduce the absence of accountability and transparency in order to provide best practice in private construction sector however, it is economic factors that determine the adoption of any new management approach. If the economic position of an

144 organisation is not strong enough, the demand for new work process will be impeded, no matter how effective the management tools are, its position in an institution allows for proper checks and balances. This factor forces the decision maker to decide for PMTT adoption (Liang et al., 2007). (Liang et al., 2007), confirmed that the management of organisational expenditure should be among the foremost characteristics of project management implementation, whereby the entire stakeholders of the construction industry will benefit. Hwang and Syamsuddin (2008) added that the resource of economic remains important as it helps in strengthening the PMTT implementation in developing effective transparency in the industry and increase governance. Subsequently, the preceding section will show the other barriers to PMTT adoption.

3.8.4 Technological Barriers Several scholars have considered the theory of institution to study the impact of new technology on industrial business processes Teo et al., 2003 and Liang et al., 2007). Other scholars such as Teo et al. (2003), Haunschild and Miner (1997), DiMaggio and Powell (1983) and Meyer and Rowan (1977), have all supported the practice of institutional theory for exploratory and identifying major institutional determinants for the implementation of new technological concept, such as high cost of the management tools and environmentally friendly. The cost of any new tool is a major concern to decision makers as they make decisions based on the financial position of the organisation, especially when the organisation is still a small-scale business. Supporting this argument (Liang et al., 2007), suggests that environmentally friendly is another factor, how friendly is the new technology to the end user will determine the adoption of any new concept. Adding that if the technology appears difficult to understand it will pose a key concern on the adoption process.

The implementation of any innovative management approach can often be described by environmental impact that happen because of the several relationships that exist within the organisation such as, employees, suppliers and customers (Teo et al., 2003). Obviously, these relationships that exist with this system, including their norms are the major motivation for the adoption of new business guideline (Teo et al., 2003). The suppliers and stakeholders’ norms are described by various scholars as “normative force” (Mignerat and Rivard, 2005). On the other hand, Silva and Figueroa (2002), claim that this force differs from norms to norms for instance pressure that stem from the customers is higher than that of the suppliers; however, the combination of these pressures from employees, suppliers, customers and other related influences was discovered having a stronger effect on the implementation of the new management approach. In addition, from the perspective of construction project, those forces have led construction industry to either limit the use or allow for full adoption of PMTT.

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Recently, this theory has been employed to study the influence of related pressures or barriers on a wider scale (PMTT implementation). For instance, Kondra and Hurst (2009) and (Teo et al., 2003) points to the impact of the top executive in arbitrating the impact of institutional pressure on technology adoption in large organisations

Drawing from the literature review and theoretical analysis provided in both chapters two and three and the underpinning theory (institutional theory), provides a footing for producing an initial framework that capture the different pressure of political, organisational culture, economic and technological pressure. The initial framework pulls, along with institutional pressures, the institutional-factors implemented in technology related to organisational adoption drive toward PMTT initiatives. Specifically, the initial framework will provide the general structure as well as guidance regarding the major lines of investigation for exploring the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in Nigeria private construction companies.

Moreover, this initial framework demonstrates how institutional theory aids the researcher in conceptualising several institutional-factors relating to political, organisational culture, economic and technological pressure. Reflecting on the previous studies, the researcher believes that those institutional-factors operate as the key motivators that hamper the improvement of the structure and organisational processes, especially in private construction industry. Using PMTT literature, this study investigates the impact of these institutional pressures when undertaking PMTT implementation. Also, the initial framework shows the impacts of institutional theory and the three associated pillars within mimetic various activities, action and norms that will assist the adoption of the same rules and regulations so to re-shape the organisational structure and process. As a result, the framework demonstrates the above arguments as well as the way norms and actions proposed in the institutional theory and the various factors of institution acknowledged in this research (under the political, organisational culture, economic and technological pressure) impact on organisational change in PMTT implementation. Figure 3.1 below shows the initial framework.

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3.9 The Initial framework

Figure 3.1: Initial framework of Institutional Factors Involved in adoption of PMTT. Adapted from (Al-Busaidy, 2013)

3.10 Rationale for Adopting an Institutional Theory Institutional theory was adopted for this study because traditional or conventional theories have shortcomings in encapsulating the continuous advancement in technology and the evolutionary and dynamic nature of technology (Eze et al., 2011) adoption. The traditional theories as described in the literature does not challenge the implementation of technology. Although they have remained a long-standing fundamental theory for many researches works in adoption of technology, theories such as diffusion innovation theory accept technology the way it is and depend greatly on the opinion of the leaders or early adopters for diffusion. While others (behavioural theories and intentional theories), concentrate on factors influencing the decision making at each specific decision point. Though one key consistency in traditional theories is that (Eze et al., 2011; Venkatesh et al., 2003) they view adoption or implementation of innovation as a “one-off decision-making event” (Sunday 2011), these theories are not able to reveal the evolutionary and the dynamic procedure of technology implementation. These

147 theories (diffusion innovation theory, behavioural based theories and intentional theories) have permanently separated the social world from the technology (Akrich et al., 2002).

Literature asserts that any theory that makes a prior distinctiveness between the social and technology is not likely to maintain its focus regarding social arrangements irrespective of whether the theory is a (Sunday 2011) means to attaining the social or the technology. Institutional theory on the other hand allows for a more resilient and deeper aspect of social setting or structure and also examines the dynamic nature of technology (Eze et al., 2011). It takes into account the procedures by which social structure such as norms, scheme, routines and rules become recognised as authoritative rules or strategies for (Scott, 2005) social behaviour. Again, while diffusion innovation theory is valuable and much-used (Merschbrock and Munkvold 2012; Krygiel et al., 2008) theory to gain understanding of the spread or diffusion of new innovation, institutional theory describes how the new ideas ‘stick’ in a social structure (Colyvas and Jonsson 2011). A “useful example is clothes fashions – most spread like wildfire only to be replaced within the year by the next fad, while on the other hand jeans have been around for decades and can be seen as institutionalized” (Lassen and Merschbrock, 2015). This describes the view that innovation adoption (technology) under institutional structure occurs all-through the life-span of an organisation or social structure (Schwarz and Chin, 2007), the theory is considered as very important as it examines wider ways for implementation and the management of technology in the organisations (Lee and Oh, 2006).

Institutional theory is specifically relevant in private construction organisations context because they are unique, flexible and are associated with tasks that are complex in nature. Using institutional theory as the underpinning theory for this study may help to reveal how private construction industries are likely (Sunday 2011) to articulate their evolving technology needs and bring into line their important actors so to create an exceptional technological capacity. Hence, looking at technology adoption from the viewpoint that “gives a better balance between the effect of social and technological participants will give a more accurate (Wernick et al., 2008) representation of the real world”. Institutional theory is a useful model for managing mega-projects. Projects generally and mainly mega-projects are engagements or activities in which substantial institutional work is needed for their completion or accomplishment (Biesenthal et al., 2018). Indeed, noticeable scholars of project management have advocated the significance of institutional theory in projects (Biesenthal et al., 2018; Morris and Geraldi, 2011; Dille and Soderlund, 2011; Miller and Hobbs, 2005).

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3.11 Chapter Summary This chapter discussed various adoption theories and among these theories institutional theory was chosen as the appropriate theory underpinning this study. It also aimed to explain the institutional factors relating to the implementation of PMTT using the relevant published literature as well as theoretical basis from the viewpoint of implementation. In order to have a better understanding of the underpinning theory, the study has broadened the critical review of institutional theory by reviewing relevant literature written by relevant scholars such as Meyer and Rowan (1997), Scot (1992), Meyer et al. (1983), DiMaggio and Powell, Zucker (1987) and Chan (2017) and were infused into the argument. The study also identified a gap in the literature as well as highlighting the three pillars (Mimetic, Normative and Coercive) associated with institutional theory. While Chapter two discussed various challenges of PMTT literature that offer an understanding of the key principles relating to PMTT implementation in private construction companies, Chapter three highlight current factors in institutional theory influencing the implementation of PMTT based on the existing literature on institutional theory.

The initial framework in this study is different from other models used in studying the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in private construction companies because it combines both the PMTT institutional factors together with taxonomy of political, organisational culture, economic as well as technological pressures that has been highlighted differently in the earlier studies. In the next chapter, the methodology of the study is discussed.

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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.0 Introduction The research methodology is discussed in this chapter, it explained the research procedure followed in this study. The research methodology comprises of the choices made by the researcher regarding the type of cases to study, the methods of data collection, techniques used for analysing the data (Silverman, 2006) and decisions made both for planning as well as implementing the research study. It also captures the theory on how the study has to be carried out, as well as theoretical and philosophical (Saunders et al., 2009) suppositions upon which the study is based and the executions of these for the methods or method adopted. Hence, this study commences by discussing the “research design” executed in this research, it’s also stipulated the philosophical position used by the researcher since this underpins the whole methodological approach of this research. Figure 4.1 shows the methodology used for this research.

Figure 4.1: Research methodology

In order to have a better understanding of the methodological procedure of this study, the researcher in this chapter follows sequential order beginning with a general idea of

150 philosophical assumption used in this research, that is interpretivism. It proceeds to provide a detail research strategy used in this research, such as research approach, research methods and data collection, data analysis techniques also sampling strategy and the ethical considerations.

4.1 Philosophical Standpoint for this Research: Interpretivism Since the researchers’ viewpoint as well as their philosophical consideration of the way research should be carried out influence research process (Bryman, 2012), it is essential to consider this carefully before carrying out any research. Guba and Lincoln (1994) acknowledge that having a good perception of research paradigms is the starting point and most significant step in any successful research journey since this impact on the choice of data gathering, analysis and interpretation as well as findings and the entire research process (Denzin and Lincoln 2000). According to Oates (2006), paradigm is “a set of shared assumptions or ways of thinking about some aspect of the world”. These paradigms have various assumptions concerning the nature or knowledge of the world (ontology) as well as how this knowledge concerning the world can be acquired (epistemology) by the researcher (Oates, 2006). As a result, any paradigm chosen by the researcher, guides (Ponterotto, 2005) the researcher in choosing the instruments, methods, tools and the philosophical stance employed in the research. To understand these paradigms and the assumptions of this philosophy, various ways of evaluating the quality of the study is important given that every research or study is built on some fundamental assumptions also these assumptions assist in determining what establishes valid research (Myers, 1997) and the suitable methods or approach to adopt. Generally, a paradigm comprises of four key concepts as stated by Lincoln and Guba (2000) and these includes;

• Ontology • Epistemology • Axiology • Methodology

Furthermore, academic research identified two major philosophical perspectives and these are; Positivism as well as interpretivism. Table 4.1 shows the contributions of different scholars on these concepts, the table presents an overview of Positivism and interpretivism as well as their individual attributes. These however serve as a background for rationalising this research’s philosophical stances of interpretivism.

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Table 4.1: The contributions of different scholars on the philosophical stances

Attributes of Positivism and The philosophical stances Interpretivism Positivism Interpretivism 1 Ontology: The assumptions Reality is objective with individual actors. It is It is subjective and there is no one truth, rather various regarding reality or nature of external in nature and may be understood via truths dependent on researcher’s perspective. Several reality. suitable methods. observations or comments can appear from researching an individual phenomenon. 2 Epistemology: The assumptions Objectivism, concentrates on the establishment of Subjective in nature, with assumption that social concerning the concept of finding as true. phenomenon is generated from the viewpoints as well knowledge and how to make as the actions of individual or social actors and are inquire in about the world continuously amended; stresses on the interaction between the studied subject and the researcher. 3 Methodology: Describes the way Mostly quantitative; manipulative or experimental Employs mainly qualitative methods for instance case the researcher will be conducting method, quantitative statistical techniques, study, qualitative interviewing, ethnography and the study on a chosen confirmation of hypothesis and correlational survey. grounded theory as these are appropriate to gaining phenomenon. the social actors’ perspectives in their usual settings. 4 Methods: Techniques adopted Employs quantitative methods; focuses on aligning Uses mainly qualitative methods for instance case for collecting data and analysing scientific research to social research. Experimental study, qualitative interviewing, ethnography and the data and survey designs including large size sampling in grounded theory as these are appropriate to gaining order to help with generalisations. the social actors’ perspectives in their usual settings. 5 Data Collection: Employed the Structure interview, and measurement, as well as Unstructured as well as semi-structured interviews and data collection method with self-administered-questionnaires consisting of large focus group, field notes also diaries together with “small individual paradigm size sampling. sample size” to allow for extensive analysis of individual case. 6 Data Analysis: Employed the Quantitative methods; for instance, content analysis, Employs analytical induction, narrative analysis, data collection method with employs statistical tools which includes SPSS using thematic analysis, grounded analysis, Computer Aided individual paradigm techniques such as regression analysis, multivariate Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS), analysis and structural equation model (SEM) examples of this are ATLAS Ti and NVivo. These are used in facilitating the analysis.

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7 Strengths: The strengths of Offers wider range of coverage of situations; Concentrate on understanding the study-subject in their individual paradigm generalizable, speedy as well as cost effective, normal environment and view “social phenomena” from largely value free. their own viewpoint; capability of investigating change process; it is flexible in nature and capable of adjusting to new ideas and issues as they appear 8 Weaknesses: Weaknesses of Artificial and rigid methods; can not be employed to Data gathering can be time consuming with an intensive each paradigm understand processes; not appropriate to develop or resource; data analysis as well as data interpretation is generate theory; cannot be use to infer future often very difficult and depend highly on the changes. researcher’s experience and knowledge; based on the subjective nature, decision makers could deem the findings to be of low credibility;

Adapted from: Easterby-Smith et. al. (2012); Guba and Lincoln (2000); Bryman (2012)

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4.2 Positivist Paradigm

This paradigm is known to be the dominant approach used by many researchers. It is linked to the fundamental theory of a scientific approach rather than restructuring ethics, politics and region. This method is considered as having the nature of physical science since it originally stems from this domain (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). The approach is regarded as a technique of “philosophical realism” that is linked closely with the deductive approach. This comprises of the description of the phenomenon, systematically observation and the presentation of the hypothesis and the application of interpretation of research outcome that is centred on the theory (Oates, 2006; Ponterotto, 2005). The objective of the positivist investigator is to give attention to the descriptions that ultimately lead to control as well as predictions of the concept or phenomenon that is being investigated.

The ontological standpoint of the positivist is that a positivist claims that the entire world is perfectly structured; hence, the researcher or investigator can objectively study it (Oates, 2006). The ontological concept views the actions, the different ways individuals act and interaction as vital (Oates, 2006; Mason, 1996). However, they considered that there exists one reality that can be identified and measured and is also apprehensible which is free of the researcher as well as the instrument used (Ponterotto, 2005). For example, an investigator exploring the adoption of PMTT may make a random selection of a large sample size of potential respondents in one organisation. The researcher may carry out an experiment in order to control, and manipulate a single variable while the rest of the variables are constant. This type of research is known as etic as the objective is to show a particular set of outcomes (Ponterotto, 2005).

From an epistemological viewpoint, this approach looks at the relationship that exists between the participant and the researcher (the knower). Manson (1996) claims that the evidence regarding the social world can be collected via participation, observation and interactive condition or situation. Positivists in the approach (epistemology) are involved with dualism as well as objectivism. Dualism emphasises that the researcher and participant as well as subject matter remain independent of each other. Objectivism is concerned with carrying out research with rigour without any bias (Ponterotto, 2005). In this approach the investigator tries to study their respondent without imposing any form of influence, however, where the research is being influenced by the research, the outcome is flawed.

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4.3 Interpretivist Paradigm

The terms interpretivism and constructivism are frequently used interchangeably in business research by scholars; however, in this study interpretivism will be used throughout. Chen and Hirschheim (2004) suggested that interpretivism is increasingly accepted in research and regarded as another paradigm and is dissimilar to the positivist approach. It is driven by the concept of social context and also makes an effort to explore, describe and identify how various factors are associated within the social setting.

Ontological perspective of interpretivism – the interpretive study is involved with manifold subjective realities and is socially constructed; it also looks at the reconstruction of significance or meaning via social contact (Ponterotto, 2005). Interpretive research is subjective in nature and it is influenced by the situational context. It is concerned with the individual’s experiences, conversations between the interviewer (researcher) and the interviewee (participant). The interpretative approach is considered as subjective because here the researcher, for instance, may perhaps interview a few individuals and when carrying out the data analysis, may disregard confirming its judgments via cross-validation, otherwise trying to find other authorities in identifying comparable patterns within the data analysis where they require coding (Ponterotto, 2005).

From the epistemological standpoint, interpretivist consider how the participants and the social group view the world and make an effort in understanding the phenomenon through certain qualities or values individuals ascribe to them. On the other hand, the researcher’s ability to interact with the participant is key in apprehending the actual life experience of the individual (Ponterotto, 2005). For instance, in management science, such as project management, the researcher examining the adoption of project management tools and techniques may expend considerable time to interview the participants. The idea here, as explained by Ponterotto (2005), is that even though the researcher as well as the participants may digress slightly from the point due to the conversation, the researcher would have gained depth to the study and robust data as a result of far-reaching interaction that exists between the investigator and the participants.

Methodological stand point – Interpretivism fails to define both dependent as well as independent variables; alternatively, it makes an effort to understand individuals in their natural setting. This approach, when employed by researchers, does not come to the same outcome. Instead, there is always more than one explanation or outcome given. Field study, for example, is considered to be the suitable instrument for this approach (Chen and Hirschheim, 2004; Myers, 1997). The main features of interpretivism are interactions that exist among the

155 researcher and the participants in which in-depth meaning concerning the phenomenon are revealed. Interpretation of the interactive dialogue is made possible through a joint involvement of both the investigator and participant in the study (Ponterotto, 2005).

This study further uses a tabular form in table (see appendix 2) to explain its ontological view, epistemological, axiological standpoint and methodological consideration as well as methods, data collection, data analysis and evaluation criteria, and the strengths and weaknesses of the paradigm.

This approach has been criticised for ignoring the place of political and philosophical effect on knowledge as well as social reality. Its approach is not radical enough in this context. The positivist investigator seeks to describe societal phenomena, while the interpretivist investigator looks forward to understand the phenomena behind the social setting. However, the investigator who seeks to criticise social phenomena, change or challenge the concept is not indicated. Therefore, the next section focuses on addressing this concern with the critical approach.

4.4 Justification for using interpretivism and qualitative issues The positivist method that addresses the issues of quantitative is not appropriate in this study because it is limited in theory building as required by the (Hine and Carson, 2007) researcher. The positivism approach is known for its inadequate number of factors and adopting statistical as well as experimental hypotheses does not replicate the experience of respondents in real world during the (Kaplan and Duchon, 1998) experimentation process. However, limited information is revealed on the fundamental meaning of (Gable, 1994) the data.

Shah and Corley (2006) assert that “the researcher, who collects quantitative data from a distance without anecdote to support them, will always have difficulty explaining interesting relationships”. This explains that the interesting part or relationships which could boost the study is limited because there are no physical relationships between the researcher and the social actors.

Interpretivism approach do not tests theory nor duplicates the findings being derive from the study; rather the result of the study is the representative of (Shah and Corley, 2006) the interpretations of the social actors experiencing the study phenomenon. Within the interpretivism research, multiple realities emerge around the study phenomenon given that the researcher can interpret this phenomenon differently. This approach creates a general understanding of the in-depth, contextual as well as (Mason, 1996) detailed data.

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The interpretative paradigm is tantamount to qualitative method and is normally viewed as an alternative to (Bryman 2012) positivism. It distinguishes the physical object from social or human actors by knowing the meanings of their individual actions. Hence, to understand human actions, there is need for the researcher to have a good perception of the meanings that establishes those actions by looking beyond the aspect of understanding only the actions, to recognising the reason why human actors takes such actions (Guba and Lincoln, 2000).

Interpretivism focuses on observing human actors within their usual or natural environment and also understands phenomena based on their standpoint, hence acknowledging multiple standpoints as well as multiple interpretations of the observed phenomena. With regards to this philosophical consideration, the character of reality is known as subjective and it stresses on the interaction or relationship between the study subject and the researcher; in this context private construction companies. As adoption of technological tools (PMTT) in private construction companies in Nigeria is not a widely research area (Olateju et al., 2011), an exploratory method following interpretivism approach was consider for this research. This allowed the study to achieve its aim and objectives and also answer the research questions. The key aim of this research is to investigate from the NPCI’s perspective the key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT and to develop a framework for PMTT adoption . The interpretivism paradigm allows the researcher to see the research phenomenon with a subjective ‘eye’ (“the eye of the subjects”) as well as being flexible to enable multiple viewpoints from the same phenomenon. Interpretivism in this context, enable the investigator to ‘view’ the subject of PMTT adoption from the ‘eyes’ of the subject, that is, Nigeria private construction industry; and to understand the adoption of PMTT from their viewpoint, not only the actions taken by them or not taken toward PMTT adoption, however, the reasons for their actions.

In addition, as a result of its flexible nature, it does not only allow for different point of view from the private construction companies on the subject of PMTT adoption, but at the same time accommodate new concepts or new ideas that may occur during the study. As stated by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) one main characteristics of qualitative research method is the opportunity granted to the investigator to influence the social system (the world) of the subjects either collaboratively or independently, for instance, the investigator can influence their social system or world by cooperating with them to effect a change or without their input. One of these research objectives is to determine from the NPCI perspective the factors that will influence PMTT adoption; hence the understanding acquired by adopting both the interpretivism and qualitative approach would allow the proposal of suitable construction companies-specific recommendation that will be applicable to Nigeria private construction companies.

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As shown in Table 4.1, the fundamental idea of positivist is that social system or world occurs externally and also its properties must be evaluated by objective methods (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012). Positivism promotes the adoption of natural science approach in studying social reality (Bryman, 2012) and beyond. Positivism methods of inquiry are employed generally to determine cause as well as effect that exist between variables, functionalize theoretical relations and quantify and measure phenomenon moreover are used for generalising research findings (Flick, 1998). As stated in the literature positivism believes that “genuine knowledge” is characterised as knowledge that stemmed from human senses and the outcome of such study tends to (Bryman, 2012) be “law-like” generalities such that can be obtained in both natural as well as physical science.

Quantitative research is the main method of enquiry used in positivism paradigm, it is associated with cost effectiveness, larger sample size, and resources used are not intensive and also generate more generalizable research findings (John and Johnson, 2010; Creswell, 2009). Bearing in mind the context of this study, its research aim and objectives and also research questions, it is obvious that positivism paradigm with its nature of one definite “truth” or “reality” (Bryman, 2012) is inappropriate or unsuitable in this research. Secondly, their inflexibility natures, structure approach as well as the failure to understand procedures or importance people ascribe to them refute its practicality for this specific research. Although the interpretivist approach is more cost intensive and time consuming, employed small sample size and with less generalisation to other contexts (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2009) it is more suitable for this study since the aim of this research is to produce an in-depth or rich data that can generate findings that are suited particularly to the Nigeria Private Construction Industry context.

4.5 Research Strategy – Qualitative methods This research aim is “to investigate from the NPCI perspective the key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT and to develop a framework for PMTT adoption. Based on the philosophical consideration of this research, and to achieve effectively the aim of this study, a qualitative method was adopted. The qualitative research method comes from social science. This method is employed to examine social as well as cultural phenomena. It consists of a well- developed empirical process used in interpreting the participants’ experience and their point of view in a specified environment (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Ponterotto, 2005). The feature associated with this research method is frequently built on a specific research approach and this involves the participant’s expression to define the phenomena under examination. As a field of enquiry, qualitative research cuts across different subject matter, fields and disciplines. This research method is developed by complex, assumption, terms as well as interrelated concepts (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Golafshani, 2003; Bryman and Bell, 2011). There are

158 different types of qualitative research in social science, including: action research, ethnography, case study and qualitative interview. This type of research gives room for the researcher to have direct contact with the individual or group of people or participants being interviewed, their attention being directed to a particular case or multiple cases in the view to gain understanding of both the cultural as well as social contexts in which the participants operate. This implies that a qualitative approach study phenomenon within their natural state, and attempts to interpret the sense it makes of the concept, based on the meaning the participants bring to each phenomenon (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Golafshani, 2003). This method provides data to aid the development of theories and a robust explanation of procedures and outcome (Kaplan and Duchon, 1998).

While the quantitative approach focuses attention on data quantification, this research method places emphasis on words in its approach to data collection and analysis. The two methods, quantitative research and qualitative research, are experiential in nature in that they involve data collection, data analysis, as well as the interpretation of the research findings (Ponterotto, 2005; Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Bryman and Bell, 2015). However, the motivation for carrying out research in any project, for instance, in information technology (IT) or in information systems, construction work and manufacturing engineering management is gradually shifting from technology to management and organisational issues (Shenhar and Dvir, 2007; Myers, 1997). Therefore, the paradigm that resulted in such a shift is emergent or developing and the research approach that is rooted in the emergent paradigm is considered as possessing the nature of qualitative research (Eze, 2013).

The literature says much concerning the benefit and the limitation of these research methods (quantitative and qualitative). Scholars have criticised quantitative research for an unsuitable sample frame, the inconsistency that exists between the hypothesis and the measures applied, and the inter-relationships that exist between the constructs (Bryman and Bell, 2011; Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Kaplan and Duchon, 1998; Oates, 2006). Researchers, in the same way, critiqued the qualitative method for providing limited understanding into research procedure, absence of theoretical development and failure in developing studies that will improve hypothetical research questions for researchers to address (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000; Oates, 2006).

The challenges related with the qualitative method is that the approach is embedded in several fields of specialisation and originated from various paradigms, with each linked to its individual criteria for research implementation (Ponterotto, 2005). Literature (Kaplan and Duchon, 1998; Lee, 2003; Elliot and Loebbecke, 2000) suggests the application of multiple approaches or triangulation in research as there is no single method in management research that offers the

159 richness that project management as a field of study provides, as well as fulfilling the need for its development in the future (Kaplan and Duchon, 1998).

Although qualitative and quantitative research are interpreted differently, the two approach are not essentially considered as being extreme (Elliot and Loebbecke, 2000; Hine and Carson, 2007) “philosophical continuums”. Literature has contrasted both qualitative and quantitative research by employing a deductive approach for quantitative studies to improve theories, test theory and confirm the research outcomes (Hine and Carson, 2007). The work of Romano (1989), for instance, combined both methods (qualitative and quantitative) and suggested that if a researcher developed research questions based on a structured format and these are used to gather qualitative data, these results can create measures which may be tested by the use of a quantitative approach. This shows a better method or way of collecting and analysing data. Often quantitative research is always implemented at the last phase of a fieldwork or field research, and inductive research begins at the exploratory stage especially where there is not enough empirical literature to give room for the deductive method (Hine and Carson, 2007; Bryman and Bell, 2011). While these approaches are essential in research work, the focus of this study is centred on qualitative methods.

4.6 Deductive and Inductive Approach According Yin (2006) both the deductive and inductive research the core purpose of research. The deductive approach commences with a general knowledge and end up with a more precise objective. This approach make effort to study one or more theories and make precise predictions by employing empirical data to test these predictions. Especially, deductive approach may lead (Collis and Hussey, 2003) researchers to give attention to a few theories that may influence them to generate precise hypotheses which serve as a guide for them to gather (empirical) observations regarding these hypotheses, (Schutt, 2006) which may, in turn, verify those hypotheses.

On the other hand, inductive approach commences with a precise idea that is used to compare to a specific theory. This comparison may well lead researchers (Trochim, 2001) to formulate or develop hypotheses that investigates the issues being addressed or the problem. Such investigation may result in the development (Cavaye, 1996) of a conceptual framework. Essentially, inductive approach commences with observations and then develop a theory empirically. Accordingly, inductive research is used to gather data as well as to develop theory through data analysis (Saunders et al., 2003). In this research, inductive approach is used to empirically investigate the key factors that influence the practice of PMTT in NPCI.

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4.7 Unit of Analysis and Justification Literature describe unit of analysis as the major level in research in which data is collected and the unit that establishes the foundation of any (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) sample. This can be seen also as the unit open which (Boyatzis, 1998) the interpretation of the research will focus on. Several entities may perhaps be employed as “unit of analysis” however the most commonly used ones are, groups, events, family, individuals, organisations and countries. Some research collects data based on one specific “unit of analysis” however it is likely to have more than just one unit of analysis in a study and this mainly depends on whether the theoretical aims (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) of the study justify it.

This research focuses on a “single unit of analysis” which is ‘individuals’ level: in this case is the “project managers” in private construction companies in Nigeria. Based on this, data were gathered from project managers of Nigeria private construction companies as samples employed in this research. The project-managers were selected as the main informants for the study due to individualities of the private construction context. Making of decision in the private construction company tends to rotate around the project managers as they are in full control of the project from start to finish – very few people make critical decision at the top management level (Cleland and Ireland, 2002). In private construction organisations, management teams are structured around key people who influence the organisation decision making process and project managers happen to belong to this group (Top management team) (Anantatmula, 2010). The structure is less hierarchical in level and is strongly influenced by top management with limited bureaucratic nature as they aimed at delivering their project on time (Cleland and Ireland, 2002). Consequently, as information required by the researcher relate to how the organisation engage in the adoption of PMTT and the key factors influencing the adoption of these tools, the project managers represent the most feasible source.

4.8 Sampling Techniques Sampling strategy must be considered carefully in the planning procedure of any study. Since it is impossible to study the whole population at once in a particular research, hence it is essential to select a (Bryman 2012) sample from the population. A sample size is considered in the literature as a segment of a population which is segmented for study whereby inference is taken based on empirical evidence (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson 2012).

In research sampling are usually divided into two key categories such as probability sampling as well as purposive sampling. Probability sampling strategies are employed more in (Bryman and Bell 2015) quantitative study while purposive sampling is widely used in qualitative research. While probability sampling aimed at selecting sample that are representative of the entire population in order to give room for generalisations of the end result or final outcome.

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For instance: Random Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling and (Bryman and Bell 2015) Multi-stage Random Sampling. Certain types of non-probability sampling that are also prevailing in quantitative study are Quota Sampling and Convenience Sampling.

Purposive sampling however is quite different as it does not base (Bryman and Bell, 2012) on the idea of representativeness since it does not seek for generalisation, but rather on the sample size being adequate for the intention of the research. Purposive sampling as explained in the literature comprises of Theoretical Sampling and Generic Purposive Sampling as well as Snowballing Sampling.

Theoretical Sampling involve the selection of samples based (Bryman and Bell 2015) on their importance to the scholar’s theory development whereas snowball sampling is typically a type of convenience sampling whereby the author establishes contacts with the participants that are relevant to the topic of the research and make use of them to establish other contact with similar participants. Generic purposeful sampling on the other hand is based on the selection of the participants that are relevant to the (Bryman and Bell 2015) research topic.

This research adopts the generic purposive sampling strategy because it is best suitable for the context of this research. Based on the purpose of this study, the sampling technique employed is therefore referred to as purposive sampling. Since this research centres on investigating NPCI perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice, the sample were taken from the private construction companies’ population in Nigeria. In particular, respondents were recruited from construction companies located in South West, North Central, South-South and South East of Nigeria since this region has witnessed continuous increase in construction business over the last ten years and are violent free region. This propagation is due to the increasing growth in construction work in these regions, making the regions feasible samples for this research. The organisations were singled out as establishments having between 250 to 12,000 employees in agreement with the House of Commence definition (2018). As a result, samples were drawn from various construction firms ranging from an average age of 35 to 57 years old and have been working for about eight years in Construction Company.

4.9 Purposeful or Purposive Sampling With purposeful sampling strategy, the selection of samples is not based on theory generation or theoretical classifications, rather it is based on their ability to respond to answers or give answers to the “research questions” of this study. It is considered as a non-probability technique that can be used in a consecutive or fixed method which gives room for the selection (Bryman, 2012) criteria, this may be either contingent or fixed or a combination of the two.

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The key advantage of purposeful sampling strategy is that it allows the researcher to select respondents who can respond to the research questions related to the study and eventually realise its aim and objectives. However, its drawback is that purposeful sampling findings normally cannot be “generalised” to the whole population. Rather, findings are the reflective of the contexts similar or as the same as the one studied. Since the findings of this research are not pointed toward statistical generalisations, purposeful sampling is adequately suitable for this research.

4.10 Selection of Participants

In research, gaining access to the participants or selected sampling is very crucial to the researcher and this area of research is generally (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson 2012) underestimated by many researchers. For this research, the selection of respondents was based on some certain criteria, this include the following; must be the top ten construction companies in Nigeria, the participant must have used PMTT in the last four years, must be a project-oriented organisation, the employee number must be 250 to 1000 employees, the participant must have a degree/HND in a relevant study area and must be in Nigeria. The researcher concludes the data collection when the answers from the participants reaches a saturation point, for instance when it reaches a point where the answers collected from the participants are the same, at this point the research does not proceed further.

The samples of participants for both pilot and main study are illustrated in Table 4.2. The pilot study consisted of eighteen participants such as project managers, within eleven construction sectors across the four regions in Nigeria such as (South West, North Central, South-South and South East regions). While the main study consists of forty-three participants mainly project manager from the same regions (South West, North Central, South-South and South East regions) and in thirty construction companies.

Table 4.2: Classification of respondents for pilot study

Age Sex Academic Position Industry Employees Years of Number Experienc e P1 36-42 Male University Project Construction 256- 908 6 to 10 manager P2 35-40 Male University Project Construction 250-1000 5 to 15 manager

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P3 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-870 5 to 10 manager P4 35-44 Female University Project Construction 300- 950 10 to 15 manager P5 45-56 Male University Project Construction 270-800 5 to 10 manager P6 37-45 Female University Project Construction 260-1000 10 to 15 manager P7 35-45 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 300-980 5 to 10 Manger P8 45-55 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-1000 5 to 10 manager P9 35-45 Female University Project Construction 300-850 5 to 10 manager P10 45-54 Male University Project Construction 250-750 10-15 manager P11 35-44 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 300-950 10-15 manager P12 35- 46 Male University Project Construction 250-800 10-15 manager P13 40-52 Male University Architectures Construction 250-750 10-15 P14 35-45 Female Polytechnic Project Construction 250-950 5-10 manager P15 45-55 Male University Project Construction 300-1000 5-10 manager P16 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-850 5-10 manager P17 45-52 Male University Project Construction 270-900 10-15 manager P18 35-44 Female University Project Construction 250-850 5-10 manager

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Table 4.3: Classification of respondents for main study

Age Sex Academic Position Industry Employees Years of Number Experienc e P1 35-42 Male University Project Construction 350- 908 5 to 10 manager P2 35-45 Male University Engineer Construction 250-850 5 to 10 P3 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-870 5 to 10 manager P4 35-44 Male University Project Construction 270- 958 10 to 15 manager P5 45-56 Male University Project Construction 250-800 5 to 10 manager P6 35-45 Female University Engineer Construction 270-950 5 to 10 P7 40-54 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-750 5 to 10 manager P8 45-55 Male University Project Construction 350-950 10 to 15 manager P9 35-44 Female University Project Construction 3270-950 5 to 10 manager P10 40-55 Male University Project Construction 260-850 10-15 manager P11 35-48 Female Polytechnic Project Construction 285-850 10-15 manager P12 40- 54 Male University Project Construction 270-950 10-15 manager P13 35-44 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 270-850 10-15 manager P14 35-44 Female University Engineer Construction 300-955 5-10 P15 40-45 Male University Project Construction 250-800 5-10 manager P16 35-44 Female University Project Construction 275-850 5-10 manager P17 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager

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P18 40-54 Male University Engineer Construction 300-870 10-15 P19 35-45 Female Polytechnic Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager P20 40-54 Male University Project Construction 300-83 10-15 manager P21 35-45 female University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager P22 40-54 Male University Project Construction 300-900 10-15 manager P23 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager P24 35-44 Male University Project Construction 250-800 10-15 manager P25 45-55 Male University Project Construction 300-900 10-15 manager P26 40-54 Male University Project Construction 250-865 10-15 manager P27 35-44 Female University Engineer Construction 265-800 5-10 P28 36-45 Female University Project Construction 250-800 5-10 manager P29 35-45 Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager P30 35-44 Male University Project Construction 300-900 5-10 manager P31 36-47 Male Polytechnic Engineer Construction 250-850 5-10 P32 35-44 Male University Project Construction 260-870 5-10 manager P33 37-50 Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 manager P34 35-45 Female Polytechnic Project Construction 270-860 5-10 manager P35 37-44 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-800 5-10 manager P36 35-45 Male University Project Construction 260-890 5-10 manager

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P37 35-44 Male University Project Contraction 250-650 5-10 manager P38 37-52 Male University Project Construction 250-840 10-15 manager P39 35-45 Female University Project Construction 300-1000 5-10 manager P40 35-44 Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-850 5-10 manager P41 30-38 Female University Project Construction 300-870 5-10 manager P42 35-40 Female University Project Construction 250-700 5-10 manager

4.11 Research Methods Before discussing the concept of research methods, it is important to critically distinguish between method and methodology which is often confusing and are used as the same whereas they are not the same. Research methods are considered as those methods, strategies, used in conducting a research on a particular topic or subject and the interpretation of data (Long, 2014). While methodology on the other hand describes the methods by which a researcher may proceed or carry out the research or the entire theoretical perspective or logic of a research (Bogdan and Biklen, 2007). Methods are defined as different channels and means to carry out a research that comprises the conduct of surveys, tests and experiments (Merriam, 2002). Literature describes methods as tools, techniques and strategies used by the (Creswell, 2014) investigator to collect significant evidence required to generate theories. Furthermore, it stressed that method used most be reliable, valid and credible. This is followed by drafting a thorough methodology, consisting of systematic as well as theoretical analysis of the stated methods (Azevedo et al., et al., 2011). Methods comprises of different tools and techniques used in research, these are; exploratory research, qualitative research, empirical research, quantitative research, constructive research and descriptive research (Creswell, 2014; Cohen et al., 2011). Consequently, methods also comprise of data gathering tools, which includes interview, focus group, surveys, sampling method and systematic observation. The main purpose of methods is in finding solutions that will address research problems; they are very effective at the later phase of the research especially during the concluding stage of the research project (Kumar, 2011).

On the other hand, methodology is the way of systematically finding a solution to research problems. It analysed the logic following the stages taken by the researcher in answering the

167 research questions. Also, it is the study of the methods (tools and techniques) employed in the research and the reason and why those specific methods were employed (Long, 2014; Kothari, 2004). In any research, the methodology section assists the researcher to explain the medium by which research outcomes were obtained (Kumar, 2011). It is vital in any research project for the researcher to have a wider knowledge regarding both the method and the methodology aspect of the study and not only the tools and techniques or how to generate certain tests or indices, the mode, mean, the standard deviation and how to use a certain techniques, however, they need to know also which of these techniques or methods are appropriate and which one is not (Kothari, 2004) and what these tools and techniques would indicates and mean and why. Although methodology is relevant in representing philosophical suppositions, however, its key objective is to guide the researcher in selecting the appropriate research methods for the study. The researcher on the other hand, need to understand also the suppositions underlying different of methods and the criteria for deciding which of the methods and process is best suitable to address a certain problem (Long, 2014; Kothari, 2004). This indicate that it is essential for the researcher to plan or design methodology suitable for particular study bearing in mind that each research has its specific problem and are different from each other (Kothari, 2004). Generally, research methodologies as agreed by some scholars include the following, qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods, where individual methodology reflects a group of ontology and epistemology assumptions (Creswell, 2014; Long, 2014; Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2011). Therefore, Table 4.4 presents the difference between methods and methodology.

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Table 4.4: Differences between methods and methodology

Methods Methodology This is known as methods as well as This offers a description and justification techniques that are employed to collect behind the techniques or methods used in a relevant evidence in order to carryout given research. research It involves carrying out interviews, surveys It is the gaining of knowledge that surrounds and experiments. different techniques employed to carry out research for instance, interviews, surveys and experiment. The key purpose is to solve research The major purpose is to apply the correct problems procedures or processes to ascertain solutions to any type of research problems It is narrow in terms of its scope of operation It has a wider scope of operation or practice, or practice (for example, comprises several such as the research methods. research methods, strategies, tools and techniques). Employed at the later phase of the research Employed at the initial stage of the research. (Source: Prishani, 2018)

4.11.1 Research methods – using qualitative interviewing Following the interpretative viewpoint, several research methods are accessible for the investigators use, these include, grounded theory, action research or ethnography, qualitative interviewing and case study. In this context, this study adopts the qualitative interviewing method. Qualitative research method is based on interaction and it seeks to acquire explanation of the interviewees’ real world bearing in mind their personal interpretations of (Kvale, 1996) meaning of the studied subject or phenomena. It offers the means of collecting detailed and in-depth information on the way the interviewee experience and understands as well as describing events in (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) their lives. Apart from the interviewer ascertaining the viewpoint of the respondents, qualitative interviewing assists the interviewer in gaining insight into the reason the respondent has that specific point of view (King, 2004).

There are situations as pointed out by Easterby-Smith et al. (2012) where qualitative interview can be conducted appropriately and these are as follows:

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• A condition where the logic of an event is not clear, the study subject is commercially sensitive or highly confidential and one-to-one confidentiality situation is needed for the respondent to open-up truthfully. • A situation where the investigator tried to build up an understanding of the respondent’s real world so as to influence the respondents’ world either collaboratively or independently. • Where the investigator requires having an understanding on a construct that the respondents base their views about a specific matter. Since the aim of this research is “to investigate from the NPCI perspective the key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT…”, the qualitative methods are deemed suitable for this study. The major features of qualitative research that makes it appropriate for this research are:

• It offers an “in-road” for the investigator to influence the respondents’ world either collaboratively or independently – it gives an opportunity to the researcher to gain knowledge that will aid as an instrumental to understand the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT by the Nigeria private construction industry. • It provides insight to the researcher regarding respondents’ world that allows understanding of the study subjects from the view point of the respondents – in this instance, it allows an in-depth knowledge of adoption of PMTT from the perspective of Nigeria private construction companies. • It allows the investigator to understand the reason the respondents adopt a specific viewpoint – it makes possible rich knowledge of why PMTT are not heavily adopted by the Nigeria private construction companies.

4.11.2 Data collection method and techniques Since qualitative research aim is to view the world via the eyes of the study subject in any research, hence, methods which comprises of the interaction and direct contact with the subjects and allow study to be conducted in the natural environment of the subject are favoured for the collection of data. In line with this thought, the data for preliminary study and main study of this thesis were collected via interviews. The majority of the interviews conducted by researcher were face to face interviews two were based on telephone conversation.

Literature asserts that qualitative interviewing is considered as one of the powerful and most common methods by which human beings can be understood. Interviews comprise mostly individual interaction, face to face but sometimes can take a different format such as

170 interaction through telephone as well as face to face group conversation (Fontana and Frey 2000). Interviewing is deemed the most largely used way of collecting data in qualitative research (Bryman 2012).

One key reason for being popular in academic research is that these concepts provide the investigator varying level of flexibility during the process of data collection (Creswell, 2014; Bryman 2012; Fontana and Frey 2000). With qualitative interviewing, the researchers are capable to investigate new themes or ideas that may emerge in the process of interview to acquire a thorough understanding of the study subject or perhaps regulate the study considering the important issue that emerge. It is an effective tool for investigator to acquire an in-depth, robust or rich, experiential account (Fontana and Frey 2000) of an incident or event in the respondents’ life and it generate an accurate and true picture of the lives of the respondents.

Interview consist of four main type employed in research, these includes, focus group, structured interviews, unstructured interview and semi-structured interviews. For this research semi-structured interviews as well as focus-group interview were adopted as the researcher considered both interviews type the best appropriate to obtaining the research aim and objectives. A semi-structured interview as well as focus-group is discussed briefly below.

4.11.2 Semi-structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews are used in this study to gain an understanding regarding the subject and the perspective of the respondents on the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. The concept (Semi-structured interviews) combines some form of the unstructured interviews due to its flexible nature. Although certain open-ended questions are drafted down in advance in accordance with the major themes that needs to be investigated in the interview, this is flexible to give room for emerging questions during the interview to be initiated following the responses from the respondents. Its main aim is to offer insights as well as perception into (Bryman, 2012) the way the respondents see their world. This method provides the respondent the opportunity to discuss freely their experience and opinions regarding the subject without any constraint.

Semi-structured interviews are employed to acquire explanations of the interviewee real world with reverence to the interpretation of the meaning (Kvale 1996) of the phenomena being described. To gain rich or robust insight into Nigeria private construction industry’s understanding, opinions and experiences of the subject of PMTT practice as it applies to them as well as the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT, semi-structured interviews as stated above were employed by the researcher as a means of collecting data for the preliminary study and the main study of this thesis. These interviews were carried out with a total number

171 of forty-two project managers in twenty-nine Nigeria private construction companies and discussions focused on the adoption of PMTT, current practice in private construction companies in Nigeria and the key factors influencing the adoption process. The preliminary study in this research was used to test the research instrument for the main study and was adjusted were necessary for the pilot before the main study commences.

4.11.3 The focus Group The concept of focus group interview involves a group of people, normally at most four participants (Bryman and Bell 2015). This type of interview functions as an effective exploratory tool which can be used for validating (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) the responses acquired during the interview from the participants as another way of data collection. Focus groups are carried out in a (Bryman and Bell 2015) relatively unstructured environment and are used for gaining the perception as well as the views of the focus-group members regarding a particular topic or theme that is investigated in detailes. Focus group focuses on communication within the group as well as the joint construction of their meaning on the theme among the members of the group. The respondents are chosen due to their experience and their involvement in a specific situation. One major advantage of this concept is that focus group allows the investigator to provoke a broad variety of views on a specific subject as well as gaining understanding of what the respondents feel and the reason, they feel that way. Likewise, it revealed also how subjects jointly make (Bryman 2008) sense of the study subject and create certain meaning around the studied phenomenon.

In this research, one focus-group interview was carried ou comprising of ten project managers. The key purpose was for the validation of the framework that was developed from each interview and also helps in data triangulation for the whole research. Focus group interview also aid in exploring from various perspectives the views of Nigeria private construction companies on the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT. Conducting this study in the context of the focus group engendered the possibility of participants providing a realistic explanation of their views as well as allowing each member in the group to probe each other’s motive for considering certain opinions. Regarding the data analysis of this study, the data obtained from the focus group interview was considered as one or a single interview hence making the total number of the interviews in this study to be forty-three.

4.12 The Process of Interview Followed The interviews carried out in this study were conducted following the seven steps of the interview procedure as suggested by Kvale (1996). The scholar claims that research should be viewed from the kick-off of the research project and data collection method, analysis as well as verification approach should be scrutinised at the initial stage of the research. Hence,

172 in order to ensure a more transparency in the study, the different phases of the interview procedure and data analysis procedure are described in detail in this section. Figure 4.2 depicts the different phases of the interview procedures as recommended by Kvale (1996). These phases are essential because interviews within qualitative approach involve a lot of activities; also, these activities are (Myers and Newman, 2007) not just one-off event. Rather, they are constant all through the research. The processes in Figure 4.2 guide the remaining chapters in this study.

Figure 4.2: Seven phases of interview procedures (Source: Kvale, 1996)

4.12.1 Thematising Phase This is the initial phase of interview process used by the researcher in this study, here the researcher maps out the reason of the research and explains the concept of the subject to be explored before conducting the interview. It includes clarifying ‘what’ need to be studied and ‘why’ it should be studied. Clarification of what needs to be studied includes the investigator to gain a good knowledge or an understanding regarding the subject in question, what has been done earlier and what are the gaps so that effective contribution could be done in that knowledge area. The clarification on why the subject or phenomenon needs to be studied

173 includes the establishment of the reason for the study. It is vital for the issues of ‘what’ as well as ‘why’ (Kvale, 1996) to be addressed properly before considering ‘how’ the interview will be carried out. Literature review on adoption of PMTT in private construction project offered a foundation to identify gaps in the study subject area as shown in Chapter two in the literature review and this also enabled the formulation of the research objectives.

4.12.2 Designing Phase The main purpose for the designing focuses on the entire planning as well as preparation for collecting raw data. Designing seeks to aid researcher collect empirical data and gain enough knowledge or information that would assist the research to obtain the objectives of the research. In preparing the questions, some issues were taken into account such as, the kind of questions, (Kvale, 1996) number of participants that will take part in the study, time, ethical consideration and the availability of resource for the research. In line with the resource’s consideration, semi-structured interviews were adopted in most of the interview section and a single focus group. Eleven Nigeria private construction companies and eighteen project managers were interviewed in the first phase of the study (preliminary study). The second stage (main study) of this study involved twenty-nine private construction companies with forty- two project managers, semi-structured interview and one focus-group interview consisting of ten project managers. The application of semi-structured interview allows the respondents in this study to assess their opinion and experiences whereas some level of freedom is allowed for them to articulate their views (Schultze and Avital, 2011). Informed consent form was administered to the respondents before the interview was conducted in form of a signed document to seek their approval, which was duly signed by all the participants before the researcher carried out the interview exercise. The form helps to describe the nature of this study as well as the purpose of this research.

4.12.2 Interviewing phase The initial phase of this study which was the pilot or preliminary study, the researcher in this phase conducted interviews with eighteen participants (project managers) in eleven private construction companies in Nigeria, this exercise lasted for about forty-five minutes approximately for each participant. Of the eighteen interviews in this phase, fifteen were face to face while three were telephone based. The second phase of this study which is the main study comprises of interviews with forty-two participants (project managers) in twenty-nine private construction companies which was selected based on the study criteria above. The time frame used during this process was one hour and fifteen minutes. Interviews were carried out based on the interview-guide as suggested by Kvale (1996).

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This consist of some numbers of open-ended questions arranged according to reflect the aim, objectives and research questions of the study. Particularly questions were framed around aim the key objectives, this aid in answering the research questions: NPCIs’ perception of PMTT adoption, the current practice in private construction companies in Nigeria and the key factors influencing the adoption process.

The actual procedure for the interview included sending respondents a detailed cover letter describing the nature as well as the purpose of the research or study before the commencement of the interview and a second copy may be provided on the day of the interview if necessary. As part of this process, the researcher appreciated the respondents for accepting to take part in the study, followed by administering the consent form to the respondent to sign; at any point in the process the respondent wishes to withdraw from the exercise, they are advised to do so. They are assured that all the information gathered is strictly confidential and before recording the interview, permission is taken from the respondents; at this point, begin the interview conversation with the respondents also at the end of the interview, thank the respondents for participating in the interview exercise.

4.12.3 Transcribing Phase The transcribing phase includes the preparation of interview materials for the analysis through transforming the material from verbal speech to (Kvale, 1996) written text. At this phase, the investigator gets familiar with the raw data through reading it repeatedly. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), going through (reading) data “actively” helped to identify the “meaning as well as patterns” from the raw data make note out of both meaning and patterns.

For this research the entire interview data was transcribed word for word in order not to omit any important point made in the interview. Also reading the data repeatedly enabled the researcher to be familiar with the raw data before the analysis. The researcher at this stage in this study makes notes of the meanings and patterns that appear important from the raw data. This helped as the foundation for the development of themes as well as sub-themes in the course of analysing the data.

4.12.4 Analysing Phase In this phase making decision on the method for data analysis is very significant and should (Kvale, 1996) be based on the topic and the purpose of the investigation as well as the nature of the material used in the interview or interview materials. The purpose for this research is to investigate key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT by the NPCIs’ based on the data gathered via semi-structured interviews. As a result, Thematic Qualitative Analysis (TQA) (Boyatzis 1998) was selected for this research as it is appropriate for qualitative data and

175 seeks to identify both meaning and patterns in the data and interprets several aspects of (Braun and Clarke 2006) the study subject or topic.

4.12.5 Verifying Phase Qualitative research relies mainly on the interaction between the interviewee and the interviewer (interactive in nature) and both the verification and analysis are a continuous process at all time. Verifying stage involved ascertaining the validity, reliability and generalisation of the research findings produced from the interviews (Kvale, 1996). However, literature noted that validity, reliability and generalizability are related to diverse types of measures of rigour and quality obtained with specific methodologies; these terminologies have several meanings with regard to how they assess and (Bryman and Bell 2015) measure concepts. Validity and reliability have been used always in the studies though many scholars debate among these two concepts. Weber (1990) remarked that reliability as well as validity is potentially confusing due to the different ways both of them have been adopted in research. This has attracted a lot of debates among several researchers. As stated by Golafshani (2003) reliability depends on specific research methodology, it is not single, universal or fixed concept. Stenbacka (2001) argued that since reliability relate to measurements; it has a little significance in qualitative research, stressing that it is not important using reliability to judge the quality of the study. On the other hand, Lincoln and Guba (1985) contend that reliability will not exist without validity and validity is sufficient to found reliability.

In line with Kvale (1996) claims, reliability of any interview findings suggests how consistent or reliable the findings are; whereas validity focuses on ensuring that interview-findings have been investigated truly what it planned to investigate. In this research, reliability and validity was achieved via participant validation, auditing and triangulation (Guba and Lincoln 1994).

Participant validation entails the investigator to provide the study participants with an account of their findings or interviews finding for them to refute or corroborate the investigator’s account of (Bryman and Bell, 2015) the interaction that the researcher has come up with or arrived at. In order to achieve this validation in this research, copies of the studied transcripts were sent to all the participants to confirm or verify that the study-transcripts were actually the representative of what had been communicated to the investigator during the interviews also to make sure that the participants were consistent or reliable with the study subject that is being investigated i.e., NPCIs practice of PMTT adoption. All the participants’ responses confirmed that the information given was accurate.

Auditing entails that the investigator provides comprehensive details concerning the research process, from start to finish and it also involves the investigators’ peers to act as auditors (Guba and Lincoln 1994) of the entire process of the research hence, helping to confirm that

176 appropriate processes were followed during the research process (Bryman 2012). In this research, the criteria for auditing were met through offering thorough account of the steps followed in the entire research process. Also, themes obtained from this research as well as the quotes which these themes were established were carefully cross checked by four research colleagues in order to make sure the interpreted quotes are accurate, more so that the quotes were assigned to each theme correctly. This is comparable to ‘inter-rater’ (Voss et al., 2002) reliability applied in quantitative research techniques which is described as the level of agreement or disagreement of ‘raters’ on the interpretation or rating given to the supporting evidence or confirmation they are offered with. This procedure helped in limiting the subjectivity of the investigator as well as the confirmation of the interpreted data. In line with this, ‘raters’ provides an average of eighty percent (Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich, 2002) agreement on data interpreted by the researcher as well as the degree to which they matched the identified themes.

Triangulation: to achieve a more robust research design, it is important to use “multiple sources of evidence” (Hakim, 1994). According to Yin (2009) the application of multiple sources of data collection strengthen the data or evidence obtained. The process of employing multiple approach of data collection or multiple sources of evidence is referred to as data triangulation.

Also, the concept represents the method that is concerned with the application of more or less research methods, theoretical viewpoint and sources which data are collected in a research or study (Bryman and Bell 2015). The key purpose of this concept is to employ these different methods to validate the research finding and to make sure that there is (Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich 2002) greater sureness regarding the findings. In order to ensure certainty in the research finding, data was collected in this study using three methods: pilot study, main study and case study. The outcome derived from these studies was employed as a type of triangulation in order to validate the outcome of the individual interviews as well as confirming the validity of the findings of this research.

4.12.7 Reporting Phase Reporting is the final phase of the interview procedure and it entails getting across the findings (Kvale 1996) from the research and the techniques used in a systematically acceptable manner. Furthermore, it is expected that the aspect of ethic in the entire study including the interview process is taken into account (Bryman and Bell 2015). In this research, the reporting phase is demonstrated in the research Methodology, Findings and Data Analysis chapters of this thesis.

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4.12.8 Data Analysis (Thematic-Qualitative Analysis) The purpose of analysis of data in qualitative study is to condense the data so that it will be convenient for the investigator to translate as well as make sense out of it (Bryman 2012). In this research, the method of Thematic-Qualitative Analysis suggested by some scholars is used to attain this aim (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Literature defined the concept of Thematic- Qualitative Analysis as a technique used for analysing, identifying as well as reporting in the qualitative study patterns that only not explains and organises the set of data in full detail, it also proceeds to further explain different aspects of the study topic (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Since the data created in the course of the interviews seeks at comprehending as well as interpreting adoption of PMTT and the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT from NPCIs’ perspective, this technique of analysis was thought most appropriate.

To enable simplicity of analysis as well as engendering research rigour in this study, the software tool such as Computer Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) NVivo 10 was employed in this study. In line with this thought, the CAQDAS according to Easterby- Smith et al. (2012) assist researcher to get acquainted to the raw data and enhance transparency, increase accuracy as well as the entire rigour of the process of data analyses. Figure 4.3 shows the Thematic Qualitative Analysis process using inductive bottom-up approach

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Figure 4.3: The Thematic Qualitative Analysis process using inductive bottom-up approach (Source: Braun and Clarke, 2006)

4.14 The Process of Data Analysis Followed in This Study

The framework that guides the process of conducting thematic analysis as suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006), involves 6 stages, however, it is adapted into 9 stages in this research adopting the inductive approach (bottom-up approach) as illustrated in Figure 4.3. In order to facilitate this process of data analysis, the CAQDAS NVivo was employed in this study.

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4.12.1 Data gathering process As mentioned in details in the above section 4.8 in this study the data used for this research was collected via individual semi-structured interviews as well as focus group. A total number of sixty-one of project managers in private construction companies were interviewed in the pilot and the main study. Eighteen in pilot study stage and forty-two in the main study stage. Data were also gathered from focus group comprising of ten project managers in private construction companies. The entire interviews were conducted in five geo-political regions in Nigeria.

Data Preparation for analysis; the entire interview and focus group data collected for this research were carefully transcribed word for word in order to effectively encapsulate nuances as well as the whole aspects of the discussions with the respondents during the interview. At the point of the transcription procedure, notes were taken by the researcher to apprehend the initial ideas concerning the raw data. And the emerging points that interest the researcher are also taken down for future investigation in this study.

Being Acquainted with the Data; this phase involves a thorough reading and re-reading of the transcripts (the raw data) and thereby making notes on the relevant thoughts as well as patterns emerging from the raw data. In this study the process of familiarisation was conducted sporadically in order to give room for the investigator to be conversant with the data. Also, the making of notes at this stage helped in facilitating the production of the first codes in the subsequent process.

Importation of Data into CAQDAS (NVivo 10): in this research the thematic qualitative analysis was enabled by CAQDAS, NVivo. As indicated above in this section, CAQDAS aids the investigator to get familiar with the raw data, enhance accuracy, increase transparency and (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) entire rigour of the process of analysing the data and its outcome. The transcribed data (interview scripts) from this research were imported (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson 2012) into NVivo 10 for future analysis in this study. The NVivo figures 4.4 and 4.5 show how the data were imported into NVivo 10 from both pilot and main study correspondingly.

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Figure 4.4: Screenshot illustrating the transcripts from pilot study being the recorded data in this study imported into NVivo 10

Figure 4.5: Screenshot illustrating the transcripts from main study being the recorded data in this study imported into NVivo 10

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4.12.2 Producing the Initial Codes Subsequent to the familiarity of the researcher with the data as well as making of notes of the interesting thought and patterns emerging in the data, the second stage is to produce the first set of codes that emerge from it. Codes according to Boyatzis (1998) are ways of linking individuals’ thought to the data. Codes are also the most fundamental features of the data that researchers can gain access to and make meaning out of it, irrespective of the phenomenon. Coding also consist of identifying elements of the raw data that seems important and arranging them (Braun and Clarke 2006) into meaningful set of elements.

Based on the choice of the researcher, coding could either be theoretically driven (theoretical approach) or data driven (inductive approach). In a situation where the codes are driven theoretically, the themes may perhaps be created based on particular questions aimed to be addressed by the researcher, however, where the codes are known to be data driven, themes are eventually developed from the data and are (Braun and Clarke 2006) based on data. Scholars stressed also the significance of working scientifically all through the whole data ensuring that attention is given equally to individual data so to identify aspects in the data items that are interesting to the researcher and that may form re-occurring themes or patterns within the data set (Braun and Clarke 2006), they also suggest that researchers should not overlook any part of the data that appears to move off from the key context of the discussion. For this research, the first codes produced were chiefly data driven, since the inductive approach was used in this study to identify both the themes as well as the patterns.

4.12.3 In Search of Themes As stated in the literature, the themes are meanings or patterns that are identified across a set of data that captured essential features associated with the research questions, they depend on codes acknowledged or identified within the transcripts and offer a footing for a (Bryman 2012; Braun and Clarke 2006) theoretical understanding of the raw data. Therefore, allowing the study to make contribution theoretically to the body of knowledge in relation to the focus of the study (Bryman 2012). These phases change the focus of the analysis to wider level of viewing the themes and it begins when the researcher has concluded coding the entire data and grouping them. Moreover, it also involves sorting out the various codes into their respective themes and grouping all the relevant ones that have been extracted from the process into themes. In this stage also, nothing should be overlooked or ignored at this stage and even those codes that appears not to fit (Braun and Clarke, 2006) into any specific theme could be named as “miscellaneous” temporarily.

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The wider themes identified formerly in this research are shown in the NVivo 10 screenshots in Figure 4.6. While ‘unfit’ codes that do not fit with any specific theme in this study are named as raw data in this case.

Figure 4.6: Screenshot of wider themes identified in the data

4.12.4 Reviewing the Themes In this phase themes that were generated in the previous phase are refined. This is carried out by combining themes that are similar to each other, sorting out individual themes into a set of themes that are more than just one theme. This is important especially where there is inadequate data to support the theme. At this point, it is vital to make sure that data that makes up the themes fit together, also there is existence of identifiable and clear (Braun and Clarke 2006) differences between the themes.

There are two different reviewing levels involved in this stage. First, reviewing at the stage of extraction of coded data and reviewing at the stage of the whole data set. At the first level or stage of reviewing (extraction of codes), individual data extracted for a theme is carefully checked by ensuring that they form a pattern that is coherent with each other. Once the researcher achieved this, reviewing begins immediately at the second stage which involves the data set stage. At this stage the validation of each theme as regards to the entire data set is considered and checked also if they actually reflect correctly the meanings (Braun and Clarke 2006) evident in the entire data set. Furthermore, all the data set should be read and

183 re-read to ensure that the themes developed a working relationship with the entire data set and to code also any extra data that has not been coded during this process.

For this research, codes were read and re-read thoroughly and distinguished based on how they “match” with each other and with the entire themes. In order to ascertain a coherent pattern of the themes formed in this study, data extracted from various themes were split, merged or removed in the process.

4.12.5 Naming and defining the Themes Themes are defined further in this stage together with additional analysis being carried on each data. This entails the identification of the significance of what individual theme stand for as well as confirmation of what aspect they capture in the data. Here the investigator requires going through individual data set extracted for individual theme to confirm that there is coherence. At this point it is vital for the researcher to identify what seems interesting about individual data extracted and the reason why it is interesting, also showing the analysis of individual theme. This helped in identifying how individual themes matche with the entire story as it is being narrated by the data in connection with the research questions, also ensuring that there is not much overlapping between the themes.

In this process the themes can be changed where necessary to be more concise. The researcher at the concluding part of this phase must be capable of defining clearly what constitute their themes or what they are and what the themes are not (Braun and Clarke 2006). Moreover, themes generated from the set of data were defined further and described to indicate their areas of curiosity as well as the cause for this curiosity or interest. This is further grouped into large themes as well as “sub-themes” where it is applicable. The comprehensive details relating to these themes are presented in both the pilot and the main study in Chapter five of this study.

The following section in this research provides the data analysis as well as its outcome for the two parts of the study, i.e., pilot study and the main study.

4.13 Time Scale for this Research The time scale consideration of this study impact on the way this research is designed following how time is spent on the research procedure. Research is carried out in two forms; it is either by cross sectional or by longitudinal studies. Cross sectional studies imply conducting a study on a specific subject that relate to many cases at each point (Bryman 2012) in time. Many scholars suggest that this concept is chiefly employed in positivist area of study, however, others also believe it has a strong root or is prevalent in qualitative study (Saunders,

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Lewis and Thornhill 2009). Particularly, qualitative studies that employ semi-structured or unstructured interviews are appropriate to cross sectional study (Bryman, 2012).

On the other hand, Longitudinal studies consist of the study of development and change over a (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012) period of time. In this form of study data are collected for one set of phenomena in two or more occasions and it helps in understanding the processes of how change occurs in the study over time. This type of study is synonymous to experimental and ethnographic research (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2009).

This research was carried out following a cross sectional study indicating a ‘description’ of NPCIs’ perception of key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT at a specific point in time. Furthermore, the financial as well as time constraints of carrying out a PhD programme allows for the choice of a cross sectional study as the best option for this research. The pilot study of this thesis was over six months period, between December 2014 to July 2015 whereas the main study took ten months covering August 2015 to June 2016.

4.14 Research Ethics In academic research the concept of ethic has been a subject of debate by several scholars irrespective of their discipline (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Denzin and Lincoln; Christians 2000). The issue of ethic is an essential aspect of any study or research project. It arises at different phases in the research process (Bryman 2012). Ethics implies the suitability of the investigator’s behaviour towards the rights of certain individuals who happens to be the subjects (participants) of the investigator’s work, or are influenced by it. Ethical issues in academic context describe the how the investigators formulate and clarify the topic of their research, design the study, collecting, gaining access, processing and sorting (Saunders et al., 2009) analysing data as well as writing up of the research finding in a responsible and moral way.

Regardless of the controversy concerning what constitutes a better ethical practice (Bryman 2012) in research domain, the concept of ethic remains a key consideration and has been grouped into four various areas such as, harm to respondents, absence of informed consent and privacy as well as deception. This categorition aligns with the Christians (2000) guidelines use in directing inductive study and these includes the following; informed consent, deception and privacy and confidential and accuracy. Each of these elements is discussed below in this study.

4.14.1 Harm to the Respondents This principle requires the investigator take responsibility in carrying out research that will not constitute possible harm to the respondents. As highlighted by the “British Sociology

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Association’s Statement of Ethical Practice” (BSAEP), investigator must be ready at this stage of the study to expect and to watch against any consequences for (Bryman 2012) study subject (respondents) which may be regarded to be harmful. This thesis did not encounter any health as well as safety challenge and was carried out based on the general recognised guideline of the field of business and management study and particularly with the guideline that is acknowledged and is in compliance with the University of Bedfordshire regulations.

Also, as measure taken to ensure compliance with research ethic, the ethical screening aspect was accomplished before the commencement of data collection. This study also addressed the privacy as well as confidentiality by guaranteeing the respondents of the privacy and confidentiality of all the information collected from them during the interview; hence, issue of anonymity with respect to the recording of the interviewee information and its maintenance is highly protected in line with the regulations of the University (Bryman, 2008 and Christians, 2000). Furthermore, the participants during this process have the right to refuse and withdraw from the interview if they feel uncomfortable. Furthermore, no harm of any kind was done to the research subject (respondents) during this study, also the collection of the research data has been addressed precisely and accurately.

4.14.2 Informed Consent The principle behind the informed consent implies that the respondents must agree voluntarily to take part in the research exercise and the agreement of these respondents must be (Christians 2000) in line with ‘open and full information’. The subject must be furnished with the necessary information for them to decide whether to take part in the exercise or not. In order to realise this ethical obligation, consent of the respondents can be achieved by requesting the respondents to sign “informed consent form”. This helps to provide the respondents with comprehensive information regarding both the nature of the study as well as the information that involves their participation. This process helps to protect the investigator in occasion where any issue raised afterward by anyone or by respondents. The disadvantage although is that demanding the respondents to sign (Bryman 2012) ‘consent forms’ may trigger concerns or promote anxieties regarding their involvement and may subsequently lead to their refusing to take part in the research exercise.

To respond to this obligation respondent in this study were informed of the nature of the research, and a consent form that covers the full detail of the study was given to them to sign (Bryman, 2008).

4.14.3 Privacy and Confidentiality To ensure privacy and confidentiality, there was need to assure the participants that information provided will be treated confidentially; hence, issue of anonymity with respect to

186 the recording of the interviewee information and its maintenance is highly protected (Bryman, 2012 and Christians, 2000). Furthermore, the participants during this process have the right to refuse and withdraw from the interview if they feel uncomfortable.

In keeping to the privacy and confidentiality of the respondents, the researcher ensured that names of the respondents or companies were not mentioned or used in the entire study, rather codes such as P1, which stands for participant one, P2, P3, P4 and case study 1 and case study 2, were used as shown in the preceding chapters.

4.14.4 Deception This type of ethical concept supports the concept of informed consent as it demands that investigators provide full information concerning their work as well as ensuring that there is no misrepresentation of this work by the researchers in (Bryman 2012) any way. To prevent this deception, the researchers must give detailed information of what the study entails to the participants. To comply with the requirement of informed consent as well as avoiding deception in this research, the entire participants both at pilot study, case study and main study as well as focus group were provided with a cover letter giving complete information concerning the study, requesting the respondents to sign the consent forms signifying their interest to take part in this study voluntarily. Respondents were made to understand that they have every right to withdraw from the exercise (study) at any point in time they feel uncomfortable during the process without any form of explanation.

4.14.5 Principle of Accuracy The principle of accuracy is vital in any research work irrespective of the field of study. Hence, the researchers must make sure that data utilised in the study are accurate. Christians (2000) asserts that “fraudulent materials, fabrications, contrivances and omissions are both unethical and non-scientific”. Therefore, reliable and precise data must be employed all through the study procedure. For this study to meet this requirement, participants both in the pilot study, case study and main study as well as focus group were sent copies of their own interview transcripts in order to verify or confirm the accuracy of what the researcher recorded during the interview exercise. This helped in assuring that the information gathered truly represents what was expected to be investigated. This is another way in which the researcher validates this study.

4.15 Risk Assessment Since the data gathering process for this study was conducted via face-to-face semi-structured interview, some potential risks were considered during the process as stated below by the researcher.

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• The likelihood of the respondents becoming upset in the process of the face to face interview. • The potential of the respondents disclosing confidential information concerning the company that might appear distressful to the researcher. • The likelihood of the respondents becoming violent or aggressive towards the investigator. In order to address these possible risks, the following mitigation plans below were put in place.

• In the occasion of respondents becoming upset or distressed during the interview, it is important to end the interview and probably reorganise for a suitable time for another one. • In a situation where the organisations’ sensitive information is disclosed or revealed during the interview, go for appropriate advice from the University support department. • To address the possible violent conduct from the participants during the interview, make sure that the semi-interview is carried out in a secure environment, for instance the respondent’s workplace. Likewise, it is essential to notify colleagues and supervisor of the date, location and time of interview, in order for them to assist if the researcher has not phoned or contacted them after a period of time.

4.16 A Brief Summary of the Research Process It is essential for researchers to have understanding of what need to be studied in any research whether in business study or any other field of study. This study however followed a systematic approach (step by step) commencing by first identifying and clearly defining the “subject area” to be focus on, the process is followed by reviewing initial literature in order to be aware of the subject area including the existing gaps in the literature, a pilot or preliminary study to establish the viability of the study, a constant review of literature to keep the study updated, followed by through relevant theories to help as a foundation for identifying an appropriate theoretical stance to underpin the study, carrying out the main study, data analysis, the choice of theoretical underpinning for this research, lastly developing the study framework of key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in Nigeria private construction companies and the writing- up of the research findings. Details of the study guide are presented below.

4.17 Research Process

4.17.1 Topic of the research This phase includes describing the “subject area” that the researcher intends to study and identify the rationale for studying the subject as well as benefit derived from a particular study.

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4.17.2 Initial review of the literature The researcher at this point reviewed the current literature on the key subject of project management practice in private construction companies to gain understanding of the existing trend regarding the “subject area”. It assists in identifying work done in the subject area, existing gaps in the current study and ways of finding the current study based on what has been previously done.

This research was carried out in two phases, the preliminary or pilot study and the main study. The study also followed the same methodology for both studies; also focus-group interview was adopted at the second stage of this study.

4.17.3 Pilot or preliminary study The pilot study comprises of semi-structured interviews with eleven private construction companies based in five geo-political area (South West, North Central, South-South and South East and North-West) in Nigeria as captured in section 4.5.2. The purpose of this initial stage was to make certain the research feasibility and identify also an appropriate underpinning theory for this study. The output derived from the pilot study aid in refining the interview instrument or guide used by the research for the main study and this was achieved by including into the main study key elements that emerges during the pilot study.

4.17.4 Iterative review of the literature This signified a constant iterative literature review all through the period of this study. It helped in grounding the research output and guarantees its relevance. Chapter two of this study presents a detailed review of the literature.

4.17.5 Review of relevant theories A thorough review of theories relating to project management practice in private construction industry was carried out after the pilot study. The reason for reviewing these theories was to gain a detailed understanding of the numerous theories available in business research and to select among the wide range of these theories an appropriate one that will underpin the finding of this research. This is in line with the abductive approach used for this research which (Dubois and Gadde 2002) supports the matching process of theory, meaning that matching an appropriate theoretical lens (Kovacs and Spens 2005) to research findings as a foundation for describing those findings. A comprehensive theory that underpins this study is presented in Chapter three with initial framework.

4.17.6 Main study The second stage of the research was the “main study” which also involves the semi- structured interviews as well as a focus group interview. This stage builds on the output first stage (pilot study), an improved interview instrument or guide was employed in semi-

189 structured interviews carried out with forty-two project managers from thirty private construction companies in four regions in Nigeria, also an exploratory tool was used to have an in-depth knowledge of the study subject. It helped in validating the data gathered via semi structured interviews as well as a way of triangulating the data for the research. Based on the data produced from the main study, a conceptual framework for investigating the key factors influencing NPCI was developed. This conceptual framework as well as outputs of the research is discussed in both chapters five and six in detail.

4.17.7 Data analysis Data analysed in this study followed inductive approach, the bottom-up (Braun and Clarke 2006) ‘thematic qualitative analysis’ (TQA) procedure and it is facilitated through NVivo 10. Following the inductive, bottom-up method to TQA insists on themes to be drawn from data without being restricted by theoretical construct. This procedure help in developing a framework of key factors influencing adoption of PMTT in NPCI based on “data driven themes” that stem from the data analysis.

4.17.8 Theoretical underpinning An appropriate theory to underpin the study was selected to frame as well as explaining the research findings after the main study data was collected and analysed. This helps in explaining the findings of this study. The chapter six in this study presents a detailed conceptual framework of the study.

4.17.9 Main conceptual framework development This explained the conceptual framework of the study derived from the research i.e., a framework of key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in private construction companies in Nigeria. In line with this framework, the study proffered recommendations for the use of this framework by construction industry, project managers, policy makers and other stakeholders that are involved in construction project, in making attempt to foster improved PMTT practice in NPCI. Chapter six, Conceptual Framework Development, offers explanation of the framework as well as how the framework was derived.

4.17.10. Writing up the final work This shows the concluding stage of the study. The research findings are written up indicating the way they all met both the aim and objectives of this research and the way they connect to the conceptual framework developed. Also, the study recommends possible steps to take to improve the PMTT practice in private construction companies in Nigeria, both theory as well as practice are emphasised, the contributions of this research to knowledge are highlighted, the study limitations are indicated and suggestion are made for future study.

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4.17.11 Case study In order to verify and triangulate the obtained data as well as ensuring adequate sample size in the study, a case study strategy was adopted in addition with pilot study and main study. Case study is adopted as a suitable strategy because gathering knowledge as well as individual experiences from the respondents is vital to perception and analytically evaluating the context (Berg, 2004) of a problem. Case study approach allows researcher to explore and understand complex issues. It is regarded as a robust method especially when the entire in- depth study is required (Gulsecen and Kubat, 2006). It is acknowledged as an effective tool in various studies in social science, the role played by the case study in research has become obvious when issues concerning education, sociology, business, community-based problems such as unemployment, poverty, illiteracy and organisational issues are raised (Zainal 2007; Johnson 2006; Gulsecen and Kubat, 2006; Grassel and Schirmer, 2006). One key reason for case study recognition as a viable method in research domain is that investigators were becoming concerned regarding the shortcoming of quantitative research methods in offering holistic as well as in-depth description of questions relating to both social and behavioural problems (Zainal, 2007). Case study helps the investigator to carefully study the data or the subject within a particular context and provide the researcher with holistic view of the subject, it also enables the investigator to develop new models or system, in some instances it forms the footing of the upcoming research guideline (Berg, 2004).

Whereas some scholars claim that case study has no standard definition (Benbasat et al., 1987), Yin (2006) asserts that “the central tendency among all types of case study is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions; why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result.” Furthermore, the scholar indicates that case studies involve a comprehensive examinations or assessments of particular phenomenon in their usual setting, where data are gathered from one or (Yin 1994) more source through interviews, questionnaire and observations. Case studies, according to Berg (2004), do not engage with mathematical analysis or experimental control due to the fact that their outcomes are gotten directly from the respondents’ knowledge (Benbasat et al., 1987). This concept can be used in various researches such as structured and unstructured, interpretive, positivist, deductive as well as inductive, but the use of this concept in different types of study, may also lead to various kinds of result (Yin, 2007; 1994).

4.17.12 Single and multiple case study research Literature suggests that case study method signifies a way of reorganising aims and observations that one may gain an in-depth knowledge of complex (Cavaye 1996) social phenomena. Hence, several researchers, including Yin (2007), Berg (2004) and Cavaye

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(1996), have thought it significant to clarify the difference existing between both single and multiple case study approach.

Regardless of the kind of case study (whether single or multiple) that is being employed, it should be based mainly on the problem being addressed. Single case study for instance is justified when the proposition (Zainal 2007) presented are considered to be accurate, when documenting individual skills and ability, when a case is tested that represents other cases, when a researcher begins to investigate two various points in a similar case and when respondents observe (Yin, 2007) phenomena that was not formerly reachable to them.

On the other hand, multiple case studies are described by several scholars as a normal way to compare different aspects of cases; these may involve compering two or more cases (Bryman and Bell 2007). Multiple cases generally, allow investigator to compare and contrast the research findings of individual case (Yin 1994) to carry out cross case analysis which identifies perception together with unique as well as common to the condition at hand (Zainal 2007) to experimentally assess phenomena. This study adopts multiple case studies to gain in-depth knowledge of the different study subjects in the construction industry.

4.17.13 Justification for qualitative case studies Qualitative case study generates holistic understanding of robust and rich, generally unstructured, contextual and non-numeric data via engaging the respondents in conversations (Mason, 2002) in their natural (Creswell, 2009) setting. The case study seeks to explain processes, the behaviour of individual or group in its natural setting, or the series of events whereby this behaviour occurs (Stake 2005). The cases study supports theory building as well as theory testing (Yin 2009; Zainal 2007). It plays a vital role in promoting the fields of body of knowledge (Merriam, 2009). Based on the context of this study, case study enables the researcher to;

• Case study enables the investigator to observe data gathered from the project managers in private construction companies in Nigeria and formulate useful theories to understand the new private construction setting. • Case studies research were suitable for the investigation, classification as well as development phases of the study and gave room for comparisons of different data gathered on adoption of PMTT, within the theoretical context applied. • Case studies were able to answer questions reliably, clarified the challenges or issues facing PMTT adoption, and establish an understanding of the complexity of PMTT phenomenon.

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In order to establish a connection between the literature review, theory as well as empirical data, the researcher employed case study approach to compare empirical data collected with the theoretical propositions during this study. The outcome of this contrast supports the current literature by revealing the influence of several fundamentals of case studies. It was essential to investigate the current literature as well as the theoretical proposition, employing PMTT cases. By following the multiple case study method, the investigator could make compare (Yin, 2003) and contrast the various findings collected from each case study (Bryman and Bell, 2007). This augments the investigators’ understanding of the differences as well as the similarities between the chosen case studies. All the cases were of private construction companies that are capable of delivering construction project services to several institutions in Nigeria.

This research compares and contrasts two case studies, in order to identify key themes and salient lessons. The two cases that are discussed in this study vary in the level of adoption of PMTT and technology in construction project. The two shows further investigation regarding the adoption of PMTT in private construction projects in Nigeria.

4.17.14 Case Study 1 Case Study 1. The company is known to be the largest indigenous construction company in Nigeria, it is incorporated in 1970, and ever since then has been engaged in major projects in Nigeria. It was listed among with others companies on “Nigerian Stock Exchange in 1991”. According to IM Diversity (2008), case study 1 has the largest work force not only in the private industry but also in the entire country. Its work force comprises of 16,130 employees located all over the nation (Nigeria) and there consist of Engineers, Architects, Designers, Project managers, Accountants, Human resource managers, Technicians and Artisans. Their level of education ranges from MSc, BSc, HND, OND, and City Guide.

The headquarter of the company is in Abuja, however, it has also offices spread around the country such as Lagos, Akaw Ibom, Port Harcourt and Kano. Julius Berger is managed by both Nigerian and German teams. The company is involved in nearly all the sector in the construction market and these includes construction of high way roads, infrastructure, industrial plant, residential and office buildings, marine structures, landscaping, furnishing and oil and gas exploration structures.

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Table 4.5: Past projects carried out by case study 1 company

Year Project Type Location 1992 7.8 km Challawa Gorge Dam Kano 1993 300 km Ajaokuta – Warri Rail Line Ajaokuta – Warri 1993 830 m Imo River Bridge Imo 1994 18-hole IBB International Golf Course in Abuja Abuja 1997 Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport Lagos 1997 Abuja International Airport phase II, completed in Abuja 2000 Obajana Cement Plant Obajana 2000 the Bonny LNG Plant Bonny 2002 Central Bank of Nigeria Head Office, completed in Abuja 2003 National Stadium in Abuja Abuja 2014 Akaw Ibom stadium Uyo

PMTT Implementat ion at Case Study 1:

The interview in this company clearly shows a number of various issues that is associated with the implementation as well as diffusion of PMTT in the company. As presented below, the outcome of the interview indicated that the company as examined in this research has experienced a level of success implementing PMTT when compared to others in the same private construction industry in Nigeria. The findings of this study are analysed following the framework of political, economic, technology and organisational pressure derived from “institutional theory” in the initial framework presented in Chapter three.

With regards to PMTT, the head of project management department stated that “the company has been involved in the use of PMTT for a long time. Our reason for implementing PMTT was to improve our practice, reduce time wasted on one task, and deliver project on time, within budget and maintain a good relationship with our clients.” This is in accordance with Patanakul et al. (2010) that PMTT help organisation to manage their resources, reduce time of production and meet client’s satisfaction. Accordingly, one of the project managers argued that in order to satisfy our clients we looked at what our counterparts are doing in the developed countries (Germany, US, UK etc.), adopt the best practice (which is the adoption of PMTT) from them and implement it here in our projects. Thus, the implementation of PMTT has been on in this company for a long time, which is why we are where we are in business.” This is in line with literature, that mimetic pressure (one of the pillars in institutional theory) brings about structural

194 similarity among institution or organisation, which thereby determine best practices (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983).

The study revealed that the organisation’s core focus is in making sure that project met the purpose to which it was meant for in the country. One of project manager (during the interview) considered the company as being extremely successful in offering high quality project to their client and maintaining this standard over the years. One of the senior project managers stated, “As a result, we have maintained our standard for many years of delivering project on time and within the project scope via the implementation of project management tools and techniques which we considered as our main approach of executing project. This is in collaboration with the pilot study that ‘PMTT is capable of delivery project on time, within budget, with good quality and within the project scope” (P12).” Furthermore, the project team- lead clarified that

“PMTT was in existence for a long but was not fully implemented until after a few years later because we wanted everyone involved in the project to get used to it especial those who are now the project managers, a lot of training went on during this period until all of us were able to understand these tools, sure! It was fine to learn these tools and techniques however; we still in one way or the other fall back to our experience (the old way of doing things) but when the result begins to show forth in terms of meeting project deadline and resource management by following this method, it was obvious that we can achieve project success by these tools. But our experience was not discarded because we needed both the experience and the PMTT to achieve good success.”

This is in line with the main study that “tools make your work easy, but must be combined with your experience, the tools cannot do everything but with your experience you can accomplish much” (P10). Moreover, it is clear that the objective of the company is to make profit, however, beyond making money the organisation seeks to satisfy the stakeholders and maintain good relationship with them. The team lead in quality assurance stated,

“Meeting the need of our clients is very crucial in our business, in this part of the world where there are different ethnic groups, clients differs from place to place and their requirements are not the same as well, a better strategy to manage them was through the application of ‘stakeholder analysis’ in the context of a single organisation for instance building the just concluded Akaw Ibom Stadium in Uyo, we needed a strategy to manage the different interest groups that are directly or indirectly influence by the project.”

The role of a stakeholder cannot be over look as this forms an integrate part in the organisation specially when it has to do with decision making, again literature is in agreement with the respondent, stating that “stakeholder analysis is a unique PM tool that can help the project managers in prioritising various stakeholders” (Grover and Froese, 2016).

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In addition, it was certain that the project management skills as well as budgeting played a major role in affecting the progress of executing PMTT in this company. One of the project managers stated that, “Based on my experience, the availability of season or skilled personnel (human resource) and budgeting were the key challenges in moving from our old practice to adopting a new business approach (PMTT) in the organisation. And I think this is why we engaged seriously in training and development of our people.” Also, one of the team-lead (project manager under road construction), assert that, the core factors to reduce impact of organisational culture in order to enhance the adoption of PMTT is simply, the awareness. Borhani (2016) support this by pointing out that, “trying to adopt a new management approach in this setting may be an issue to be considered. Secondly, the issue of culture appears to pose difficulty which has to change in order to allow for training and development”. Also, one of the project managers in the company added that “effective training could be a channel in making people to use or adopt these tools, so they can inform other people. Hence, this will improve awareness”. This is in accordance with the pilot study that “Training is vital if actually we want to adopt these tools, this will help to create awareness of this new technology to our team” (P12)

The researcher of this study maintains that with reference to the implementation of PMTT in private construction firms, the interviews identified few challenges that needs to be addressed in detail under the 4 main pressures, which were highlighted previously in chapter 3.

Political pressures

The company in case study1 is a private construction firm responsible for providing its clients with quality product; however, the motivation of PMTT implementation that is demonstrated among the respondents in this company involved good leadership, commitment and top management support, this is in accordance with the 2018 leadership award given to the company as the best private firm in Nigeria in terms of leadership (Soni, 2018). Thus, one of the project managers under resource allocation stated that, “the implementation of PMTT has always been on the top priorities of top management in this organisation since there is a regulatory body in the system that enforce pressure on what technology to be used as organisational practice. Thus, the policy makers here ensure that the vital machineries like tools and techniques including the right human resource are in place. This is in line with Weerakkodt (2009) assertion that “…. organisation usually …. have a regulatory body that ensure the implementation plan of the new technology ….” While one of the participants maintained that “the strong political pressure in the system impact on how the organisation operate“. This is in line with literature that “according to this theory (Institutional theory), external political, social and economic pressures effect organisational strategies and the

196 decision making of an organisation as they work toward the adoption of legitimate (Glover et al., 2014) practices or legitimise the organisational practice based on the approval of other stakeholders”. Following the massive success in project delivery and in keeping to our standard, it was vital to ensure effective political leadership to produce a clear management strategy (PMTT) and maintain best practice. Though in the main study it was observed that top management influence is so strong such that hinder adoption of PMTT “…. There is a lot of ‘power-play’ at the top management which is translated to strong politics, thus affecting innovation or adoption of PMTT in this company. We are just project managers; we cannot make any significant decision…” (P21). In contrast, the researcher noticed that the participant in the case study was indifferent as one of the project managers stated that “…this is as a result of how strategy-driven is the leading concept in our organisation. In the PMTT context, the middle level management compelled the top management of this firm towards significant development in future; this way the skilled project team (middle level management) played major role in promoting as well as encouraging the top management to engage more in endorsing PMTT in our firm.”

Also, the project manager under resource allocation further stated, “….if there had not been the top management support, we would not have gone far in terms of project delivery and actually developed or advance in various technology employed in managing our multi-million projects such as the just completed Akaw Ibom Stadium one of the best in Africa, First discharged drain built utilizing pipe-jacking technology in Nigeria, National Assembly phase III, Ajaokuta Steel Plant, Abuja International Airport phase II, Central Bank of Nigeria Head Office”. This has clearly explained the impact of the support from the policy makers (top management) in the organisation and the understanding of the benefit of PMTT. The head of project management department claims that top management and other external stakeholder support towards the implementation of PMTT differs from time to time.

Concerning the political legalisation, one of the team-lead asserts that,

“….yes we are on top of it in the legislation process as well as maintaining the different policies and rules, the actual time taken in presenting the tools or software application was not an issue as the people involved ensured that the necessary legislation required for this application was adequately in place”.

Economic pressures

Obviously economic challenges have been considered as one of the main hindrances to economic development in many organisations whether public or private sectors. The project manager under structural engineering in stated that “the cost of purchasing and maintenance of these this software tools are in thousands of Dollars, considering the wide spread of our

197 branches all over the nation and the number of projects coming in every year. We have to make good budget for both the purchase and maintenance of these tools and techniques. This is in accordance with the main study, one of the participants in the main study stated that, “We use budgeting because, every activity has a cost attached to it and we try as much as possible to use it to control our resource” (P19). The study indicates that cost of training, and purchasing the tool were of concern to the organisation and in order to manage this economic pressure, the organisation establish an in-housing training for their staff. In supporting this, one of the projects manage states that “training people abroad is not cost effective to the organisation rather we gather the people and bring in a trainer from abroad to train them, this way we reduced the cost of sending five to ten people abroad for training every year.” One of the team- leads (project manager) added that “by training our people in-house, this way we controlled our expenditure and not spending more than our budget”. Furthermore, the site engineer (project manager) asserts that, “Since most of our tools and techniques are developed in- house and cost effective, the issue of transferring the impact of cost from the software to our clients is eliminated. This is in accordance with the response from participant in the pilot study that “… We are happy with what we are using since it does not involve spending money all the time for new technology or upgrading any old software”. (P6). In addition to this, one of the project managers claimed that “…our in-house methods do not only reduce the company expenditure but it also helped to facilitate organisational process with ease as well as speed, reflecting in our strong aspiration to adopt PMTT (both in –house one and outside software) and use them largely with ease and precision, which influences every other aspect in the organisation to increase, improve and develop.”

Clients within this part of the world require good services at lesser cost and higher receptiveness in a constantly changing and dynamic business environment. Supporting this, the company ensure that modern PMTT are used in delivering construction services, these include Microsoft-project, primavera and others in addition with their in-house methods. The project manager on structural engineer mentioned that,” the nature of the company’s work is in ensuring that quality projects are delivered to our stakeholders at affordable price, our experience over time in managing our resources (PMTT) has helped to protect and saved organisational expenditure. Moreover, using these tools reduces project failure and the cost of redoing the project.”

Technological pressures

Based on the interviewee’s perspective, the influence of technology in construction organisations and other industries have led the company to adopt project management tools and other software related process such as Redmine, dotProject, MS Project and Primavera

198 for successful delivery of project. Thus, one key issue in this adoption of PMTT is integrating it into the existing practice of the organisation. The site project manager stated that the system give room to the adoption of relevant management approach or technology that is faster, effective and more efficient management process for project delivery. This help to establish a standardised system among the various departments in the organisation. The site project manager stressed that “… our team of project management has implemented software related tools and processes in our practices in order to ensure system stability and further strengthen our standard in the company.” This is in line with response from the main study that “...with the tools you will have the best quality of project” (P13). The project manager under resource allocation assert that, “As part of the company’s commitment to sustain as well as improving its services, the management has adopted certain standards in terms of technology (software tools) to change its operation and measure up with the standards in the advanced country and keep the organisation in a competitive edge.” In line with this, Powell and DiMaggio (1991) assert that “in any innovation, those institutions which share a similar environment (industry) becomes isomorphic with their make-up (structure)”. In keeping with organisational and technological pressure, the company has adopted relevant PM software tools to improve their practice, according to one of the respondents “we have selected among numerous tools and techniques in the market, those software tools that are relevant to our system and this environment.” This decision has improved various aspects of the company’s operation including quality of work, stability, standardisation and customers’ satisfaction. Also, whenever there is any update regarding these tools or work process, the organisation has an efficient platform to communicate this development to the relevant people involved. This is done through effective training of the relevant employees to update them of the latest technology. From one of the interviews one of the respondents mentioned that “… our training system is very effective; the organisation gives room to every end user of the software tool to be trained on, making it easy for them adopt the tools with ease. Supporting this statement, the respondent from the main study states that “If the staff has the technical know-how of these tools, they will be able to apply it …” (P7). As a result training remain a crucial key to the adoption of any new technology.

The standard procedure in the company context has extended to other functions in the organisation apart from road construction and building construction to oil exploration and quarry. The project manager under site engineering exclaims that

“…the company has integrated this process in all other functions of the organisation and not only in the building construction and road construction but in other function such as oil exploration and quarry this help maintain operational standard in the

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organisation all over the country or in the place where our operation is taking place in the country.”

In addition, one of the team-lead stated that,

“we developed our own tools and techniques over time in compliance with the nature of our work and simple enough for our people to use both at the headquarters and in our branches located all over the nation, we have experienced huge success adopting PMTT in our practice, though most of the imported ones are more complex and expensive, we combine it with our in-house PMTT for better perception and ease of use.”

Organisational culture pressures

The concept of culture involves a system or organisation that share common values, norms, beliefs and conducts which binds individuals together, resulting in the creation of shared meanings (Larson et al., 2014). Lewis (2005) describes culture as “the sum total of the values, attitude, traditions and behaviours that exist in an organisation”. Furthermore, Larson et al. (2014) claim that culture is demonstrated by habits and customs that exemplify the beliefs and values of the organisation. In this case the company (the case study A), Organisational Culture is an integral part of the business, it actually influences the entire practice of the organisation, notwithstanding the company in order to operate in certain environment has to acknowledge the culture of the host community and ensure that there is a mutual relationship between its organisation and the stakeholders. As stated by the one of the project-lead “our organisation though with a strong cultural value, we are open to the opinion of our customers, meetings are held with our clients and consultants and other stakeholders from time to time regarding the projects and the approach (PMTT) used. If the outcome of the meeting required that we should crash a project due to its urgency, we do it considering the cost implication”. The company though it is built with strong culture, believe in flexibility and openness to the views of other stakeholders. As confirmed by one of the projects leads under structural engineering, “Organisational culture is a very strong pressure in this company, it determines the success or failure of any project. However, we give room for flexibility in our practices without compromising with the standard and quality of our work,”. This is in accordance with the Olateju et al. (2011) opinion that “culture can influence the adoption of new management tools or organisational decision, resulting in actions that could eventually increase or reduce the quality of project deliverable and or enhance stakeholder satisfaction”. In order to manage this the organisation, operate an open policy to give room for other people’s point of view. According to case study, one of the participant states that “it is important to have open policy or be flexible especially when handling project being awarded by the federal or state government which are subject to change at any time.”

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Resistance to change is another factor being promoted by cultural pressure. Interviewees have demonstrated that the company allows new innovation into their business to keep them updated to with the new development in the industry. According to the pilot study, ‘resistance to change’ though it is expected in every system particularly when new technology is introduced into the system can be managed. Response from one of the participants in the pilot study states that “we welcome new changes in our organisation, you never know which one has the potential to reduce project risk and satisfy the customers, and that is why we believe in other people’s opinion such as our contractors, suppliers, and consultants” (P11). This is in line with the participant’s statement in the case study as stated that, “We are open to relevant information, technology and new practices that will improve our quality of work that is the reason we organise training for our staff. Project management software is a new concept in Nigeria construction industry we had to openly adopt it into our practice due its potential benefit both to the project and to the organisation.” Also, the participant added that “human beings are prone to ‘resistance to change’ especially those who have worked for so many years and had had experience of the work and tend to rely on their experience, in order to marry their experience with the new technology, the organisation had to send them for training.” Based on this context, the organisation in case study 1 has structured its business to accommodate changes in business and allow its operation to be flexible.

4.17.15 Case Study 2 The company is one of the fast-growing private construction company in Nigeria; it has offices located in different part of the country such as Lagos, Ondo and Rivers state. The company has a workforce of about 2000 employees spread around the three locations in Nigeria, its reputation is built based on its responsiveness to its customers. Its impact is felt in many sectors in Nigeria such as construction, marine, oil and gas and manufacturing. Their main operational areas includes Building (industrial, commercial, retail, residential, healthcare and education) Electrical (procurement as well as installation) Civil Works (pavement, roads and bridges) and Water Engineering (pipe installation, drainage and retaining structure).

The company also has a track-record of delivering a project with high quality using experienced project or construction team who are locally base, they specialise in joint-venture with stakeholder as well as partners in order to realise opportunities.

PMTT Implementation in Case Study 2

The case study in this firm was different and interesting for this study. The organisation’s main focus was project driven however, how to execute project management practice effectively was the key challenge. The organisation has not fully demonstrated the practice of PMTT in most of their projects. One of the participants in the interview in case study 2 stated that, “Our

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Company is still trying to adopt these tools into our practice, though at the initial phase of our project, planning of activities is crucial to us. There are presently no particular PMTT tools apart from what we call ‘program of work’ which is common in the industry and any one can plan his work base on the nature of project or organisational policy.” He also emphasises that, “The project management practice is new in our society and most of us are not familiar with it especially the software. But, in terms of the documention aspect of it, our organisation is implementing it, planning tools such as Gantt Chart, which we use for planning and other similar ones.” This is in accordance with the opinion of Aaltonen and Kujala (2016) in the literature that” Project management is a study and a profession that is considered as a young discipline; it has experienced swift and sometimes erratic changes in a bid to seek appropriate answers to a given tasks”. Also evident from the participant in the main study, supports this assertion and states that “Project management practice and its tools such a software tools are relatively new in the industry and not everyone is familiar with it, people need a proper awareness of this practice and on how to use these tools” (P10).

The key challenge of this company towards the implementation of PMTT is the top management; there is no support from the top management regarding the practice of PMTT. It was gathered that a less attention is given to the practice of PMTT by the top management and the importance for PMTT implementation is low in this organisation compared to the first case study. According to the project manager on site, “The senior management ability to accept change and support fully the PMTT practice is the major hindrance towards the adoption of PMTT”. This is in line with evidence from interview in the main study, the participant stated that “…. But even with that, if the decision to use it at a particular phase of the project does not come from the top management, we may not use it.” (P16), also in the pilot study the participant added that …” for instance, some of our operations requires PMTT, but because the top management do not see the need, we have to make do with what we have” (P10).

Moreover, the complex nature of these tools was another barrier for the implementation of PMTT in the organisation, because most of these tools require people with IT skills. Therefore, one of the participants stated that, “the complexity of these and ease of use is a challenge and it is one of the reasons why management is not showing more interest in investing on these tools, we are more comfortable with our traditional method and our experience on the job overtime, though we are seeing success here and there, I believe using these tools fully can improve our practice and reduce most of the project failures especial when managing big projects.” This is also in accordance with Pajares and López-Paredes’ (2011) opinion that “schedule control index and cost control index to manage project uncertainty, result shows that it becomes too complex for most practitioners in construction industry”. From the pilot study evidence shows that “My organisation honestly does not practically engage much in the

202 use of PMTT, because some of these tools are so complex” (P14). The complex nature of this tools have actually deterred organisations from adopting these tools. The respondents from the main study further attest to the fact PMTT is a complex tool, some of the respondents argued that. “The activities of project these days are more sophisticated specially with the introduction of these new software (PMTT) which is not common in our system and this will continue to be more complex every year” (P5).

“… well tools like critical path method (CPM) are more complex and it is difficult to understand” (P4)

In addition, one of the team-lead in the company during this study identified several other factors, including awareness of PMTT, capability of the staff, availability of skilled employee and ease of use of the PMTT as key factors that influence PMTT implementation in the organisation. Finally, he mentioned at the end that, “We hope to fully implement PMTT as soon as the necessary things are put in place and when we are able to have some dedicated project managers such as PMO that will know how to use the tools”

The researcher of this study, using the interviews conducted has identified few challenges regarding the implementation of PMTT in the company (Case Study 2), these challenges were highlighted previously in chapter 3 under 4 main pressures and needs to be addressed in detail in this section.

Political pressures

It was realised that the leadership of this company gave less attention to the concept of PMTT; however, this perception has begun to take a new shape or change in the last few months according to respondents, which is encouraging. The motivation behind these changes has been stated by one of the project managers, he stated that, “Implementing best practice policies have been the key priorities for our organisation for the last few years, this is due to the fact that the company is involved in both state and local government projects and we tried to maintain the same standard of project delivery for both clients. “We review our practices when necessary based on the business trend and what is taking place in the industry.”

Concerning legitimacy or legislation process, the head of the project management stated that, “…legislation procedures in this company in the context of PMTT, in this preliminary process, we examine different roles and regulation and carry out study to obtain the right knowledge as well as the rights and duties (from the stakeholder) that give room for the best practices to our clients”. This is in accordance with DiMaggio and Powell’s (1983) opinion “Legitimacy in this context means the adoption of best practices in an organisation and is approved by

203 stakeholder as the appropriate practice” (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983). Also, other scholar’s opinion shows that “…. organisations and groups secure both their legitimacy as well as their positions by following the rules (for instance; government agencies, regulatory structure, laws, professions, scripts, courts, and culture) and institutional environment norms” (Scott, 2007; Meyer and Rowan 1991; DiMaggio and Powell 1983). According to project manager in resource allocation …” we are yet to understand the policy that guide the application of PMTT since it is not fully implemented and the legislative requirement as well as its benefits to our organisation. Supporting this statement one of the project-lead maintained that, “it is important for the management to communicate the policy or rules and regulation guiding this new practice to the people”. Having a good knowledge of the policy is crucial in any construction project and this will guide the project team in the right direction. Evidence from the main study confirm that “the organisational policy is a guide to every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy” (P9).

Economic pressures

Based on the interviews conducted, it was clear that the company (Case Study 2) faced several finance pressures as well as challenges regarding the improvement of their resource and management of their asset. The company also encountered strong pressures in reducing the cost equipment maintenance, all these influence their inability to venture full into the implementation of PMTT. Hence, the head of the project management in the company stated that, “Organisations benefit from this software tools (PMTT) by reducing material waste and reducing the number of workforce as well as the reduction in paperwork, which in turn increase the firm’s productivity.” He added also that; however, we are yet to fully establish this concept in our organisation because of cost of purchasing this software tools. Adding that funding is the major issue in this organisation. “we need funds in order to engage fully in the implementation of these tool.” In collaboration with this, evidence from the main study states that “but the present practice has led to increasing pressure in our finance.” Similarly, the project manager on site confirmed the impact of the current practice in the company, asserting that, “…Lack of funding from the organisation is another barrier that we face, and I believe that if our economy is good it will influence a lot of things in the industry and our organisation appears to follow the direction of the nation’s economy as the government become too rigid in decision making in terms of new innovation and creativity. “(P5). “My company cannot afford these tools because of the fluctuation of dollars as a result; we depend on our local tools.” (P11) “Cost is the major factor that influence it and to get the job done in the quickest possible time.” (P16). All these show the impact of the economic pressure on the company.

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From another viewpoint, one of the projects lead on operations confirmed some of the major benefits of software tools for the company implemented; he claimed that,

“…like other giant construction companies in Nigeria who are using these tools experience huge success in project delivery, cost reduction, reduction in project failure, customer satisfaction, good relationship with the host community through stakeholder analysis. Even though we experience stakeholder satisfaction, yet, not at the rate we are expecting.”

Technological pressures

From the semi-structured interviews, the company was faced with intense technological pressures to offer better services to their clients and improve their practices through full project management integration. The project lead under the IT department stated that, the technological infrastructure aspect of this organisation persists as the key challenge hindering PMTT implementation as well as the related issues, including awareness of PMTT, training and funding.” Also, the team lead on site added that, “we hardly use these because it is complex and not compatible in most of our practices, though cost may be one of the factors that hinder the implementation, but management support is very crucial if at all we should use this tool. This is in line with the pilot study that “This is a new technology, we are not sure if it will fit into our pattern of work that is why we cannot introduce it to our clients” (P17), also form the main study one of the participants stated that “We cannot marry the two together because of the complexity of PM tools, the interpretation of this tool is quite different from our local method and in our organisation, we do not have capable hands to implement these tools.” (P2). In addition, evidence form the main study supports this fact that “The activities of project these days are more sophisticated specially with the introduction of these new software (PMTT) which is not common in our system and this will continue to be more complex every year” (P5). One of the participants stressed that, “Since our organisation did not integrate PMTT into our practice fully which could have effectively supported our work procedures this in essence, became a hindrance for obtaining our targeted project delivery.”

The implementation of PMTT has played an important role in on-going improvement within Nigeria construction companies. Based on this, the company has also begun making adequate steps to train some key project managers not only on the use of the tools but also in developing effective project management offices (PMO) in all their branches in the country. Hence, the interaction with the structural engineer revealed that absence of the skilled project-team has delayed the PMTT implementation process in the company.

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Organisational culture pressures

From the semi-interviews conducted, it was clear that organisational culture played a major role in the organisation and apart from being an integrated part of the company, the business has given it a considerable attention based on its crucial role in the organisation, it determined also the major decision made in the company. Following this, the project manager under structural engineering stated that, “The cultural pressure in our organisation enforce a common attitude to team members and ensure that staff have the same beliefs, similar ethical values and likeminded, that is the reason we can work together for long and achieve the objective of the organisation”. This is in line with the opinion of Scott (2008) and Teo et al. (2003) that “…provides a routine for individuals to follow and furthermore this pressure plays a major role in impacting the organisation through several norms; consequently these ‘impacts’ control the belief, norms and the practices of those individuals under the organisational system”. The participant also added that,

“…the pressure of the organisational culture has created a sort of rigidity in the system and that is the reason we cannot adopt any new technology until there is a change in the system.” Also, the culture in this company relied on the in-house methods and past experience of the staff.

This is in conformation with the main study, according to one of the participants “The factor that influences the use of PMTT is majorly the challenge we face from organisational norms and regulation. It determines the approach to follow; it is the standard that determines the tools to be used.” (P1 5)

One of the interviewees explained that the organisation has to be flexible in order to achieve its main objectives. He stated that, “One of our objectives is to meet the demands of our clients in terms of project delivery, adding that there is need to be flexible in our approach and at the sametime keeping to our standards.”

In addition, the head of project management stated that,

“cultural pressure can sometimes cause resistance to change even when there is a general change in the industry practice in terms of new technology. In the context of this company, we try to adjust our policy to fit with existing change in the industry, though we have strong cultural pressures in terms of contracting, budgeting, recruiting and purchasing policies as well as business processes or approach.”

In the similar vein, one of the project-lead argued that while other construction firms are using high-tech in their business, the company is still at the stage of adopting new technology into its system. He further stated that, decision making process from the top management is slow due to the bureaucracy coming from the organisational culture.”

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Table 4.6: The cross-sectional cases between Case Study 1 andCase Study 2

Theoretical The Empirical Findings Pressures Factors Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Political Leadership Contributed in the JB initiative and Give less attention to committed to the success of PMTT the PMTT implementation and encourage the implementation staff to put in their best. Top Ensure that the right resources are Less priority by the top management in place for effective management to support implementation of PMTT. Support support PMTT and lack in developing a strategic of adequate knowledge management plan for best practice, on its benefit. and ensuring quality at the same time. Rules and The use of PMTT was legalised in Establish a committee Regulation Case Study 1 and this gives room to examine various to gain a healthy business rules and regulations environment for PMTT regarding PMTT. implementation Economic Cost reduction The adoption of PMTT reduces Reduce cost by project failure and reduces the cost outsourcing. of redoing the project. Also, it increases its income. Training cost Focuses on funding of training and Future plan continuous maintenance of the PM tools Controlling The company cut cost by No evidence expenditure establishing an in-house training for the staff and the reduction of paperwork Technology Standardisation PMTT is integrated in the entire Since PMTT it is not system (department) of Case fully adopt, Case Study Study 1 company 2 company depend more on their experience. Stability Ensures stability in the business No evidence as well as the entire departments. Complexity Used tools that are compatible To understand how to with JB practice and ease of use use this tools, training of staff is the priority Organisational Transparency Has an open policy and good Case Study 2 company culture relationship with the clients enjoys good working environment due to their values. Flexibility Case Study 1 company operation Case Study 2 company is flexible is also flexible but not in all cases Resistance to Give room to new innovation, they Decisions are slow due change update their practices on new to bureaucracy technology from time to time.

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4.18 Chapter Summary

The methodology chapter of this study examines the methods as well as the paradigms of this research used mostly in business study. Though a positivist paradigm addresses issues that are associated with quantitative method and is a predominant approach in business research such as construction projects, this approach, however, is not appropriate for this study since it does not give an in-depth exploration of the emerging phenomena that exist in real life. However, this study has defined clearly the philosophical consideration used in this research. As stated in this chapter, interpretivism approach is best suited for this study. The interpretivism paradigm offers an in-depth or rich explanation of the respondents’ own experiences, also it demonstrates how the interviews were planned and conducted. Inductive approach was adoption in this research to empirically investigate the factors identified in chapters two and three as the key factors that influence the PMTT practice in NPCI.

Data collection was one of the outcomes of the chapter. The data of this research were collected through different studies (Pilot, Main and case study), the pilot study was conducted using semi-structured interview with eighteen participants (project managers), while the main study was with forty-three participants was also conducted through semi-structured interview. The case study was further carried out to further strengthen the research design through triangulation. This research was triangulate using “multiple sources of evidence” in order to verify the data. The sample size was clearly justified and the research strategy has been highlighted to capture the sample size and how the samples were selected. This research adopts the generic purposive sampling strategy because it is best suitable for the context of this research.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction The data analysis process of the entire study is presented in this chapter including both the pilot study and the main study. The Thematic Qualitative Analysis (TQA) was adopted for the analysis of this research. The researcher followed the bottom-up inductive TQA procedures taken from Braun and Clarke (2006) as well as NVivo. As stated previously this study was conducted in two stages the pilot study and the main study. The reason for the pilot study was to test the research instrument. Secondly, was to make certain the feasibility of the study and obtain the direct insight into Nigeria private construction companies’ perspectives on the adoption of PMTT. The main study further builds on the findings gotten from the pilot study and underpinning theoretical lens adopted for this research to develop a conceptual framework for the investigation from NPCI perspective the key factors influencing adoption of PMTT. The TQA process was employed for both pilot and main study.

This section commences with the discussion of TQA, showing how thematic qualitative analysis process was followed all through in this study and proceed to present an output from the pilot study and main study in detail.

5.2 Thematic Qualitative Analysis According Bryman (2012) data analysis is the procedure of making sense out of raw data collected to enable the investigator make from its valuable interpretations. It aids the investigator abridge the data and make it more controllable or handy to work with. Meaningful outcome from this data is extracted to address the research questions and meet also the aim and objectives of the research.

Data analysis used for the whole research followed the thematic qualitative analysis proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006).

Thematic analysis is defined as the procedure that is designed to be employed with qualitative (Fugard and Potts, 2015; Boyatzis 1998) information. Also, it is believed to be appropriate to a range of in-depth text forms including marketing text, articles, magazines, social media and visual materials; thus, being strengthened through its ability to offer graphical representation (Walters 2016) of analysis. It signifies the pulling out of the main theme from individual data and allows for the use of different forms of information in a methodical way that enhances their accuracy in understanding as well as interpreting many observations concerning events, people, organisations and situations (Boyatzis, 1998). The key advantages of this concept (thematic analysis) are its ability of being flexible thus, making it a valuable tool for research offering an in-depth and comprehensive, yet intricate account of (Braun and Clarke, 2006) the

209 data, also making it well suitable for qualitative data analysis. Secondly, literature further describes thematic analysis as “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns or themes within data” (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis, according to Boyatzis (1998), has quite a number of other aims which is recognised as: a way or manner of seeing and a manner of making sense from apparently unconnected materials; a way where qualitative information is analysis; a way where a person is observed systematically such as, a group, an organisation, an interaction, a situation and a method of converting information from qualitative to quantitative data. However, the last aim of thematic analysis is not applicable to this research since converting information from qualitative into quantitative research (quantitative data) is not the purpose of the data analysis of this study.

Braun and Clarke (2006) acknowledged two approaches for ascertaining patterns and themes in the data, these includes inductive approach as well as the theoretical approach. The inductive approach signifies the bottom-up approach whereby the themes that are identified are linked strongly to the data. Data is gathered particularly for the reason of the study and themes derived are not driven via previous theoretical assumptions. Since this type of thematic analysis are driven by data, thus data are coded without (Bryman, 2012) aiming to fit the data into investigator’s analytic preconceptions. On the other hand, the theoretical approach is driven by an analyst. Here the analysis is steered by the investigator’s theoretical as well as analytical interest (Braun and Clarke, 2006) in a particular subject area. Different from the inductive approach, theoretical approach normally generates a less robust explanation of the entire raw data and a more comprehensive description of a particular aspect of (Braun and Clarke, 2006) the data.

The following section presents the Key terms employed together with thematic qualitative analysis.

5.2.1 The Main Terms of TQA The Data Extract: this is a single coded large piece of data which the researcher identified and is extracted from the data set. For this thesis, this is referred to quotes from individual and excerpts from the transcript derived from the interview that are presented in the data analysis.

The Data Corpus: This signifies the entire data gathered for a specific study. However, in the case of this research, the data corpus refers to all the data gathered from individual interview, focus group and case study conducted.

The Data Item: the data items indicate a piece of individual data gathered which all together forms the data corpus (data set). However, for this research there are individual interviews conducted.

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The Data Set: data set signifies the entire data derive from the ‘data corpus’ that is employed for a specific analysis. For this research, the concept is also referring to the entire data gathered from each interview, focus group and case study.

5.3 Pilot Study

5.3.1 Aim and objectives of the pilot study The pilot study was investigatory in nature to investigate the present state of PMTT adoption in Nigeria private construction companies, to investigate also the potential of main factors to influence this industry’s adoption of PMTT. Accordingly, the objectives of this phase were set for this research. This is presented as follows:

• To investigate the NPCI perception of PMTT adoption, what PMTT practices they engage in, also factors that influence this.

• To identify NPCI main factors and its potential in influencing PMTT adoption

• To determine the viability of this research

• To identify an appropriate theory to underpin the main study based on the pilot study findings.

5.3.2 Sample for the Pilot Study The pilot study sample for this research consists of eighteen project managers, within eleven construction sectors across the four regions in Nigeria including South West, North Central, South-South and South East regions. The data was gathered via semi-structured interviews. This exercise lasted approximately forty-five minutes for each participant. Out of eighteen interviews, fifteen were face to face while three were conducted through telephone. The interviewees for this phase were accessed via networking at private construction companies’ business events. In particular, the events hosted by Abuja International Housing Show (AHS) and Nigeria Property Expo (NPE) all in Nigeria.

Table 5.1 presents the categorisation of the participants for this phase of the research.

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Table 5.1: Categorisation of the participants for the pilot study

Age Sex Academic Position Industry Employee Years of s Number Experience P1 36- Male University Project Construction 256- 908 6 to 10 42 manager P2 35- Male University Project Construction 250-1000 5 to 15 40 manager P3 35- Male University Project Construction 250-870 5 to 10 45 manager P4 35- Femal University Project Construction 300- 950 10 to 15 44 e manager P5 45- Male University Project Construction 270-800 5 to 10 56 manager P6 37- Femal University Project Construction 260-1000 10 to 15 45 e manager P7 35- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 300-980 5 to 10 45 Manger P8 45- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-1000 5 to 10 55 manager P9 35- Femal University Project Construction 300-850 5 to 10 45 e manager P1 45- Male University Project Construction 250-750 10-15 0 54 manager P1 35- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 300-950 10-15 1 44 manager P1 35- Male University Project Construction 250-800 10-15 2 46 manager P1 40- Male University Architect Construction 250-750 10-15 3 52 P1 35- Femal Polytechnic Project Construction 250-950 5-10 4 45 e manager P1 45- Male University Project Construction 300-1000 5-10 5 55 manager P1 35- Male University Project Construction 250-850 5-10 6 45 manager

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P1 45- Male University Project Construction 270-900 10-15 7 52 manager P1 35- Femal University Project Construction 250-850 5-10 8 44 e manager

5.3.3 Findings of the Pilot Study and its Main Themes Extracted from the Pilot Study This section presents the outcome of the pilot study that was carried out in Nigeria during April and May 2015 in private construction companies. The eighteen private construction companies have the responsibility of providing services to government, organisations and individuals. The interviews were carried out with project managers of various construction companies in this sector. Each of the project managers that participated has similar background with 5 to 10 working experience. Using the semi-structured interviews, this section of the research seeks to identify main concerns that may well need to be taken into account for PMTT success from the NPCI’s perspective.

In line with the research objective (1) of “investigating NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption”, the researcher asked the respondents these questions (during the semi-structured interviews) among other ones, such as (a) ‘what are the main challenges for PMTT implementation in private construction sector?’ (b) ‘why do some construction firms vary from each other in the adoption or implementation of PMTT’ (c) ‘what are the key factors that influence the implementation of PMTT in Nigerian private construction companies’ (d) why is the implementation of the PMTT so slow when compared to other counterparts in other countries in the same sector. Each of the interviews lasted around forty-five minutes and offered the context of PMTT practice in Nigeria private construction companies.

The result from this interview shows that a good number of the private construction companies are not adopting PMTT because of the nature of their projects, awareness of these tools and lack of PMO manager to encourage the use of these tools. As stated by one of the respondents (project manager) “Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants to assist in the implementation of PMTT is obviously very expensive, especially when the organisation is passing through financial challenge”. The key themes and sub- themes emerging from this response were extracted to form the main themes and this is shown as follows:

5.3.3.1 Definitions of adoption of PMTT From the objective of NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption, the researcher asked the respondents regarding their perception on adoption of PMTT. The answers given by the respondents were coded mainly under two basic themes such as “Main Theme and “Sub-

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Theme” particularly under the sub-themes based on the key answers given by the participants. The main themes and sub-themes as well as relevant data extracted from the interviews are demonstrated in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: The Definitions of Adoption of PMTT

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW The Definitions “The tools have to do with the softwares Adoption of PMTT PMTT and applications that you use to run your project management and the techniques are the laid down processes that you need to follow to run the project (P4). Adoption process “….it is the implementation of any management strategy, especially something new in the industry that the management thinks will help to improve their practices and output” (P9) The Definitions Effective resource “ensuring that we use the suitable tools or Adoption of PMTT the right resources that is effective and capable of delivery project on time, within budget, with good quality and within the project scope” (P12). Classification of tools “Project management tools are classified into documentation and software, implementation of it depends on what you want to achieve from it. Basically, it must be able to deliver a quality project” (P5) Tools for construction “Project management tools are those tools used for vital construction management right from the inception of construction to the final stage of construction” (10); Technology “This is a new technology, like other technology, we need to train our team members in order to achieve its full potential” (P7) Basic management “are the basic implements that you use and the ideas as it applies to construction, tools basically PMTT are methods and systems adopted on construction activities that can actually promote project success and without the adoption of tools and techniques most projects may likely fail” (8); Software “Are devices or software that you use to get your jobs done in the most efficient and effective way (13)” Management strategy “PMTT from my own perception has to do with the tools used to carry out project execution. The techniques refer to the management strategy adopted to execute the project (18)

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5.3.3.2 PMTT Practices In fulfilment of the objective of current practices in private construction company, respondents were asked concerning PMTT activities they presently engage in. Data extracted from the respondent’s answers were coded based on main theme and sub-themes. Table 5.3 below illustrates the themes with relevant data extracts.

Table 5.3: PMTT Practices themes with its relevant data extracted from the interview

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Adoption Limited expertise “Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants is obviously very expensive, so we try to use our in house team to manage the project using Gantt chart (planning tool) but not software” (P1) Complexity “My organisation honestly does not practically engage much in the use of PMTT, because some of these tools are so complex” (P14) “The problem is having those who can manipulate these tools and our organisation needs skilled people” (P17), In-house method “When we consider the cost, we concluded that it is not wise to invest on it. We depend on our old method which is in-house method” (P13) “Project management practice and its tools such a software tools are relatively new in the industry and not everyone is familiar with it, people need a proper awareness of these to practice and on how to use these tools” (P10). Resistance to “we welcome new changes in our organisation, you never know which one has the potential change reduce project risk and satisfy the customers, and that is why we believe in other people’s opinion such as our contractors, suppliers, and consultants” (P11) “Change is the only thing that is constant in the world, but one need to manage it in order to achieve its benefits” (P3) Planning “We only use these tools for initiating project and planning, we tend to use our experience all through the project lifecycle” (P3) Stakeholder “Most of our clients want us to be implementing management this software in our projects, so we tried to buy the one that is cost effective and use in order to satisfy them” (P11) Top management …” for instance, some of our operations requires PMTT, but because the top management do not see the need, we have to make do with what we have” (P10) “the willingness to change from our current practice to the new one only comes from how the top management passes the message to us” (P8). Budgeting “…. Normally, in this organisation what we have been doing in the past 10 years ago is still what

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we are doing now. We have a method of planning our budget for each project irrespective of the size,” (P13)” “we can afford the tools if we have people to manage it” (P14) Resource allocation “… we allocate our resources with Microsoft project tool; this helps us to manage our limited resources” (P15) Training “Training is vital if actually we want to adopt these tools, this will help to create awareness of this new technology to our team” (P12) “we don’t have trained people here” (P6).

Based on the result gathered from the respondents it was discovered that the current situation of project management tools and techniques practices in Nigeria private construction companies took a long time to be implemented because of the organisational politics. Also, priorities are given to equipment leasing, building materials and contracting rather than new business strategy such as PMTT. Nevertheless, the late adoption or implementation of PMTT by organisation due to political factors played a vital part in slowing down the implementation progress of PMTT. For example, one of the project managers revealed during the interview that, “The politics in the organisation is a key factor to the adoption of these tools, even when we have the human resource to handle the implementation process, but we are limited due to the organisational politics.” the key themes and sub-themes emerging from this response was extracted to form the main themes and this is shown as follows:

5.3.3.3 Political Factor Based on the objective of determining the factors that influence the adoption of PMTT, respondents were asked to identify the key factors that influence the implementation of PMTT. Responses given by the respondents were coded mainly under two basic themes such as “Main Theme and Sub-Theme”, particularly under the sub-themes based on the key answers given by the participants. The main themes and sub-themes as well as relevant data extracted from the interviews are demonstrated in Table 5.4.

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Table 5.4: Political Definitions themes with its relevant extracted data

MAIN SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW THEME Political Unstable policy “…. Influence has cut-across the entire project activities, hence adopting project management tools becomes a big challenge to the project managers.” (P9) Change of power in “Most times when another government takes over in the organisation the organisation, some policies may change that do not favour initiatives such as adoption of PMTT” (P7). Organisational “…. Secondly, the organisational policy is a guide to Policy every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy. At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money,” (P18). “…. our activities are primarily controlled by organisational policy” (P7). Transparency “Politics reduce the aspect of transparency and encourages corruption in our organisation and the entire society. This has a greater influence to the adoption of PMTT in our company.” (P12) Organisational “The politics in the organisation is a key hindrance to politics the adoption of these tools, even when we have the human resources to handle the implementation process, but we are limited due to the organisational politics” (P14).

5.3.3.4 Other Factors Identified In order to realise the objective of identifying from the NPCI’s perspective factors that influence PMTT adoption, respondents were asked to identify other factors that could influence the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. Data were extracted from their responses and coded under the two main themes – Economic and Technological. These main themes together with their Sub- themes are illustrated in the Tables 5.5 and 5.6.

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Table 5.5: Economic factors themes with related data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXTRACTED Economic factor Cost of investment “….. But not in all phases of the project. This is because of the cost of importation and government policy in trying to purchase these tools.” (P2) Lack of funds “…… It reflects on our entire activities. Without adequate funding we will experience project failure, and for that reason, we do not implement the common PMTT showing that funding is the key factor.” (P17) Training cost “…though one may buy these tools, but the cost of training the people to manage the software tools is very high and at the moment I do not think our company can afford it” (P8) Maintenance cost “These tools and techniques need to be maintained or upgraded to conform with the standards, this is not cheap at all, it is almost like buying a new one….”. (P17) Cost reduction “… We are happy with what we are using since it does not involve spending money all the time for new technology or upgrading any old software”. (P6)

Table 5.6: Technological factors themes with related data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXTRACTED Technology Compatibility “This is a new technology; we are not sure if it will fit into our pattern of work that is why we cannot introduce it to our clients” (P17) Easy to use “…. Also, technology is another factor that influences the adoption of PMTT. Before the company can buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16) Complexity of “We must first check the complexity of the techniques…. (P16) technology “… The question is, is it compatible and can we use it without any difficulty….” (P15) User-friendly “Before the company can buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16)

5.4 Generating the Report This phase involves the final analysis as well as the writing-up of the entire pilot study report. The purpose is in telling the story regarding the data that has been analysed in such a way that the reader will be convinced of its validity as well as the merit of the data analysis. Also,

218 it should demonstrate the extracted data from the data-set that endorse clearly the themes the researcher has been able to identify in the data. The write-up should be well written following a succinct, coherent, non-repetitive, logical and (Braun and Clarke, 2006) interesting manner.

5.5 Findings from the Pilot Study This section shows the main finding from the pilot study which seeks to investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice and determining also the factors that influence adoption of PMTT. First the findings in this section are listed and are discussed individually including the important data extracts as well as making reference to the literature where necessary.

• The NPCI lacks a general perception of the PMTT and what it is all about • Most of the NPCI engage in basic PMTT practices, but do not adopt it as a ‘Business Practice’ • NPCI need significant support from their top management • Cost is a strong driver for PMTT implementation • Factors such as political, economic, technology has a significant influence to the adoption of PMTT

5.5.1 The NPCI lack a general perception of the PMTT and what it is all about Even though it was evident that most respondents had a ‘working-knowledge’ of PMTT, initially they did not have perception of what the researcher meant by ‘PMTT’. One of the respondents described it as “an instrument used to carry out construction work” (P11), while another respondent stated that “it refers to hammer and screw-drivers” (P3). Various terms including ‘software tools, programme, platform, and devices, planning tools, methodology and total quality management (TQM)’ were used as a trigger to aid them to have better perception of the subject of discussion.

After this has been understood, many definitions given regarding PMTT centred on implementation and adoption such as

“is the basic implement that you use and the ideas as it applies to construction, basically PMTT are methods and systems adopted on construction activity that can actually promote project success and without the adoption of tools and techniques most project may likely fail” (8)

“Project management tools are those tools used for vital construction management right from the inception of construction to the final stage of construction” (10); “Are devices or software that you use to get your job done in the most efficient and effective way (13)”

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“PMTT from my own perception has to do with the tools used to carry out project execution. The techniques refer to the strategy adopted to execute the project (18) were more predominant.

The way the participants responded to the questions shows that they have good perception of PMTT and to some extent the way it works. Hence, the definitions highlighted above are in line with most of the academic literature on PMTT adoption in construction companies in which the focus is on the aspect of project management tools (software tool). (Larry 2015; Patanakul et al., 2010; Milosevic, 2003; Fox, Murray et al., 2003). Since PMTT aid organisation in achieving their objectives and (Olateju et al., 2011) contribute significantly to the success of construction project, therefore, having a general perception of PMTT is a vital issue.

5.5.2 Most of the NPCI engage in basic PMTT practices, but do not adopt it as a ‘Business Practice’ Whereas most studies argued that the concept of PMTT is yet to be well established (Olateju et al., 2011) in construction companies compared to other studies, findings from the pilot study supported the position of Abbasi and Al-Mharmah (2000) and Olateju et al. (2011) that the level of engagement of PMTT in construction companies is at a low level in some construction companies especially in Nigeria. Most of the private construction companies in Nigeria interviewed do not engage fully in the adoption of PMTT. Interestingly, those who appear to have engaged in applying these tools do not acknowledge them as PMTT but rather as a work program. Again, they were prompted with words such as ‘project phase’, ‘base-line’, ‘start to finish’, ‘in-house method’, ‘complexity’, ‘expert knowledge’ and ‘traditional method’ to give the respondents an idea. The practices of PMTT in private construction companies involved every aspect of project management activity carried out in the construction projects such as planning, resources allocation, execution, budgeting, stakeholder management, risk management and delivering project on time. Though this practice was not in full scale in most of these companies, some actually adopted it while some have their in-house methods. Few data extracts that are relevant to this are as follows:

“We only use these tools for initiating project and planning; we tend to use our experience all through the project lifecycle” (P3).

“Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants is obviously very expensive, so we try to use our in-house team to manage the project using Gantt chart (planning tool) but not software” (P1)

People who have over time been used to a particular method find it difficult to change from their normal practice to a new thinking pattern, also the complex nature of some of these tools and lack of organisational support make it very difficult for some private companies to

220 implement these tools in their organisation. This fits with Dildar et al. (2014) opinion that organisational support and complexity of this software play a key role in the adoption of PMTT. Other respondents confirm this as follows;

“My organisation honestly does not practically engage much in the use of PMTT, because some of these tools are so complex” (P14).

“…. Normally, in this organisation what we have used to in the past 10 years ago is still what we are doing now. We have a method of planning our budget for each project irrespective of the size,” (P34).

…” for instance, some of our operations require PMTT, but because the top management do not see the need, we have to make do with what we have” (11).

Other respondents also stated that: “When we consider the cost, we concluded that it is not wise to invest on it. We depend on our old method which is in-house method” (P13).

However, one of the project managers stated that “… We allocate our resources using Microsoft project tool, this helps us to manage our limited resources” (P15).

5.5.3 NPCI need significant support from their top management Though the NPCI interviewed did apply PMTT in some of their construction activities, they were largely averse to full scale implementation of PMTT as a business practice. They all see it a ‘good tool’ but not as a ‘need in the organisation’. The impression of the PMTT being too complex, incompatible, extra cost, long term benefit, cost of training and top management involvement was some of the respondents’ reasons given. Moreover, even though they all experienced some form of project failure, one way or other, they are all happy with their existing business practice and they do not see reason or the need of making any extra effort because of PMTT. The absence of pressure from the clients to enforce this change in the organisation even makes it less significant to change. This is in support with Franklin and Aguenza (2016) opinion that organisations are difficult to change when they get comfortable with the existing situation or ‘status quo’ and when they lack adequate perception of the need for change, this is also in corroboration with other scholars such as Anderson and Anderson (2010), Maurer (2006) and Erdogan et al. (2005). This is in line with the data extracts presented below.

“… We are happy with what we are using since it does not involve spending money all the time for new technology or upgrading any old software”. (P6)

“This is a new technology; we are not sure if it will fit into our pattern of work that is why we cannot introduce it to our client” (P17)

“… The question is, is it compatible and can we use it without any difficulty….” (P15)

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“These tools and techniques need to be maintained or upgraded to conform with the standard, this is not cheap at all, it is almost like buying a new one….”. (P5)

Another strong point in this phase was the issue of the top management involvement in the adoption of PMTT, this considered by every interviewee as a major influence to the adoption of PMTT since they are the decision makers in the organisation. This observation fits in with Franklin and Aguenza (2016) and Erdogan et al. (2005) opinions in the literature that poor support and involvement from top management are some of the reason why PMTT is not implemented. The data extracts below are relevant to this:

“The decision makers in my company have limited knowledge regarding these tools; it is only a few of us who have used these tools…. are trying to talk them into it”. (P1)

“….and if the board of directors do not approve of this tool, we cannot make progress with it and the cost of obtaining the tool is another constrain”. (P15)

“There is project management software, i.e., the Microsoft Project which we use, though, is the old version to assist in planning and controlling projects. But even with that, if the decision to use it at a particular phase of the project does not come from the project board (top management) we may not use it.” (P12)

I have not seen my organisation use it at any point in time, and the management recognise past experience rather than innovation. Though recently some of the senior staff went for training in the UK on how to improve on management practice.” (P13)

5.5.4 Cost implication is a strong driver for PMTT implementation The evidence shows that the cost of purchasing these tools is the core factor that hinders the adoption of project management tools. In order to remain in business, the organisation considers using one key approach which is often their past experience.

In this case every respondent interviewed were able to explain clearly what cost implications are and they were able to identify cost areas and demonstrate their perception of different cost relating to software tools and traditional tools. Generally, cost areas were identified as “training cost, maintenance cost, and cost of the software” (P7); “Cost is one of the major factors that influence it” (P16). Others stated that; “the cost of the software and the cost of renewing the licence yearly is a challenge that is the reason we do not consider it profitable in our business.” (P14)

“…… Limited financial support is a barrier to a successful project planning and execution of the PMTT; this also influenced the maintenance of these tools in many West African nations specifically in construction firms in Nigeria.” (P15)

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“…though one may buy these tools, but the cost of training the people to manage the software tools is very high and at the moment I do not think our company can afford it” (P2)

Many of the respondents argued that managing projects either small or big project require huge investment let along investing in PMTT. However, it is vital to take a proactive measure to avoid project failure. Though project itself is costly but redoing the project is more expensive. Hence, monitoring, controlling and planning require an effective PMTT. This argument fits with some of the academic literature (Olateju et al., 2011; Ullah, 2017). Evidence shows that some companies want on to implement the PMTT in-spite of the cost implication. Data extracted from this are:

“…We cannot carry out any project without project management tools” (P13)

“Though this is costly, we need it because we want to achieve a certain level of quality in our work” (P3)

“It’s just the best way and easy way to meet project requirement and satisfy your clients” (P10)

5.5.5 Factors such as political, economic, technology has a significant influence to the adoption of PMTT Another finding from the respondents were the key factors that influence the use of PMTT; they identify these factors as political, economic, technology factors. This corroborates scholars such as Olateju (2011) and Ofori (2013). Generally, they all have a better knowledge about these factors and were able to differentiate them accordingly, the respondents stated that organisational politics is the core factor that determine the adoption of these tools. They highlighted issues under this factor as, unstable policy, Change of power in the organisation, Institutional Policy Transparency, Organisational politics. Extract that are related to each issue presented below:

“Politics reduce the aspect of transparency and encourages corruption in our organisation and the entire society. This has a greater influence to the adoption of PMTT in our company.” (P12)

“…. Influence of these factors has cut-across the entire project activities, hence adopting project management tools becomes a big challenge to the project managers.” (P9). Moreover, these factors were further sub-divided into organisational policy, the interviewee views it as a guide to their practices. “…. Secondly, the organisational policy is a guide to every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy. At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money,” (P18). Change in leadership triggers changes in the organisational policy, and this determine the position of the organisation at that point in time. “Most times when another

223 government takes over in the organisation, some policies may change that do not favour initiatives such as adoption of PMTT” (P7).

Another factor that affects the adoption of PMTT mentioned during the interview was economic factor, one of the project managers stated that the presence of economic factor has affected the full implementation of PMTT. While one of the respondents suggested that if the software tools are developed for a set of work stages, this way may reduce the cost and allow organisations both small and large to afford it. Some of the related comments made by the respondents are:

“…. we use it but not in all phases of the project. This is because of the cost of importation and government policy in trying to purchase these tools.” (P2).

“…… It reflects on our entire activities. Without adequate funding we will experience project failure, and for that reason, we do not implement PMTT, showing that funding is the key factor.” (P17)

It was also stated that since the objective of the business was primarily to make profit, the aim was to cut cost or have a realistic cost and still maintain their quality in order to satisfy their customers. This agreed with the work of Ofori (2013) viewing it from the business perspective.

“…though one may buy these tools, but the cost of training the people to manage the software tools is very high and in trying to minimise cost, we tend to avoid what will make us to spend more” (P11).

“These tools and techniques need to be maintained or upgraded to conform with the standard, this is not cheap at all, it is almost like buying a new one….”.(P16)

In discussing technological factor, most of the respondents indicated that quite a number of upcoming technologies are jointly influencing change in the construction companies. They have a transformative impact in the entire industry as well as contributing towards responding to challenges that the industry faces. It was emphasised that the PMTT software is one of the key significant trends in the construction organisations. This is line with Calie (2017) position. Most respondents did not make much comment on technological factor though this is another factor that strongly determines the adoption of PMTT; interestingly, they were able to highlight key points under this factor. These includes Compatibility, Easy to use, Complexity of technology and User-friendly. Comments were made around these points, when asked if technology plays a role in the implementation of project management tools, their responses were almost the same since most of the tools was unknown to them.

“This is a new technology; we are not sure if it will fit into our pattern of work that is why we cannot introduce it to our client” (P17)

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“…. Also, technology is another factor that influences the adoption of PMTT. Before the company buys into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16)

“We must first check the complexity of the techniques…. (P16)

“… The question is, is it compatible and can we use without any difficulty….” (P15)

“Before the company buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16)

5.6 Conclusion of Pilot Study This phase of the study explained clearly the thematic analysis approaches used in analysing the data, also quotes in this phase are well explained. Based on the outcome from the pilot study, it has been established that participants predominantly employed in-house method and their experience while some companies engage partially in the adoption of PMTT especially in their initiative phase and very few used engage fully in the adoption and implementation of PMTT. Though, from the definition given by the respondents, they all have an understanding of PMTT but not all actively engage in the use of the PMTT. The reason for the limited usage of these tools was identified in this study as cost, expertise knowledge, support from the organisation or top management, and complexity of the tools, funding and user-friendly. In order to address these concerns and change their pattern of practice and make them engage fully in the implementation of PMTT, it seems that they need maximum support from the organisation and top management as well as adequate training on the use of this PMTT. Especially, top management intervention is required to fund and encourage the use of PMTT in full scale. However, few of the respondents that fully participated in the application of PMTT were driven by benefit realisation, resource allocation, controlling, monitoring, planning of project (using Microsoft project tools) and complexity of their projects.

The whole findings of the pilot study met the set objectives for this investigatory study. NPCIs’ perceptions of PMTT adoption were established, their current PMTT practices and the key factors influencing the adoption of the PMTT were also identified. Moreover, other emerging issues including their needs for substantial support from top management, their need for training, expertise or dedicated PMO as well as their viewpoint of politics, economic and technology as key obstacle to influencing their organisation to adopt PMTT.

In line with this finding, the researcher has established that top management involvement in encouraging their organisations in this sector (NPCI) to adopt PMTT was relatively limiting, also not strong enough to have room for other key factors that possibly will have the ability or potential to influence this change. Therefore, for the main study, i.e., the second stage of the research, a more widely based method was employed based on the ‘findings’ from the pilot

225 study and the underpinning theory identified for the study. This phase of the study give room for other factors apart from the ones identified above to be taken into consideration as potential influences of NPCIs’ perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice. As a result of the themes originated from this phase of the research, a theoretical framework for investigating a broad range of other factors influencing NPCIs’ PMTT adoption was developed. The main themes as well as the sub-themes together with the framework and the relevant data extracted are expanded in the main study in this chapter.

5.7 The Main Study

5.7.1 Related issues to be responded to in the main study The key issues recognised in the pilot study that was taken note of are addressed in the main study, and there are explained as follows:

• Sample size: The pilot study in this research employed a small sample size of eighteen respondents offering a limited viewpoint of the findings in the pilot study hence it becomes challenging to generalise the private construction companies PMTT adoption behaviour. In order to respond to this issue, the sample size for the main study was expanded to a larger number of forty-two project managers in private construction companies in Nigeria, and they were interviewed individually with additional ten project managers who took part in the focus group (taken as one participant) making it forty-three respondents all together. The increase in the sample size allows for a more significant and relevant findings which are more valid to the Nigeria private construction companies context.

• Absence of focus on key influencing factors: The pilot study fails to investigate intensely into the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT such as organisational politics, economic and technology. This shows a significant shortcoming as construction industry is positioned well to engage in the practice of PMTT because they play a significant role in the growth of the nations’ economy in which they operate. To address this limitation, this study adopted a more general view to PMTT by incorporating organisational culture as one of the factors into study. This additional factor would help investigate the potential of the PMTT.

• Limited scope: The pilot study focus of this research was limited in nature, as it focuses only on three factors and few sub-factors. Hence, its output shows the possibility of other important factors that can influence the adoption of PMTT. As a result, the scope of this study was expanded in the main study, and was refined also with a theoretical lens to investigate other factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in

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private construction companies in Nigeria. This allows for broad and insightful view of the study and aid to generate a significant result for the particular context of this research.

The second phase of this study which is the main study also followed a similar data collection as well as data analysis pattern or process as that of pilot study with addition of the focus group study. The semi-structured interview in this second part was carried out with forty-three project managers in forty–one NPCI in four regions in Nigeria such as South West, North Central, South-South and South East regions and focus-group comprising of 10 project managers from the same industry.

5.7.2 Objectives of the second phase (main study) The objectives of this second phase of the study were in two stages. First, to investigate further the key factors influencing the adoption PMTT in NPCI; and the second part is to investigate a wider range of sub-factors or other factors affecting the Nigeria construction companies.

Based on this, findings from the pilot study were adopted in developing an improved interview guideline for the main study, which in this case was richer and a better view of PMTT adoption and factors influencing the adoption process.

5.7.3 Sample size for main study Similar to that of the pilot study, the main study sample was derived from private construction in four regions in Nigeria such as South West, North Central, South-South and South East regions. The semi-structured interviews were carried out with forty-three respondents (project managers) from the private construction sector in the different regions mentioned above. The interview exercise lasted for about one hour fifteen minutes, also were all carried out face to face. In addition, a focus group was incorporated in this phase of the study in order to validate the findings from each interview as well as serving as ways of triangulating the data for this study. it comprises of ten project managers all from similar industry and the interview exercise for this group took about one hour fifteen minutes. Like the pilot study, the respondents of the second phase of the research were accessed via networking at an event the “Nigeria Build Expo Construction and building Event” hosted in Lagos, Nigeria.

Table 5.7: Classification of respondents for main study

Age Sex Academic Position Industry Employee Years of s Number Experience

P1 35- Male University Project Construction 350- 908 5 to 10 42 manager

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P2 35- Male University Engineer Construction 250-850 5 to 10 45

P3 35- Male University Project Construction 250-870 5 to 10 45 manager

P4 35- Male University Project Construction 270- 958 10 to 15 44 manager

P5 45- Male University Project Construction 250-800 5 to 10 56 manager

P6 35- Femal University Engineer Construction 270-950 5 to 10 45 e

P7 40- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-750 5 to 10 54 manager

P8 45- Male University Project Construction 350-950 10 to 15 55 manager

P9 35- Femal University Project Construction 3270-950 5 to 10 44 e manager

P1 40- Male University Project Construction 260-850 10-15 0 55 manager

P1 35- Femal Polytechnic Project Construction 285-850 10-15 1 48 e manager

P1 40- Male University Project Construction 270-950 10-15 2 54 manager

P1 35- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 270-850 10-15 3 44 manager

P1 35- Femal University Engineer Construction 300-955 5-10 4 44 e

P1 40- Male University Project Construction 250-800 5-10 5 45 manager

P1 35- Femal University Project Construction 275-850 5-10 6 44 e manager

P1 35- Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 7 45 manager

P1 40- Male University Engineer Construction 300-870 10-15 8 54

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P1 35- Femal Polytechnic Project Construction 250-750 5-10 9 45 e manager

P2 40- Male University Project Construction 300-83 10-15 0 54 manager

P2 35- Femal University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 1 45 e manager

P2 40- Male University Project Construction 300-900 10-15 2 54 manager

P2 35- Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 3 45 manager

P2 35- Male University Project Construction 250-800 10-15 4 44 manager

P2 45- Male University Project Construction 300-900 10-15 5 55 manager

P2 40- Male University Project Construction 250-865 10-15 6 54 manager

P2 35- Femal University Engineer Construction 265-800 5-10 7 44 e

P2 36- Femal University Project Construction 250-800 5-10 8 45 e manager

P2 35- Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 9 45 manager

P3 35- Male University Project Construction 300-900 5-10 0 44 manager

P3 36- Male Polytechnic Engineer Construction 250-850 5-10 1 47

P3 35- Male University Project Construction 260-870 5-10 2 44 manager

P3 37- Male University Project Construction 250-750 5-10 3 50 manager

P3 35- Femal Polytechnic Project Construction 270-860 5-10 4 45 e manager

P3 37- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-800 5-10 5 44 manager

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P3 35- Male University Project Construction 260-890 5-10 6 45 manager

P3 35- Male University Project Contraction 250-650 5-10 7 44 manager

P3 37- Male University Project Construction 250-840 10-15 8 52 manager

P3 35- Femal University Project Construction 300-1000 5-10 9 45 e manager

P4 35- Male Polytechnic Project Construction 250-850 5-10 0 44 manager

P4 30- Femal University Project Construction 300-870 5-10 1 38 e manager

P4 35- Femal University Project Construction 250-700 5-10 2 40 e manager

5.7.4 Data analysis of the main study Data analysis for this study also followed the (Braun and Clarke, 2006) “bottom-up, inductive, data driven thematic-qualitative analysis procedure” as mentioned earlier. The data in this phase of the study were gathered via semi-structured interviews, also the interview sessions which were face to face and were recorded with respondents’ consent and were transcribed word for word. This was followed by getting familiar with the data and reading and re-reading the raw data and making of notes regarding the data. This helps to identify the initial themes produced from the raw data. The initial themes generated from the data were analysed further and refined into main and sub-themes, these formed also the fundamental of the theoretical basis obtained from the research for investigating the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in NPCI.

5.7.5 Themes in the main study This section comprises of the main themes and sub-themes, these themes were derived from the study and they form the main study of this research. Each main theme and the sub-themes are demonstrated and explained in the succeeding sections.

5.7.6 Relating the main themes of the study to the research objectives The whole main themes generated for this research as well as their sub-themes, are explained in this subsequent section. To explain in detail how these themes developed, meet the objectives of this study, the researcher grouped them in line with individual objective.

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Objective 1: To investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice.

Perception of PMTT adoption

The researcher commences by asking the respondents what they understand by PMTT adoption, this is to ensure that they have a good perception of the concept of PMTT adoption and to ascertain what the respondents perceived as PMTT adoption. The responses from the interviews were grouped into two different sub-themes: the “Definitions and Current Practices”. Figure 5.1 shows themes as well as two different sub-themes. Figure 5.2 further identifies elements under the Definitions:

Figure 5.1: NVivo model showing the perception of PMTT main theme and two sub- themes1

1 Figure 5.1 is an extracts from the data collection.

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Figure 5.2: NVivo model showing the perception of PMTT main theme and sub-themes

In view of explaining the meaning of PMTT, the participants gave different definitions regarding the concepts of PMTT. These responses from the participants were grouped according to their point of focus which amount to nine sub-themes. These sub-themes as well as their individual data-extracts are presented in Table 5.8.

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Table 5.8: The definition of PMTT themes and its sub-themes and its related data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Definitions Instruments “What I understand by project management tools and techniques is the available instruments (physical instruments) for carrying out the work of project management for example a lot of computer programmes and methodologies used in project management for instance the critical path method and the likes are considered to be the project management tools” (P3) Cost serving tools “PMTT refers to the tools and techniques that you need to bring about proper project management which can help management eventually in serving cost or tools for serving project cost or that can assist project managers make good decision” (P7) Softwares “The tools have to do with the softwares and applications that you use to run your project management and the techniques are the laid down processes that you need to follow to run the project” (P11) Systematic method “Project management could be simply put as systems that have been fashioned that you could use to manage your project. While techniques are systematic method that have been proven overtime to also assist you in conjunction with other tools to get the result you want to get” (P9). Scheduling tool “The PMTT is used to schedule your activities so that you can meet up with time or if you can finish the project before time it gives you more profit. With the tool you will have the best quality of project” (P13) Work programme “Basically, from the initiation there is a work programme with schedules on how to go about the project from inception to the end going through the different stages, you look at what it entails equipment wise and how to manage the resources from start to finish” (P15). Device “Project management itself entails the management of people, materials and funds in the construction industry and the tools are those devices that will make project management workable” (P20).

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Platforms “Tools and techniques are the platforms, softwares, devices and methodology that are there to aid the project manager in delivering the project according to cost and schedule” (P19). Facilitate work “What a project manager uses to make his work faster is a tool and the technique is the processes you use to do the work” (P2).

5.7.7 Current practice of PMTT in NPCI In keeping with the first objective of this thesis, which the researcher seeks to understand the current PMTT practices in NPCI, the participants were asked the basic principles or methods that guides their present practice or the way they carry out their project. This was to determine if they are adopting PMTT or their in-house model in carrying out their business. Interestingly, some of the participants were unaware of the practices adopted in their organisations. Responses such as these were grouped into theme and sub-themes.

Figure 5.3: NVivo model showing the current practice of PMTT main theme and sub- themes

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Table 5.9: Some of the related data extracts for this particular theme

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Current Unawareness “…. We make used of tools and techniques in our practice, but unknown to our team member that Practices this is actually the PMTT. We called it work tools, we plan, monitor and control with these tools but lack the awareness” (P6) Business model “Sincerely we do not work without the Project management tools it is our norm and culture; it is what we use every day for proper delivery of project, it is the model we use” (P11). Experience “tools make your work easy, but must be combined with your experience, the tools cannot do everything but with your experience you can accomplish much” (P10) Funding “My organisation is not currently into the use of this software; they are tools we would have loved to use but because of lack of funding we cannot have these tools especially when you know its cost in dollars” (P9). Limited engagement “For my organisation the engagement is quite minimal…” (P13). “….in every system you have to plan for the market, the market has not accepted much of this engagement (PMTT)” (P17). Tracking project “The one we basically use is Microsoft project for activities programming and it makes your work faster, you can input into that, you can track the program” (P4). Organised work “We factor in project management tools at each stage of the project and this helps to be properly organised both before the project, during the project and after the project. It is our normal way of carrying out tasks and it is in the company’s policy” (P16). Environment “My organisation honestly does not practically engage much in the use of PMTT, because doing business in Nigeria involves a lot of variables that makes it difficult to adopt project management frame work” (P1) Stakeholder “We use it to a large extent during presentation to our clients to get their approval or consent approval showing them the work breakdown structure how we plan to execute the project and our capability,” (P12) “…But practically we do not use the tool on a day- to-day basis, only to used it get contract from our stakeholder” (P11).

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Out-sourcing “On the work break down structure we execute only the level one and that is done based on the printed-out plan. We do not proceed to other levels. Using these tools in our organisation, it involves sourcing for skill personal” (P21) “Our challenge is this, you go to site the artisans that need to do the work are not trained to use the instruments” (P5).

Secondly, the second objective for this thesis was:

To determine from the NPCI’s perspectives the key factors that will influence their PMTT adoption.

The analysis on factors influencing PMTT adoption focuses on 4 main themes such as Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture. Each theme as well as sub- themes are explained below. These four factors (Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture) formed the foundation for the theoretical outline or framework obtained from this study. This conceptual framework is demonstrated in Figure 6.2. Also, the details regarding the framework and how it is developed are presented in the next section. However, this section centred on the issues or problems relating to these four factors as illustrated below.

5.7.8 Issues regarding Political factor Adoption of PMTT practices is directly connected to key stakeholder and project manager aptitude of being familiar with the importance of the politics that exist in the organisation and how to convert it to project success. The findings of this study revealed that politics is the key factor that hinders the adoption of PMTT in the private construction industry, though organisations may have a resource base in terms of a professional who can handle the tools and techniques, yet the presence of this factor is so strong in the organisations and cannot be ignored. Study from Jowah (2014) states that the management of a successful project cannot neglect the political factors that exist in the formal structure because they determine the progress of any project.

The findings of this study added that political influence has cut across all project activities, hence adopting project management tools becomes a big challenge to project managers. This is supported by the view of Pinto (2000) that asserts that it is vital to note that every organisation is embedded with political elements, whether an organisation involved in a project is service-oriented or manufacturing or even construction, all project managers must recognise the place of politics in the organisation as the factor that needs to be attended to in order to obtain project objectives (Pinto and Winch, 2016). In view of this, literature reveals an

236 exciting paradox within the organisation: a large number of project managers dislike the idea of getting involved with organisational politics, with the view that politics is a way of wasting time and distracting people from the key aspect of the project. In contrast, these same individuals recognise that the political factor or “politicking” is a vital prerequisite for business as well as personal success (Pinto, 2000). The fundamental point is vital: individuals need to recognise politics as a component in the formal structure and as well in the project life.

The findings of this study strongly condemn the aspect of politics in project activity, pointing out that “its presence reduces transparency and increases corruption in the organisation”. Authority and power are directly linked to politics and project management in the construction sector and are greatly infiltrated by political pressure. As stated in the literature, consultants, project managers and project team work in a setting or system where there is an authority gap leaving project managers and others with less power to make a decision (Pinto and Winch, 2016). This finding further strengthened the observation made by Jowah (2014), and suggests that since power comes from the board of director, it becomes challenging for lower managers to make important decision that may affect their work.

Responses concerning what participants considered were the main issues on political factors and were coded to the main theme which is “political factor”. A number of issues about this factor were raised and was grouped into sub-themes and various sub-nodes and are represented with capital letter ‘P’as shown in Figure 5.4.

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Figure 5.4: NVivo Model showing Issues with Political Factor Theme with its two sub- themes

Table 5.10 shows the references relating to the issues with Political factor theme, and its sub-themes as well as some related data extracts.

Table 5.10: Issues with Political Factors theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Issues with Unstable policy “The policy that exists in our organisation is what determines what we do here, even when we have Political the right people in place that will not change factors anything (P24). “That leads us to the policy of the company, because every company is set up basically to maximize profits so the culture, policy, objective and regulations of our organisation influence our entire project management practice. As a result, we do not see it as one of our objectives”. (P25). “…. Since authority and power are generated from the top management it is difficult for the project

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manager to make a decision on what to use and what not to use in the project. For example, the decision to adopt the PMTT or any management tools is political and entirely in the hands of the senior management and not from the project manager, for these reasons we cannot adopt project management tools.” (P20) “…. There is a lot of ‘power-play’ at the top management which is translated to strong politics, thus affecting innovation or adoption of PMTT in this company. We are just project managers, we cannot make any significant decision and even though we make suggestion, the final decision is made by the top management, hence adopting PMTT is a big challenge to the project managers.” (P21). “…. organisational policy is perceived as key challenges that prevent adoption of PMTT, adding that it guides organisational practice and values….” (P10) Change in “In most cases like what happens in another company where we are their main contractor, government when there is change in power, the organisation will witness change in priority and this will influence our method of work and the tools to use and those ones we cannot use.” (P7) “…this makes us not to compete with other advanced countries in terms of new technology; for example, adopting project management tools as our core practice in the industry” (P17). “…. everytime there is a change in power, you have also a change in priorities and change in policies. Of course, within a particular regime they deserve the right to change their priorities” (P25). Organisational “Most times when another government takes over, some policies may change that do not Policy favour some projects (P7). “…. And it is the company policy that informed where we have to go as a company and if the board of directors do not approve of this tool, then we cannot progress with it and the cost of obtaining the tool is another constrain”. (P15) “…. Secondly, the organisational policy is a guide to every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy. At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money, time and training our staff to understand how to use this new tool. In that case, we depend on our old method until we see the need for change” (P9). “…. organisational policy is a guide to every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy (P12)

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Top management “The decision makers in my company have limited knowledge regarding these tools; it is only a few of us who have used these tools ……we are trying to talk them into it”. (P1) “There is project management software, i.e., the Microsoft project which we use, though, is the old version is used to assist in planning and controlling projects. However, we need the approval from the project board (P12) “…. But even with that, if the decision to use it at a particular phase of the project does not come from the top management, we may not use it.” (P16) “….. I am getting to six years in this company, I have not seen my organisation use it at any point in time, and the management recognise past experience rather than innovation… we know that this can help facilitate our work… (P13).

5.7.9 Issues regarding Economic factor

Literature clearly stressed economic factor in the organisation as one of the key factors that impacts on the adoption of PMTT as a practice in many (Akanni and Akpomiemie, 2015) construction organisations specially in Nigeria. It is certain that some organisations see it as challenge to invest into technology due to the financial implication (Ogunde et al., 2016) associated with it. This perception could be due to high cost of the PMTT or to recover their investment at the expected time. Literature also demonstrate that economic pressure determines the decision made in the organisation. For instance, Ametepey et al. (2015) claim that the unfavourable economic condition influence decision taken in the organisation and constrained certain organisations from adopting PMTT, adding that in spite of the benefit accruing to management tools, poor economic conditions if not checked can generate serious problems to the project in terms of inadequate cash flow. Ogunsanya et al. (2016) and Ogunde et al. (2016) also acknowledge the influence of economic factors in adoption of PMTT and suggest that economic pressure impedes the adoption of management tools as it is linked directly to project funding. In addition, Othman and Ahmed (2013) noticed that financial insecurity allows for a slow process of PMTT adoption in most organisations, while some do not bother, depending on their traditional methods for project execution.

The major effect of this is that a poor economy puts a limit to the use of PMTT, which could lead to poor project management practice and project abandonment in developing economies, influences the growth of the construction industry (Ogunsanya et al., 2016) reduces quality of work due to limited cash flow and the organisation cannot compete favourably with their counterpart in the developed world. The study by Ogunde et al. (2016) revealed that robust

240 economic conditions strengthen the organisational plan and objectives, provides consistency in project delivery as well as equipping project managers with the skills necessary to manage multifaceted projects. Conversely, current findings do not support the prior research, suggesting that whether there is a buoyant economy or not the procedure of gaining access to project funding is still limited and bureaucratic in nature. This also translates to managerial decisions on the PMTT adoption process. Judging from the practical standpoint, findings revealed that quite a number of practitioners seldom employed PMTT as their best practice, rather they hold on to common practice in order to avoid extra costs and maintain their profit. This finding is in concurrence with Olateju et al.’s (2011) study, which indicated that project failure in Nigerian construction is connected to the traditional approach of managing projects; the implication is that project quality and budgeting may be affected due to the low standard of work. Another study by Ogunsanya et al. (2016) supports the work of Olateju et al. (2011), suggesting in spite of the effort made by various stakeholders to improve performance in the construction industry, it still faces poor funding and managerial bottlenecks in budget approvals. This is not surprising because evidence shows that the administrative aspect of a construction organisation tends to follow the wave of the economy, and as a result becomes too rigid in making a certain decision that will favour creativity and new innovation in the organisation

In this study the participants were asked whether they believed economic factor has an influence on the adoption of PMTT in their organisation and what type of influence they believe it could offer to their organisations. Responses from the participants regarding these questions were coded under this theme (Economic Factor) and some of the related data extracts are shown in Figure 5.5.

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Figure 5.5: NVivo Model showing Issues with Economic Factor Theme with its two sub- themes2

This is further explained in Table 5.11 showing the theme and sub-themes as well as the related data extracts.

2 Figure 5.5 is the extracts from the data collection

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Table 5.11: Issues with Political Factors theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Issues with Cost of investment “The economic factor is the key hindrance for most of us in the industry, the cost of acquiring Economic new management technique makes any Factor construction organisation to continue with the old method. If the tools and techniques are not cost effective there is no need to venture into it” (P13) “Secondly, the Nigerian economy as of today does not encourage citizens to be innovative, things are very difficult including cost of building materials. So, talking about PMTT at this present economic situation is out of it.” (P30) “We use budgeting because, every activity has a cost attached to it and we try as much as possible to use it to control our resource” (P19) Lack of funds “For any project failure, it might be that there is the issue of cash flow, there are situations whereby due to some reasons the project had to be suspended for about three months before the contractor could return to site. So, the issue of failure has to do with availability of cash.” (P15) “Cost is the major factor that influences it and to get the job done in the quickest possible time.” (P16) “……. Lack of funding from the organisation is another barrier that we face, and I believe that if our economy is good it will influence a lot of things in the industry and our organisation appears to follow the direction of the nation’s economy as the government become too rigid in decision making in terms of new innovation and creativity. “(P5) “….. At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money, time and training our staff to understand how to use this new tool. In that case, we depend on our old method until we see the need for change, also our present economic situation is not allowing us to be proactive because it is not stable. (P3) “…… Example like what is happening in Nigeria. The exchange rate in the foreign market is not stable due to an unstable economy and this influences the cost of purchasing new technology as this software tool is not developed in Nigeria, thus we find it difficult to adopt it” (P24). …. We had a better regime before now and we were able to purchase new tools from the USA, but with this new regime we are handicap. The economy at the moment is not favourable most especially to the construction companies”. (P14)

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“My company cannot afford these tools because of the fluctuation of dollars as a result; we depend on our local tools.” (P11) Poverty rate “Due to the poverty level in the country most of us in the industry cannot invest in these tools, that is why we looked at other alternatives, and then focus on important things in the company” (P8) “… This will involve additional cost to our clients; we use them on request due to poor economy, and when there is hope for mega-projects” (P23). “…Our nature of work is passing through a kind of transition and we try to adopt a standard that is cost effective both to our clients and our organisation. The problem is just because of the rate of hardship in the country, people manage with what they have and invest based on their limited resources” (P30). Unstable economy “…… Example like what is happening in Nigeria. The exchange rate in the foreign market is not stable due to an unstable economy and this influences the cost of purchasing new technology as this software tool is not developed in Nigeria, thus we find it difficult to adopt it” (P24). …. We had a better regime before now and we were able to purchase new tools from the USA, but with this new regime we are handicap. The economy at the moment is not favourable most especially to the construction companies”. (P14) “My company cannot afford these tools because of the fluctuation of dollars, as a result; we depend on our local tools.” (P11)

5.7.10 Issues regarding Technological factor

The technological influence on the business environment has made many organisations build their business around new innovations. Findings suggest that the awareness of this innovation or technology, for instance, PM software is inadequate in developing nations. Supporting this finding, several studies revealed that limited use of PMTT in developing countries is due to various factors such as lack of knowledge of the tool and techniques, the long procedure that is involved in the implementation process, cost of hiring a consultant and a rigid approach does not allow for any flexibility during the project life cycle (Olateju et al., 2011; Ogunde et al., 2016). The study by Ofori (2016) also stresses that the challenge of inadequate knowledge of PMTT emerges as significant in private construction companies in Nigeria.

However, other studies contend that PMTT will only be beneficial on the ground that it satisfies the need of end users as well as aiding project managers to deliver projects on time and within budget (Olateju et al., 2011; Dildar et al., 2014). Besner and Hobbs (2008) suggest that

244 successful execution of PMTT could enhance the likelihood of the practice of project management. Furthermore, Dildar et al. (2014) revealed that PM is an established field of endeavour offering a substantial explanation of PMTT that are used in project procedures such as initiating, defining the project and planning, as well as the execution phase of the project. Adding that individuals can effectively and conveniently evaluate information that relates to PM in an organised manner with the aid of PM tools and techniques. The findings of this study give support to the above studies suggesting that PMTT assist the organisation to a large extent, especially during the initiation stage, providing guidance to the project manager at each phase of the project.

The study suggests that organisations always take advantage of new technology to advance their management approach and compete favourably in the construction market (Davenport et al., 2010; Olateju et al., 2011). The findings are in contrast to this assertion suggesting that organisations are not sure of the compatibility of this technology with their current practice and their pattern of work may not fit into this technology; for this reason, they do not rely on any new innovation, depending rather on their traditional way of carrying out projects. In support of this, another finding suggests that PMTT is not applicable in their business practice, especially when it is a medium- or small-sized project.

This study suggests that workers were resistant to change and sometimes they create a workable pattern for themselves different from the management approach (technology). This implies that the adoption of management techniques may be effective or successful if end users of the tools and techniques are given opportunity to take part in the decision-making process. Hence, the unsuccessful adoption of PMTT is directly associated with workers’ or end users’ incapability to apply the management tools, inadequate support from top management, environmentally friendliness and the complexity of the tools. The study by de Andrade et al. (2016) supports the findings, suggesting that resistance to change may significantly influence the adaptation process of the any new approach or technology, stressing that constant information about change management may reduce the level of resistance to change. The study further added that people are resistant to change because there is no proper process for change implementation and inadequate change policy.

To achieve the second objective of this research, the participants were asked regarding the factors that influence the adoption of PMTT. The aim for this was to know in what way technology affects the adoption of PMTT. Responses were in line with that of pilot study hence, they were grouped into sub-themes (shown in table 5.12) such as Compatibility, Easy to use,

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Integrates with old practice and Complexity of technology. Figure 5.6 illustrates the grouping theme, sub-themes and related data extracts are represented by letter ‘P’.

Figure 5.6: NVivo Model showing Issues with Technological Factor Theme with its sub- themes

Table 5.12: Issues with Technological Factors theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Issues with Compatibility “Essentially is a learning process, we had to adopt project management tools only in our Technological procurement system to help us save time and Factor money, but we do not use it for our major projects because of its compatibility with our current practice.” (P15) “We use it to a large extent during a presentation to our clients to get their approval or consent showing them the work breakdown structure how we plan to execute the project and our capability, but practically we do not use the tool on a day to day basis due to existing methods. Hence, bringing in a new approach may not be suitable with our way of doing things” (P14) Easy to use “We use Microsoft project; we use SAP Project systems we also have in house templates and

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methodologies that have been by our PMO for easy monitoring of our projects.” (P10) “The chances of the success rate of the projects have to do with the tools and the ability of the tools to speak to the issues as at when due. The tools essentially should highlight the health of the project, should be applied easily by the end users and allow for re-cost and quick actions.” (P23) “For us, we barely apply the project management tools because it is a new concept and it is difficult to understand, especially when the individual is not all that enlightened, but here we just have some informal arrangement and then proceed to execute the project, and this is because like I said, some key men on ground are not educated and are not trained on how to use this tool. They consider it as a challenge and a waste of time for them.” (P26) Integrates with old “We cannot marry the two together because of the complexity of PM tools, the interpretation of this practice tool is quite different to our local method and in our organisation, we do not have capable hands to implement these tools.” (P2) “…. I know there is no substitute for experience, but you can imagine what somebody with a lot of experience and the right tools and techniques can achieve when executing a project, such a person will definitely do better.” (P24) Complexity of “… The question is, is it compatible and can we use it without any difficulty….” (P15) technology “The activities of project these days are more sophisticated specially with the introduction of these new software (PMTT) which is not common in our system and this will continue to be more complex every year” (P5). “… well tools like critical path method (CPM) are more complex and it is difficult to understand” (P4)

5.7.11 Issues regarding Organisational Culture

Rigid business structure has made construction organisations fail to consider being innovative and creative in managing projects. This business attitude is the major driving force that influences the way people think, feel and respond to changes in the business environment. Literature argues that the traditional nature of organisational structure has directed construction projects to follow that path. The construction project is subjected to organisational culture which does not give room for innovation and creativity (Nguyen and Watanabe, 2017; Stare, 2011).

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The observation made generally from the findings support Stare (2011) and Nguyen and Watanabe (2017) and maintain that culture is the core factor that affects implementation of PMTT and this results in problems as individuals are restricted from exploring other ways or methods of finding solutions to construction projects. Organisational culture is constantly promoted in some organisations as the norms and system of carrying out PM in construction projects. In contrast to the previous findings, few findings from the field suggest that organisational culture is not the critical factor that influences adoption of PMTT, stating that people, especially the long-standing staff that have over the years climbed to the top of the ladder in the organisation with low level of educational background kick against innovation and creativity. Stare (2011) highlights that culture has a root in people and directly influences the individual’s belief, behaviour and also their performance in the workplace, hence, making reference to the common phrases “the way things are done around here” and “that’s the way we do it”. The finding of this study is in agreement with the study by Stare (2011) suggesting that though we acknowledge the huge benefit of these tools, however, the point still remains that the belief and behaviour of people impact on adoption of PMTT, so culture is a significant factor that determines the direction taken by top management and the path which the entire organisation takes. Findings also suggest that resistance to change is often motivated by organisational culture, particularly at the lower level of leadership and this also results in individuals becoming narrow in their thinking with limited knowledge of new technology, leading to poor performance in project delivery. The studies by Kerzner (2017) and Tinnirello (2001) support the findings suggesting that culture enhances resistance to change and even though there is a need for alteration both in the project and procedure, such change must be defined clearly.

The findings of this research reveal that core values or culture not only define the type of project methods to be used, but also guide the organisation in selecting a project team who align with the organisational core values or beliefs and these core values are communicated to all stakeholders. Perhaps the possible description of this finding could be that the business depends solely on the norms, values and its beliefs. This is supported by Kerzner (2017) who states that the organisational culture decides and detect the direction and methods which the business follows at each point in time.

Three major issues were identified under Organisational Culture as the key issues in this factor and these are Corruption, Business practice and Transparency; however, respondents were asked how these affects their business and the most influential factor among this group. Interestingly, corruption was mentioned as the main factor that affects their practices. Also, the main theme (corruption) is two sub-themes with their various data extracts. Responses

248 from the participants regarding these questions were coded under this theme (Corruption) and sub-themes including its related data extracts. This is illustrated in Figure 5.7 with letter ‘P’ representing the participant quote (data extracts).

Figure 5.7: NVivo Model showing Issues with sub-set of Organisation culture (Corruption) Theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts3

Table 5.13 further demonstrated the theme as well as the sub-themes and their relevant data extracts.

3 Figure 5.7 is an extractsfrom the data collection.

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Table 5.13: Issues with Corruption sub-set of Organisational Culture theme with its main sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Corruption Bribery “...our industry has been infused over the years with corrupt practices and that affects the way we work instead of being project conscious we are money conscious. In fact, bribery has taken root in the industry” (P7) “The extent of corruption in the industry has led individuals to use sub-standard as well as inappropriate number of materials for construction work resulting to continuous collapse of various building and loss life in the country” (P10) “The poverty level of people has promoted bribery, for some in Nigeria collecting less than a dollar per hour and he is the person paying the contractors in millions. He or She may be tempted to ask for ‘kick-back’ before processing their payment. This is what is taking place here” (P16). God fatherism “The politics in awarding of sub-contract has brought out ‘God fatherism’ in the construction industry and organisation as big as it is, is going through this and deprived skill and competent contractor from working for us” (P15) “Greed and undue love for money from the top management has promoted ‘quackery’ in our business, those who are not trained on the job are now the ones controlling the projects” (P18). “…… ‘who know who’ is a practice or culture in this organisation and many others, has reduced our performance to a very low level, sub-contract and supplies are given to relations and friends” (P12)

The Organisational Culture is further broadened with other issues including the corruption to give a better view of the themes, two sub-themes and data extracts. Apart from the issue of corruption, the respondents were able to highlight other issues under organisational culture such as business practices and transparency as additional issues, questions were asked regarding the impact of these issues and the extent of its influence. Responses from the respondents were coded into theme; two sub-themes as well as the related data extracts were coded also. The Figure 5.8 shows the NVivo Model of organisation culture theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts

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Figure 5.8: NVivo Model showing Issues with Organisation culture Theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts4

Table 5.14: Issues with Organisational Culture theme with its sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN THEME SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE INTERVIEW Issues with Corruption Bribery “...our industry has been infused over the years with corrupt practices and that affect Organisational the way we work instead of being project Culture conscious we are money conscious. In fact, bribery has taken root in the industry” (P7) “The extent of corruption in the industry has led individuals to use sub-standard as well as inappropriate number of materials for construction work resulting to continuous collapse of various building and loss life in the country” (P10) “The poverty level of people has promoted bribery, for some in Nigeria collecting less than a dollar per hour and he is the person paying the contractors in millions. He or She may be tempted to ask for ‘kick-back’ before processing their payment. This is what is taking place here” (P16).

4 Figure 5.8 is an extract from the data collection.

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God “The politic in awarding of sub-contract has fatherism brought out ‘God fatherism’ in the construction industry and organisation as big as it is, is going through this and deprived skill and competent contractor from working for us” (P15) “Greed and undue love for money from the top management has promoted ‘quackery’ in our business, those who are not train on the job are now the controlling the projects” (P18). “……; who know who’ is a practice or culture in this organisation and many others has reduced our performance to a very low level, sub-contract and supplies are given to relations and friends” (P12)

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Business practice “There are numerous factors that influence the use of these techniques as you know our practice is not encouraging new innovation. The business environment is resistance to change; we believe we can achieve success using our existing method and the experience of our key staff. This is our norm and culture.” (P25) “Internal factors like top management, organisation and union influence the adoption of the PMTT, they are used to our old ways and old practice therefore, it is difficult to adjust to new tools. So, all these have to be looked at before we can adopt any tools.” (P2) “At the moment there are a lot of factors that hinders us not to adopt these tools in our organisation. First are humans, getting the required personnel that understand how to manipulate tools or software is important, and our culture here, I mean the way we carry out our operation is another factor because we are used to it and it is difficult to change, particularly with the old staff who are still in the system may not want the practice to be changed.” (P13) “…. Normally, in this organisation, what we are used to in the past 10 years is still what we are doing now. It is what influences our practice and actions toward project irrespective of size,” (P34)” “The factor that influences the use of PMTT is majorly the challenge we face from organisational norms and regulation. They determine the approach to follow. When a project is being awarded to this company to design or supervise, it is the standard that determines the tools we are going to engage to make the work faster because when a design is given, there is always a particular time to submit for it to be approved so with the help of these tools we are able to submit on time.” (P15)

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Transparency “…. Well, the organisation has core values right from the selection point of view, we select people who seem to align with our core values we re-emphasize what the core value of the organisation is at every point in time and we cascade such values to all stakeholders, vendors and suppliers working on our project sites through our project managers.” (P7) “This is very important in our business because the construction work as a whole entail a lot of money. The number of projects available and the team of project management available at every point in time transparency is another factor” (P20) “Lack of a dedicated PMO manager is one of the key factors that influence PMTT adoption. To implement this tool the organisation requires a dedicated PMO manager who is transparent and will ensure adequate implementation process of these tools and techniques.” (P4)

Needs or solutions to the issues influencing PMTT adoption

In order to address the above issues or problems influencing the adoption of PMTT in private construction companies in Nigeria, participants were asked what they think could be the solution to these problems or issues and how could it be addressed. The respondents described these solutions as ‘needs’ that must be met by the organisation in order to effectively adopt these tools. Each issues or problems to the adoption process must be addressed individually. The responses from the respondents were coded into theme and sub-themes as well as their related data extracts. Figure 5.9 shows the NVivo Model of the ‘needs’ theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts.

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Figure 5.9: NVivo Model showing the needs theme with its two sub-themes and data extracts

Table 5.15: Needs or solutions to the issues or problems influencing PMTT adoption theme with its sub-themes and relevant data extracts

MAIN SUB-THEMES DATA EXRACTED FROM THE THEME INTERVIEW Needs Limited expertise “Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants to assist in the implementation of PMTT is obviously very expensive, especially when the organisation is passing through financial challenge” (P1) User-friendly “Before the company buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16) “… The question is, is it compatible and can we use without any difficulty….” (P15) Willingness to change “So, we are being influenced by politics, corruption and that is the way we are, as people very difficult to change.” (P20) “… The society is resistance to change, we believe we can achieve success using our old method….” (P25)

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Dedicated PMO “Lack of a dedicated PMO manager is one of the key factors that influence PMTT adoption.” (P4) “….. But for now, it is not visible and if we buy it, who will use as we do not have the expertise in this field.” (P14) PMTT awareness “…. Availability of the tools in one issue and exposure to such tools is another issue….” (P8) “If this staff has the technical know how they will now be able to apply the tools that you have.” (P7) Training “…. Availability of the tools in one issue and exposure to such tools is another issue….” (P8) “… Some are not even trained in the use of such tools so you still have that prevalence in some organisations and Nigeria so to say.” (P2) “If this staff have the technical know how they will now be able to apply the tools that you have.” (P7) Good Top “…Top management involvement is what is needed to enforce the use of these leadership management tools” (P14) “I think this will work in this organisation if only the higher level of management can buy into it” (P3) Stable policy “Organisation with good leadership will surely require a stable policy which is what is needed for an organisation such as this, to invest in new technology” (P9) “We cannot move forward if we do not have a stable policy in place, our policy keep changing due to change in power or leadership” (P25).

5.8 Chapter Summary The data analysis in this study employed “Thematic Qualitative Analysis” procedure which results in a wide range of various factors that are significant for Nigeria private construction companies. By Using thematic analysis approach, this research has clearly identified the main themes and the sub-theme for this study. These themes are the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. Therefore, the objective two in this research has been met. The chapter also clearly explains the sample size for both pilot and main study and adequately explain the quotations in this chapter. Furthermore, these key factors that have been identified in this research assist in the development of the conceptual framework for investigating key factor influencing the adoption of PMTT in Nigeria private construction industry. The next chapter presents the details of the Conceptual Framework.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

6.1 Overview This chapter provides details of the conceptual framework used for this study and how the framework was developed. It gives a background to the theoretical underpinning that has been identified for the research, and also shows components that make up the framework. This chapter demonstrates the process of validating the conceptual framework.

6.2 Background As discussed previously in this research, this research was carried in two main parts, the pilot study and the main study; and in order to validate the data, case study was conducted. The pilot study was carried out as investigatory study to determine the viability of the study as well as getting the initial perception of the way project managers in private construction companies in Nigeria perceive the concept the PMTT practice in their organisation. Based on further review of relevant literature and the findings from this pilot study, an appropriate theory that underpin this study was identified. This is in collaboration with the abductive approach which was followed in the main study. Keeping up with this approach, the theoretical underpinning for this research was presented after gathering and analysing the data using thematic analysis to help in identifying the themes and sub-themes which later form the components in the conceptual framework. To this end, Institutional Theory, which consists of three pillars (Scott, 2008; Teo et al., 2003; DiMaggio and Powell 1983), was chosen as the most appropriate theory to ‘frame’ the findings of the research. Moreover, building on the theoretical lens identified and the data analysis from the main study, a conceptual framework for investigating from the NPCI’s perspective the key factor influencing their adoption of PMTT was developed. The following describe these key factors that influence the adoption of PMTT.

6.3 Factors Affecting the Use of Project Management Tools and Techniques in Construction Companies

Political factors

Nitank and Trivedi (2016) stated that the political factor is one of the key factors that influence the use of PMTT in construction companies. These factors control the level to which organisation may possibly influence the practices in an organisation. Political pressure actually determines management and the resources of the organisation to be allocated to each project in the organisation. It involves factors such as unstable policy, change in government, organisational policy and top management; all these factors are presented in the framework. Also, the literature attests to political factor impact on the structure of the organisation (Jowah, 2014). This is also in confirmation with the pilot study, main study and case study: details are in the literature, analysis and discussion chapters.

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Economic factors

Charles and Jane (2014) assert that the use of PMTT in construction companies in Nigeria is less effective; this is attributed to economic factors that hinder adoption. According to Bhattacharysy (2008), funding project, foreign investment and foreign exchange rates influence the successful adoption of PMTT in various ways. This could be associated with changes in regulation requiring changes in the adoption of new approaches to business and competition between construction companies. In addition, Nitank and Trivedi (2016) assert that economic factors are contributing factors to the performance of an economy, and that directly influences a construction company and has extensive effects on the adoption of PMTT. For instance, an increase in the inflation rate of an economy would definitely influence the way construction companies adopt new business approaches. Like other factors, this factor is presented in the framework as one of the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT. This factor includes: cost of investment, lack of funds, poverty rate and unstable economy. Details of economic factors are discussed in the literature, analysis and discussion chapters.

Technological factors

According to the literature, technological factors relate to advances in technology that may possibly influence the operation of construction companies. This relates to innovation, and the tools and techniques involved in a particular operation such as construction work. The extent of technology awareness that a construction company possesses is key in the adoption of new technology (Trivedi, 2016). This factor influences the practices of PMTT in many ways, such as compatibility, ease of use, complexity and ability to be integrated with existing practice. These are discussed in detail in the literature, pilot study and main study chapters, and they form part of the framework.

Organisational culture factors

According to Schein (1990), organisational culture can be defined as a general concept of the organisation such as the rituals and rite, values and natural settings of the company. Magee (2002) claimed that organisational culture is integrally associated with organisational practices that affect project management best practice. Culture is perceived as a vital determining factor of management practice; thus, culture has of late been examined by scholars as a factor that influences the practice of construction projects (Kwan and Ofori, 2001; Walker, 2002; Cheung, 2012). This factor includes corruption, business practices and transparency, and is part of the framework. This factor is discussed in detail in the literature, analysis and discussion chapters.

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6.3.1 Needs factors

Limited expertise

It is understood that the construction industry in Nigeria does not have enough manpower or possess the requisite skills that will support the implementation process of PMTT in construction companies. The literature confirms that project management is too young compared to other areas of study. It further stressed that despite academics’ and practitioners’ interests in the growth of project management, the concept of PM is too narrow and is slow in terms of development, and as a result it lacks the vital resources to foster its development such as manpower or expertise in the field (Ogunde et al., 2016). Based on this, several arguments from the respondents show that project management is a new discipline that is still growing and many organisations, especially in Nigeria, is still trying to understand this phenomenon. This fits with the response from the case study that,

“We hope to fully implement PMTT as soon as the necessary things are put in place and when we are able to have some dedicated project managers that will know how to use the tools. And I believe with this our practice will improve and the quality of project delivery will also be improved.” (C. study B).

The study by Liu and Yuliani (2016) indicates that in spite of the huge investment in new innovation or management approaches such as PMTT, its implementation will not be successful if there are no experienced people that have the right skills to implement the tools and techniques correctly. This is in line with the pilot study,

“Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants is obviously very expensive, so we try to used our in- house team to manage the project using Gantt chart (planning tool) but not software” (P1)

In collaboration with this, literature asserts that, “Project managers are special people that are equipped with the technical know-how and who use their intuition to discover as well as bring creativity and innovation into the execution of the PMTT process” (Ofori et al., 2016).

Evidence from the pilot interviews also supports this study and revealed that most organisations in this sector lack trained personnel who can use these tools, and employing an external consultant may not be cost effective especially when the organisation is passing through financial challenge. Their comments are: “we don’t have trained people here” (P6). “The problem is having those who can manipulate these tools and our organisation need

259 skilled people” (P17), “we can afford the tools if we have people to manage it” (P14). This indicates that in order to adopt this practice, there is need for expertise or skilled employee.

User friendly

Findings from pilot study show that the opinion of the end user has a significant influence on adoption of PMTT. They also mention that the project manager should seek the consent of the staff during the process of making a decision on PMTT adoption. Some of the respondents argued that because of the complexity as well as the uncertainties associated with emerging PMTT in the business environment, project managers should consider it wise to communicate with the entire project team the nature of these tools and whether they are user friendly or not. Comments such as these were made during the pilot study: “…. we must first check the complexity of the techniques…” (P16), “The question is, is it compatible and can we use without any difficulty….” (P15).

The finding is in agreement with Passera et al.’s (2013) opinion that for an organisation to test and implement a new procedure, the management approach should be presented in an attractive, easy-to-use and user-friendly manner to all members. Adding that the most crucial requirement for business success is that all parties or stakeholders involved in the project have an understanding of what they need to do, how to apply the necessary tools and techniques and what they are expected to deliver. The absence of this may result in uncertainty in staff concerning the benefit of the new innovation, leading to an unfavourable decision to change (Nguyen et al., 2015). The user-friendly factor is significant in the implementation process of the emerging technology; according to the finding, the employer’s decision is critical as they scrutinise any management approach to ensure that it fits with their existing practice. This implies that end users have a key role in the adaptation process of management tools and techniques.

Willingness to change

The primary desire of any organisation in today’s business is to develop a strategy that will meet the current demand of its customers. These strategies may be in various forms, which include: growth strategy, price skimming strategy, production differentiation strategy and application of management tools and techniques. Literature indicates that management tools are one of the key strategies used that contribute to organisational success and competitiveness, as well as project quality. However, the finding suggests that in spite of the advantages of these management approaches, management tools and techniques do not appeal to most of the project team due to the manner in which they are presented. As a result,

260 they rely more on their traditional method for carrying out their practice. From the pilot study, one of respondents stated that, “the willingness to change from our current practice to the new one only comes from how top management passes the message to us” (P8). This finding further supports the study by Olateju et al. (2011) that argued that unwillingness to change is a critical challenge that impacts on adoption of PMTT; this could be as a result of lack of encouragement or support from top management. The study by Ofori et al. (2015) supports this finding and suggests that individuals are not motivated about change because it comes so rapidly and disrupts their process without prior information, explaining that the change should be gradual and should follow a procedure (Olateju et al., 2011).

The finding suggests that lack of openness with employees is what leads to unwillingness to change as they feel they are being isolated from the decision-making process. This attitude discourages contributions, creativity and innovation from different levels of management and does not foster originality and freedom to take initiatives that may boost organisational performance. Hence, creating a platform for others to take part actively in decision making concerning the PMTT adoption process may reduce the level of unwillingness to change.

Lack of dedicated PMO

One essential factor for the limited implementation of PMTT is lack of dedicated PMO. Most often project managers do not manage one project at a time; one project manager may engage in more than one project (moving from one project to another at different locations) as stated in the pilot study, this makes it difficult for effective planning and quality delivery of an individual project. Findings revealed that limited expertise, user-friendliness and funding are not the only factors that hinder adoption of PMTT. Lack of dedicated PMO is another factor that influences project teams who have adequate knowledge of the tools and techniques and understand their procedures; however, most participants argued that the role of a dedicated PMO is very vital to the adoption process of PMTT because they control and monitor the essential aspect of the project as well as the allocation of resources, especially human resource (project team). Secondly, the inconsistency in practice of PMTT in construction projects shows that there is no dedicated PMO.

Lack of PMTT awareness

Awareness of PMTT is being able to understand the context of project management tools and techniques and their processes, benefits, challenges and economic values. PMTT though, is a fast-growing subject, yet not every project team has adequate knowledge of it. PMTT appears to be complex in application and is constantly subject to change to meet the demand or the expectation of the client, and the increasing complexities of PMTT software reduce the

261 level at which an organisation invests and uses the tools (Hackman et al., 2017). This fit with the response from the main study, “…. Availability of the tools in one issue and exposure to such tools is another issue….” (P8). Similarly, findings also confirmed that having an adequate awareness of the importance as well as the potential benefits of PMTT will lead to the adoption of the tools; this is also reflected in the main study, “If this staff has the technical know how they will now be able to apply the tools that you have.” (P7). Further, Okoye et al. (2016) from the literature pointed out that lack of awareness has hindered most of the construction companies from adopting a management tool as they do not have prior knowledge of its outcome. This statement buttresses Ofori et al.’s (2015) affirmation that the creation of awareness is significant to the adoption of PMTT; they also stated that if people are completely aware of the advantage derived from PMTT implementation, there is the possibility that they will take full part in adoption of PMTT. A comment from the case study asserts that, “…the technological infrastructure aspect of this organisation persists as the key challenge hindering PMTT implementation as well as the related issues, including awareness….” (C. study). This is in collaboration with Ofori et al.’s (2015) opinion that the creation of awareness is one of the key factors for improving PMTT in construction organisations. The awareness of any innovation reduces the doubt about the effectiveness and efficiency of the new management approach, hence ensuring that organisations achieve their set objectives.

Training

One essential area in a construction project that boosts the adoption process of PMTT is training. It is considered one of the key factors that affect adoption of project management tools in the construction sector. Training aids in expanding and developing the knowledge base of the organisation and also focuses on creating awareness of the benefit that relates to adoption of PMTT (Okoye et al., 2015). This is in collaboration with a comment from the case study:

“…. the availability of seasoned or skilled personnel (human resource) and budgeting were the key challenges in moving from our old practice to adopting a new business approach (PMTT) in the organisation. And I think this is why we engaged seriously in training and development of our people.” (C. study).

The finding shows that lack of training remains one of the key challenges to the adoption of PMTT; it also revealed that lack of training results in poor manpower in various organisations. According to one of the respondents in the pilot study, “Training is vital if actually we want to adopt these tools, this will help to create awareness of this new technology to our team” (P12). This is in line with the case study: “training was the only way we could make our staff to appreciate the new technology and adopt as there are the end users of these tools. Also,

262 human beings are prone to ‘resistance to change’ (C. study). As vital as the subject is, in the development and enhancement of the organisation’s standard, many firms are reluctant to invest in training. This in accordance with the case study, indicating that organisations due to cost implications organise in-house training: “training people abroad is not cost effective to the organisation rather we gather the people and bring in a trainer from abroad to train them, this way we reduced the cost of sending five to ten people abroad for training every year” (C. study). According to Okoye et al. (2015), the ability of organisations such as construction firms to develop, secure and deliver creative as well as complex and challenging projects, is motivated by involving highly knowledgeable personnel. Training has since been acknowledged as the key critical issue in the construction business to help organisations in meeting the need of project managers. The study suggests that the absence of trained personal will impede the advancement of technology, such as the adoption of project management tools in any organisation which is looking forward to overcoming existing business challenges through innovation as a business strategy (Nguyen et al., 2015). This fits in with the main study: “… Some are not even trained in the use of such tools so you still have that prevalence in some organisations and Nigeria so to say” (P2).

Stable policy

The study suggests that unfavourable organisational policy adversely influences the adoption of a new management practice. Also, an organisation with several policies such as recruitment policy, purchasing policy, and investment policy tends to impact on their overall practice. These policies in a way determine how a firm carries out its activities. For instance, the adoption of new project management tools and techniques that relate to management practice is mainly influenced by organisational policy and the key aspect of this is associated with the adoption process and its cost (Ofori et al., 2015). Findings from one of the participants in the main study suggest that “…. organisational policy is perceived as key challenges that prevent adoption of PMTT, adding that it guides organisational practice and values….” (P10). Policy is the strongest factor that assists the project manager to understand and religiously follow the objectives of the project as specified by the stakeholders. Therefore, it becomes a need in this context which must be adequately addressed.

Top Management

Top management involvement is vital in the implementation of PMTT practice, according to the literature; the reason why construction organisations are not making significant progress in terms of best practice is due to absence of top management involvement in the promotion of PMTT practice (Benmansour and Hogg, 2002). This is supported by Sotirakou and Zeppou (2005), who say that the role of top management is important as it determines the

263 organisational policy and make decisions regarding responsibility and tasks that are to be taken in different levels of management in the organisation. This factor is vital in terms of making decisions and encouraging the practice of technological tools within the construction organisation as a business strategy (Chong and Olesen, 2015). However, findings from the pilot study and main study indicate that the practice of PMTT is not fully implemented in most cases due to lack of top management involvement. This is discussed in the analysis chapter in detail.

6.3.2 Theoretical underpinning of this research The literature review in Chapter three comprised of relevant theories that are valuable for underpinning project management practice as highlighted from the existing literature. Based on the review, as indicated above, institutional theory was adopted. Although this theory has been criticised as associating with power, interest and “dominance of bureaucracy” (Ibrahim, 2017), and being static in nature (Guy, 2000), however, it consists of three pillars or isomorphic pressures: Regulative, Normative and Mimetic which aid in shaping the decision of organisations toward adopting a certain management practice (Ibrahim, 2017). Chapter three in this study explained these pillars in details. This section further presents a brief explanation of these pillars (Regulative, Normative and Mimetic pressures) below.

Several scholars acknowledge institutional pressure as those factors that constrain and regulate the behaviour of an organisation (Scott, 2008; Meryer and Scott, 1983). For instance, regulative pressure is considered as one factor that regularises the action as well as the organisational behaviour (Palthe, 2014; Scott, 2008). On the other hand, others would regard the process of regulative in a clearer and more formal sense (Palthe, 2014). For example, the economist views regulative pressure as a major driver for organisational change (Scott, 2008). This change in this context can be translated to the acceptance or rejection of project management tools as an organisational practice. However, those who regard institutional theory as basically normative in nature, for instance the sociologist, may see organisational change as an outcome of social responsibility instead of mere experience (Scott, 1995). This normative pressure comprises of values relating to chosen norms and behaviour indicating how an organisation should carry out their activities. While these “normative pressures” impose a kind of constraint on organisational behaviour, they empower and also enable organisational change, in this context the adoption of PMTT.

Cognitive pressure – theorists in this domain are those who examine changes in organisations based on the cognitive aspect (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991); they focus mainly on influencing organisational changes or practices in a conceptual belief and mental model as well as the “interpretation of shared meaning” (Palthe, 2014) when there is a significant ongoing change

264 in the organisation. This perspective emphasises also the importance of achieving organisational changes that are internalised by members of the organisation as well as culturally supported. Furthermore, regulative pressure stresses conformism to the legal system as foundations of legitimacy. The normative pressure on the other hand emphasised the foundations of morals for evaluating legitimacy, while cognitive pressure stresses cultural legitimacy that emerges from adoption of a collective mind-set (Scott, 1995). These three pillars of institutional pressure are part of the conceptual framework. Figure 6.1 shows the three pillars of institutional pressure.

Regulative pressure

Institutional Normative pressure theory

Mimetic pressure

Figure 6.1: The Institutional Pillars

6.3 Elements in the Conceptual Framework Following the literature review and empirical findings from the study, it was established that there are certain factors the influence the adoption of PMTT practices in private construction companies in Nigeria; these factors are classified in this study into two categories: factors affecting PMTT adoption and factors needed to adopt PMTT (the Needs factors), and this forms the conceptual framework, they are discussed briefly below.

6.3.4 Validation of the conceptual framework

Validity

The most essential criterion of any research project is validity. Validity relates to the integrity and the strength of the final piece of work. It has to do with whether the item or concept actually draws out the intended information (Maina and Gathenya, 2014). It also refers to how the research conceptualises the ideas in an abstract delineation, as well as the data. Qualitative researchers are more fascinated in providing honest, fair as well as balanced accounts

265 regarding social life (Maina and Gathenya, 2014). In this context, the data of this study were validated via triangulation (i.e., pilot study, focus group, case study and main study) and details are discussed in Chapter four.

Process of validating the framework

All the major concepts mentioned (key factors) above, Political Factor, Economic Factor, Technological Factor and Organisational culture Factor, are the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT practice, and the “Needs Factors” such as Limited expertise, User-friendly, Willingness to change, Dedicated PMO, PMTT Awareness, Training, Top Management and Stable Policy are what need to be considered in order to facilitate the adoption of PMTT. Following the findings from the research, these key concepts or factors have been singled out and employed to develop the conceptual framework, in collaboration with the abductive method adopted for this research.

After the main study was conducted, various emerging factors were identified under each key factor as sub-factors that influence the practice or the adoption of project management tools. In that vein, other factors were also highlighted by the respondents as the solutions or the needs to these problems; all these factors make-up the development of the first conceptual framework. In order to confirm the authenticity of this framework, the framework was validated by sending it to various respondents to validate or confirm whether it would be applicable in their organisations. This was carried out by first sending an e-mail to most of the respondents (twenty) that participated in the study (qualitative interview) in five of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The mail was accompanied with a short video explaining the framework (letter to respondents in appendix 11). Also 12 questions were generated based on the framework using a Likert scale (see appendix 12). The first conceptual framework was sent to them as part of the document to help them to confirm the applicability of the framework in their organisations. Various feedback was received from the respondents and 80% of the respondents were of the view that it could be adaptable in their organisations; one respondent maintained that the cost of software tools could prevent some companies from adopting these tools, more especially those companies that are new in the industry; on the other hand, 20% of the participants identified a few issues in the framework and these were captured in the appendices (see appendix 15, 16 and 17), which aided the researcher to modify the conceptual framework by removing some variables and adding new ones which were in line with the pilot and main study as well as the literature. The final framework was sent back to them for further validation and confirmation. The final feedback from all the respondents attest that the new conceptual framework could be adopted in their organisations because it addressed the main concern in their companies. The comments were actually in line with their

266 practice and their contributions were what informed the new conceptual framework. Figure 6.2 below shows the conceptual framework for this research.

Figure 6.2: Conceptual Framework for PMTT Adoption for Private Constriction industry in Nigeria. Adapted from (Al-Busaidy, 2013)

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6.4 Summary This chapter presents the key concepts identified in the literature review chapter (Chapter 2), Political, Economic, Technology and Organisation Culture as the main factors that impact on the organisational decision (Nitank and Trivedi, 2016; Charles and Jane, 2014) concerning the adoption of PMTT practice, and from these main concepts other sub-factors that influence the adoption of PMTT were identified. This is followed by the ‘needs factors’ (Limited expertise, User friendly, Willingness to change, Lack of dedicated PMO, PMTT awareness, Training, Stable policy and Top management) which engender the adoption of PMTT through the institutional pressures described above as the theoretical lens that underpins this research. Furthermore, the chapter further explained the three different pillars of isomorphic mechanism in this theory (Teo et al., 2003; DiMaggio and Powell, 1983) and how they influence management decisions. All these elements are present in the conceptual framework developed to investigating the factors that influence the adoption of PMTT in the Nigerian private construction industry. Finally, the chapter described in detail how this conceptual framework was validated.

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CHAPTER 7: FINDINGS AND MAIN DISCUSSION This chapter presents the analysis of the main research and the discussion of the entire study. The rationale is to give more emphasis and clarity on the data that has been analysed in both studies (pilot and main study) in a way that makes sense and convinces the reader of the validity as well as the merit of the analysed data. The aim of this research was to investigate from the NPCI’s perspectives, the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT and to develop a framework for PMTT adoption. In order to achieve the aim of this study, major objectives set-out for the research were to investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice as well as the factors influencing this, to determine from the NPCI’s perspectives the factors that will influence their PMTT adoption and finally to develop a framework to improve the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. Chapter 5 of this study which is the data analysis, demonstrate that the output of this research has met the aim and objective of the study and also serve as background for discussing the research findings. The last objective of this research, which is to develop a framework to improve the adoption of PMTT in NPCI, has been met in chapter 6, Figure 6.2.

The discussion chapter in this study serves to completely meet the research objectives and present the main findings of this study in line with the conceptual framework that was developed from this study. Based on this, the following section discusses the findings of the study in agreement with the objectives and the conceptual framework expounded on in the previous chapter.

7.1 Findings from the Main Study Conforming to Objective One As a follow up from the pilot study, this section tends to keep to the objectives of the study, first to investigate the “NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice using large simple size.

In keeping to the first objective above, it is discovered that knowledge of the subject area poses a big challenge to most of the participants, the picture of PMTT was not clear when the respondents were asked questions about their perception of PMTT and what it means to their practices. Various answers given portray their limited perception of PMTT. Their response was in line with that of pilot study, words like instruments, device and machines were used to defined PMTT, however, the researcher ensured that they are not deviating from the main point of focus by explaining the question again and again for better understanding. One of the project managers stated that,

“What I understand by project management tools and techniques is the available instruments for carrying out the work of project management for example a lot of

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computer programmes and methodologies used in project management for instance the critical path method and the likes are considered to be the project management tools” (P3).

While two of the respondents viewed it as it a cost serving tools and software application some of them consider it as systematic method, they stated that

“PMTT refers to the tools and techniques that you need to bring about proper project management which can help management eventually in saving cost or that can assist project managers make good decision” (P7).

This is in agreement with Hajjaji et al.’s (2010) assertion that PMTT help in decision making. Others also made mention that PMTT are software tools.

“The tools have to do with the software applications that you use to run your project management and the techniques are the laid down processes that you need to follow to run the project” (P11). “Project management tools could be simply put as systems that have been fashioned that you could use to manage your project. While techniques are systematic method that have been proven overtime to also assist you in conjunction with other tools to get the result you want to get” (P9).

This fits in with Hodgson’s (2002) and Sajad and Sadiq’s (2016) opinions that software tools enhance scheduling and aid in log status report. Their response indicated that they have an understanding of project management tools, and its impact on project life-cycle.

Based on the Objective one on the “current practices”, project management is seen by many scholars as a new subject area though it is well accepted in many businesses (Ernest and Samuel, 2014), others suggested that it has been in existence since ages (Seymour and Hussein, 2014). However, practice of PMTT in Nigeria is in a premature stage (Abbasi et al. 2000), study identified that project management practices are not well establish in private construction in Nigeria (Olateju et al., 2011). The position of Ayodele et al. (2015) also confirms the slow rate of practice of PMTT in private construction companies. This is in confirmation with the pilot study and what the respondents observed in the main study. One of the respondents stated that

“…But practically we do not use the tool on a day-to-day basis, only use it to get contract from our stakeholder” (P11).

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“We use it to a large extent during presentation to our clients to get their approval or consent showing them the work breakdown structure how we plan to execute the project and our capability,” (P12).

“My organisation honestly does not practically engage much in the use of PMTT, because doing business in Nigeria involves a lot of variables that makes it difficult to adopt project management frame work” (P1).

“For my organisation the engagement is quite minimal…” (P13).

“Our challenge is this, you go to site the artisans that need to do the work are not trained to use the instruments” (P5).

The response from the participants shows that there are not engaging effectively in the use of PMTT, and one influencing factor may be unawareness of these tools. According to Ayodele et al. (2015), the effective way to evaluate project management practices in several businesses is to evaluate the awareness as well as use of different PMTT. In line with this, the participant argued that

“…. We make use of tools and techniques in our practice, but unknown to our team members that this is actually the PMTT. We called it work tools, we plan, monitor and control with these tools but lack the awareness…” (P6).

Others also confirm the full engagement with the PMTT. One of the participants stated that

“Sincerely we do not work without the Project management tools it is our norm and culture; it is what we use every day for proper delivery of project, it is the model we use” (P11). “We factor in project management tools at each stage of the project and this helps to be properly organised both before the project, during the project and after the project. It is our normal way of carrying out tasks and it is in the company’s policy” (P16).

This in accordance with Powell and DiMaggio (1991) opinion that “the concept of normative force proceeds as a key influencing pressure of social actions enforcing constraints on the behaviours of the organisational members. and also, Scott (2008) asserts that “… structure or system which provides a routine for individuals to follow”. This indicate that the normative pressure in the organisation influence the way organisation operate.

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7.2 Finding from the Main Study Conforming to Objective Two and the Conceptual Framework In line with Objective two, the study further seeks to determine the key factors that influence the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. Literature as well as the case study have identified four main factors, in this study that affect the adoption of PMTT. Interestingly, these same factors were highlighted during the interviews in the pilot and main studies. The four key factors are Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture. These factors are presented as key factors in the conceptual framework in this study and are emphasised in detail in this section.

7.2.1 Findings related to the Political factor The first key factor of the conceptual framework is the political factor. It comprises of four sub- factors such as; Unstable policy, Change in Government, Organisational Policy and Top management as shown in the Figure 7.1. The subsequent section discusses the main finding of this study that is related with the Political factor.

Figure 7.1: The Political Factor

In the event of discussing the key factors that would influence PMTT adoption, most of the participants indicate that the factor that leads to limited use of PMTT in Nigerian private construction organisation is associated with several reasons where politics or organisational politics is one of the factors. This was thus established as the main themes during the data analysis as well as forming a part of the conceptual framework obtain from this research. Political factor in this context refers to power or strength exercised within project board or with

272 project managers in controlling the available resources. It is a strong factor that influence the entire structure of the organisation (Pinto and Winch, 2016; Roger, 2014) This is in collaboration with Idoro and Patunola-Ajaji (2009) opinion that politics is one of the barriers to successful project management practices in private construction companies in Nigeria. This is in line with the data extracts illustrated below.

“…. Since authority and power are generated from the top management it is difficult for the project manager to make a decision on what to use and what not to use in the project. For example, the decision to adopt the PMTT or any management tools is political and entirely in the hands of the senior management and not from the project manager, for reasons we cannot adopt project management tools.” (P20)

“…. There is a lot of ‘power-play’ at the top management which is translated to strong politics, thus affecting innovation or adoption of PMTT in this company. We are just project managers, we cannot make any significant decision and even though we make suggestion, the finally decision is made by the top management, hence adopting PMTT is big challenge to the project managers.” (P21)

In line with this, literature assert that

“anytime higher authority (Government, top management, authority and leadership) operates certain rules and regulations of certain phenomena, institutions that relates with this government phenomenon will normally be subjective to a common legalized framework” (Powell and DiMaggio, 1991).

In this context the top management did not enforce any rule or pressure on the adoption of these tools and techniques in the organisation. This fits with Jowah’s (2014) opinion that a successful project delivery cannot do without the existing politics in the organisation. Also, evident from the case study attest to this claim and states that “The policy makers of the company are committed to the implementation of PMTT and are committed also to the success of both the staff and the entire project” (Case Study A).

As a result of the responses from the participants, Political Factor was sub-divided into the Unstable Policy, Change in Government, Organisational Policy and Top Management sub- themes. Thirty-Five respondents in total out of Forty-Three participants sample size agreed that political factor is the main factor that affect the use of project management tools and techniques. Out of these, eighteen participants claims that change in organisational leadership from “time to time” can affect the use of PMTT, while Twenty of them acknowledge Unstable policy as the main issue.

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Unstable policy

The Nigerian business environment has been described as uncertain due to the political situation and constant change in organisational policy. This has impacted on the way people respond to new innovation and their decision-making patterns. Hence, organisational policy plays a significant role in the adoption of PMTT in Nigerian private construction organisation and it determines the direction which businesses follow. To begin with, the current practice of PMTT seems not to meet the needs of project managers because the decision for improvement is influenced by the policy, which as a result limits the process of implementing PMTT in their business. Some respondents suggested that:

““The policy that exists in our organisation is what determines what we do here, even when we have the right people in place that will not change anything (P24).

“Also, the policy in this organisation makes it challenging to use new technology.” (P1)

“Most times when there is change of power in an organisation, some policies may change that do not favour the existing project practices” (P7).

“…That leads us to the policy of the company, because every company is set up basically to maximize profits so the culture, policy, objective and regulations of our organisation influence our entire project management practice. As a result, we do not see it as one of our objectives”. (P25).

The statements from the respondents attest that most construction firms are influenced by policy in making a decision on the adoption of PMTT, even though they have people with technical skills to implement these tools in their organisations. This is in agreement with the pilot study which was stated that “policy influence has cut-across the entire project activities, hence adopting project management tools becomes a big challenge to the project managers” (P9).

Change in government

Additionally, the majority of the respondents insisted that change in government has a negative impact on implementation of PMTT in construction firms, as there is no continuity from the previous administration and this will also have impact in their organisations on the way they conduct their activities. Their comments are:

“Well, if it is a government project, every time there is a change in government you have a change in priorities and change in policies. Of course, within a particular regime they deserve the right to change their priorities.” (P25).

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Their thinking was fuelled based on unstable government as well as staff turnover.

“In most cases like what happens in another company where we are their main contractor, when there is change in power, the organisation will witness change in priority and this will influence our method of work and the tools to use and those one we cannot use.” (P7)

This is in support with pilot study, that “Most times when another government takes over in the organisation, some policies may change that do not favour initiatives such as adoption of PMTT” (P7).

In contrast, one participant maintains that there is a positive influence in the change of power because this has allowed them to develop an in-house PM tool that is used in managing all their projects. This is in collaboration with the case study, that “Since most of our in-house method is also effective if followed religiously, hence the issue of transferring the impact of cost from the software to our clients is eliminated. This is in agreement with the responses from the participant that:

“…. Though the Nigeria government does not follow contract agreement, this new policy of the existing government has promoted local innovation and people like us can be proud of developing our in-house tools to meet our needs….” (P6)

While business practice may to some extent vary from one organisation to another, evidence indicates that private organisations involved in government projects and those who dealt with massive projects are often influenced by the new government and their strategy and decisions from key clients, while others tend to maintain standards in order to satisfy their stakeholder by providing in-house tools.

Organisational policy

The key practice indicated in the participants’ transcripts shows that organisational policy is one of the determinants for the adoption of any new management practice such as PMTT; it clearly controls all the activities in the organisation. This argument was clearly heighted in the pilot study. Interviews from respondents in the main study confirmed the following:

“Organisational and its policy control the way we do things, take for instance if there is a new innovation that the institution will benefit, this will be imposed on organisations under this institution as a best practice, this may be in the form of safety of the worker or adoption of new practice.” (P17)

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One of the participants in the main study identified that “…. organisational policy is a guide to every decision made in this system; we do not go outside the limit of what is in the policy (P12).

The individual participants further maintained that

“At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money, time and training our staff to understand how to use this new tool. In that case, we depend on our old method until we see the need for change.” (P9)

“…. And it is the company policy that informed where we have to go as a company and if the board of directors do not approve of this tool, then we cannot progress with it and the cost of obtaining the tool is another constrain.” (P15).

This in line with Park and Luo (2001) opinion that “...the creation of policies to help influence various institutional practices; hence, coercive pressure mainly occurs from the side of stakeholders”. This is in collaboration with the pilot study that, “…. our activities are primarily controlled by organisational policy” (P7).

Some of the participants are of the view that though they are aware of these tools, it is the organisational objectives that override their own opinion. Others agreed that both the institutional policy and the cost of the tool affect the use of PMTT.

Top management

The result from the interviews revealed that top management has a significant influence in the adoption process of PMTT. However, two participants claim that the application of PMTT in their organisation is as a result of approval from top management. While a majority attribute their limited use of these tools to the management executives: this was observed in many of the cases:

Though organisational policy impact in their practices, however, the impact was a positive response one since it gives room for the practice of PMTT. One participant expressed his concern on the ‘bottle-neck’ approach used by the management. The comments are:

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“…. Well, I may say that things are a bit slow in this organisation because of long procedure. Like the project we are doing right now…… it will be due soon, but I doubt if we will deliver it on time because of the approval of funds from the top management. This also impact on every other thing that we do including the adoption of tools and techniques.” (P22)

This is in line with Young and Jordan (2008) opinion that top management has a strong influence in the implementation of project management methods. Also, other scholars such as Wei et al. (2016), Kerzner (2018) and Benmansour and Hogg (2002) support the fact that construction companies are not making much progress in technology due to lack of support from the top management. Other participants observed the following;

“The decision makers in my company have limited knowledge regarding these tools; it is only a few of us who have used these tools…. are trying to talk them into it”. (P1)

“….. I am getting to six years in this company, I have not seen my organisation use it at any point in time, and the management recognise past experience rather than innovation… we know that this can help facilitate our work… (P13).

Response from the respondents revealed that though they do not practically involve in the use of this tools, a good number of them (Twenty-four participants) acknowledge the fact that PMTT held certain potential value that might be useful for their practice.

“….it is the company policy that informed where we have to go as a company and if the board of directors do not approve of this tool, then we cannot progress with it and the cost of obtaining the tool is another constrain”. (P15)

This fits with Sotirakou and Zeppou’s (2005) opinion that decision to undertake any tasks are taken by the top management. The findings suggest that the adoption of PMTT in construction organisations is largely a decision from the top management of the organisation. However, it is essential to understand that an organisation that allows for new management approaches and creativity to some extent is innovative in nature at all levels of business practice. For instance, cases revealed that few organisations that adopt PMTT experience change in terms of project delivery and low risk as a result of top management decision. This is shown in Figure 7.2.

7.2.2 Findings related to the Economic factor Finding in this section relate to the Economic factor which represents the second factor in the conceptual framework. This factor consist of consists of Cost of Investment, Lack of Funds, Poverty Rate and Unstable Economy. This is shown in the Figure 7.2.

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COST of Investment

Lack of Fund

Economic Factor Poverty Rate

Unstable Economy

Figure 7.2: The Economic Factor

7.2.2.1 Economic factor influence toward the adoption of PMTT Economic factor is another factor identified as influencing PMTT adoption that is shown in the conceptual framework in this research. The perception of practitioners from the case study on economic influence in the industry generally is indeed the perception of most of the participants which to a large extent determine the adoption of PMTT. This has been acknowledged also as a major challenge that impacts on key management decisions (Olateju et al., 2011), not only in the construction industry but also in other industries, for instance, information systems and the manufacturing industry. Some of the participants (nineteen participants) identified ‘unwillingness to invest’ into any new innovation due to fear of prolonged pay-back time while fifteen of them expressed fear of lack of profitability and absence of financial resources. This notion of the economic impact on the implementation of PMTT informed their decision on the adoption of PMTT. The economic factor is sub-divided into four main group – Cost of investment, Lack of funds, Poverty rate and Unstable economy. As shown in the above table (table 5.11), all the participants indicated economic factor as one of the key factors that is associated with the adoption of PMTT. Moreover, twenty-four participants expressed a negative attitude with regards to cost of the software tools, while Nineteen of them looked at economic factor holistically in terms of hardship in the country which impacted negatively in the industry and while expressions from ten participants were indifferent as they did not attach much interest in the software tools due to their in-house methods.

Cost of investment

Cost of investment in this context refers to cost of purchasing and maintaining tools as well as training the end-users (the project team members). The evidence shows that the cost of

278 purchasing these tools is the core factor that hinders the adoption of project management tools. In order to remain in business, the organisation considers using one key approach which is often their past experience or in-house methods. Evidence from the participants highlights the following:

“The economic factor is the key barrier for most of us in the industry, the cost of acquiring new management technique makes any construction organisation to continue with the old method. If the tools and techniques are not cost effective there is no need to venture into it.” (P13)

“Secondly, the Nigerian economy as of today does not encourage citizens to be innovative; things are very difficult including cost of building material. So, talking about PMTT at this present economic situation is out of it.” (P30)

This is in line with the pilot study that, “…. not in all phases of the project. This is because of the cost of importation and government policy in trying to purchase these tools.” (P2). This is in support of Andra’s (2018) opinion that the cost of purchasing these software tools is on the high side and for most organisations the price tag is the key reason why these companies are not embarking on these software tools. This is in line with the case study, “the cost of purchasing and maintenance of these this software tools are in thousands of Dollars, considering the wide spread of our branches all over the nation and the number of projects coming in every year” (C. Study B). One of the project managers stated that;

“We use budgeting because, every activity has a cost attached to it and we try as much as possible to use that to control rather than the tools.” (P19), this fits with the case study, Moreover, using these tools reduces project failure and the cost of redoing the project.” (C. Study).

Findings indicate that some of the companies in spite of the cost implication, still go ahead to adopted PMTT in their projects, though not in all phases of the project. While many others expressed deep disappointment in the economy and as a result continued with their old method.

Lack of funds

One of the challenging factors to the adoption of PMTT is lack of funding. Evidence suggests that the project managers are of the view that if there is adequate funding in place most of the construction firms could have adopted management tools. Also, the entire operation of any project is based on adequate funding, this is in line with the pilot study that, “…… It reflects on our entire activities. Without adequate funding we will experience project failure, and for that

279 reason, we do not implement the common PMTT showing that funding is the key factor.” (P17). Response from the participants agreed with this claim, this is stated below

“Cost is the major factor that influences it and to get the job done in the quickest possible time.” (P16)

“……. Lack of funding from the organisation is another barrier that we face, and I believe that if our economy is good it will influence a lot of things in the industry.” (P5)

This is in support with some scholars’ opinion that “The cost of any new tool is a major concern to decision makers as they make decisions based on the financial position of the organisation, especially when the organisation is still a small-scale business” (Teo et al. (2003; Haunschild and Miner, 1997; DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; and Meyer and Rowan, 1977).

Also, one of the respondents from the main study claim that;

“For any project failure, it might be that there is the issue of cash flow, there are situations whereby due to some reasons the project had to be suspended for about three months before the contractor could return to site. So, the issue of failure has to do with availability of cash.” (P15), this is in collaboration with Ogunde et al. (2016) opinion that “economic pressure impedes adoption of management tools as it is linked directly to project funding".

Again, key stakeholders did not see anything wrong in keeping to their old method: they believe that adopting PMTT entails a lot of funds and a waste of resources. Cases also assert that all their business activities as being influenced by the economy:

“….. At the moment the company has no plan of investing into any new management practice because it involves a lot of money, time and training our staff to understand how to use this new tool. In that case, we depend on our old method until we see the need for a change; also, our present economic situation is not allowing us to be proactive because it is not stable.” (P3)

The case of lack of funding in construction projects has to do first with the project board and second with the government regulations. However, the first could be managed successfully with stakeholders involved and at the same time being proactive in their planning in order to absorb any change in government regulation. Evidence revealed that lack of cash flow can impede not only the quality but the entire project.

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Unstable economy

The perception of a large number of respondents suggests that business can only strive very well with a stable economy and with an unstable business cannot really succeed. In the context of the adoption of PMTT for example, participants responded by suggesting that:

“My company cannot afford these tools because of the fluctuation of dollars as a result; we depend on our local tools.” (P11)

“ …. We had a bitter regime before now and we were able to purchase new tools from the USA, but with this new regime we are handicap. The economy at the moment is not favourable most especially to the construction companies.” (P14)

“… We are happy with what we are using since it does not involve spending money all the time for new technology.” (P6)

“…… Example like what is happening in Nigeria. The exchange rate in the foreign market is not stable due to an unstable economy and this influences the cost of purchasing new technology as this software tool is not developed in Nigeria, thus we find it difficult to adopt it.” (P24).

This fits with Ogunsanya et al.’s (2016) opinion that the reason for this is the high cost of purchasing and maintaining PM software (technology). It is important to point out that an unstable economy has a significant influence on the adoption of PMTT since most of these tools are imported from abroad. Hence, with an uncertain economy, it becomes difficult for the construction firms to adopt such tools.

7.2.3 Finding related to Technological factor The Technological factor in the conceptual framework indicate the strong influence towards the adoption of PMTT. The impact of technology on implementation of PMTT has been mentioned by a few scholars (Ofori et al., 2015; Ogunde et al., 2017). This factor identified the absence of technical capability, chronic skills as well as limited human resources in this area as the factors that influence the adoption of PMTT in Nigerian private construction organisation (Olateju et al., 2011). New technology always poses a problem to the end users if there is no adequate training; therefore, training among other elements is a key barrier to the adoption of these tools. Furthermore, the respondents in the interviews identified other elements, such as Compatibility, Easy to use, integrate with old practice and Complexity under this factor as to what affects the implementation of PMTT in their organisations, this is shown in figure 7.3.

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Compatibility

Easy to use Technological Factor

Integrates with old practice

Complexity

Figure 7.3: The Technological Factor

Compatibility

A good number of the respondents believe that the new technology or software may not fit in well with their existing practice. In reality, one critical concern that bothers the end users of this concept was the compatibility of the project management tools with their existing method. this is in collaboration with Ogunsanya et al.’s (2016) opinion that organisations in developing economies found it difficult to change from their old practice to a new technology. In accordance with this, evidence from the participants suggests that:

“Essentially, it is a learning process, we had to adopt project management tools only in our procurement system to help us save time and money, but we do not use it for our major projects because of its compatibility with our current practice.” (P15)

“We use it to a large extent during a presentation to our clients to get their approval or consent showing them the work breakdown structure how we plan to execute the project and our capability, but practically we do not use the tool on a day to day basis due to our existing methods. Hence, bringing in a new approach may not be compatible with our way of doing things.” (P14).

This is in support with Ogunsanya et al.’s (2016) opinion that compatibility with other factors influences the used PMTT. This pilot study also in support of these assertion stating that, “this is a new technology, we are not sure if it will fit into our pattern of work that is why we cannot introduce it to our client” (P17).

A total number of twenty-three participants expressed reason for using these tools, fifteen of them need it only for the initial planning phase of the project, and eight respondents use it together with their current practice. This is in line with the case study, “our approach is different

282 from others, we use both software and our in-house method” others assert that “we use it at the early stage in spite of the cost”

The cost of these tools was not seen as a problem, but the ability of the tools and techniques to fit accurately with their current practice was the major issue that was raised by some the respondents.

Easy to use/ Complexity

The argument in this section is on the ‘ease of use’ and ‘complex’ these terms were used at the same time in most of the interview’, and most of the respondents (sixteen participants) were already used to their in-house methods while eleven participants did not have any problem using the tools since they are used to it. However, ten of them viewed the tools as complex and not easy to use. Some of the participants (five participants) attest that the complexity of the tools is the key concern for not considering the use of the tools. Comments from the Participants are:

“We use Microsoft Project, SAP Project systems; we also have in-house templates and methodologies that have been developed by our PMO for easy monitoring of our projects and we are familiar with them over time” (P10)

“The chances of the success rate of the projects have to do with the tools and the ability of the tools to respond to issues as at when due. The tools essentially should highlight the health of the project, should be applied easily by the end users and allow for re-cost and quick actions.” (P23)

In line with this, literature assert that “suggests that environmentally friendly is another factor, how friendly is the new technology to the end user will determine the adoption of any new concept. Adding that if the technology appears difficult to understand it will pose a key concern on the adoption process” (Liang et al., 2007).

While some have a positive notion regarding PMTT, “assist for effectively practices (P23) others have a negative viewpoint with regard to PMTT, “due to the complex nature of the tools they cannot invest in the tools” (P14). Other comments from the respondents are:

“For us, we barely apply the project management tools because it is a new concept and it is difficult to understand and it is not user friendly especially when the individual is not all that enlightened” (7)

“…. here we just have some informal arrangement and then proceed to execute the project, and this is because like I said, some key men on ground are not educated

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and are not trained on how to use this tool. They consider it as being complex and not easy to implement.” (P26).

This fits with Duccy’s (2013) accentuation that, when a new technology is introduced to the users, their decision to accept or reject it is influenced by three key determinants, these includes; perceived usefulness, perceived ‘ease of use’ and attitude towards usage. This is also in line with the pilot study that, “Before the company buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty” (P16).

Majority of the respondents seem to consider the new innovation as a challenge due to the complex processes that are involved in the implementation phases. Secondly, most of the end users of these products are not educated; hence, it is difficult to adopt the tool. However, evidence suggests that in spite of the challenges some participants still find potential in it (Odediran et al., 2012).

7.2.4 Organisational culture Organisational factor has been identified among other factors as one of the key factors in this research that influence the implementation of PMTT. This factor is presented in the framework as part of the conceptual frame work. This is demonstrated in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: The Organisational culture Factor

The effect of organisational culture on the adoption of PMTT has been a recurring theme in many construction organisations. Several authors (Hackman et al., 2017; Ogunsanya et al., 2016; Ofori et al., 2015) have explained that organisational culture is associated with values, norms, and beliefs as well as traditions and history, which reveals the in-depth foundation of construction organisations in Nigeria. It has been acknowledged as a key factor that influences

284 the decision-making process on implementation of PMTT. It is perhaps the most challenging factor the managers need to address. It exists as a factor that is very difficult to change, particularly with reference to current practice in construction work. Furthermore, organisational culture has been acknowledged as a significant barrier to adoption of PMTT with high resistance to change. The literature review suggested that the absence of demand for change in organisation influences implementation of these management tools (Ofori et al., 2015).

This is in support with the respondent opinion that

“There are numerous factors that influence the use of these techniques as you know our practice is not encouraging new innovation. The business environment is resistant to change; we believe in the culture and norms of the organisation also we believe that we can achieve success using our old method and the experience of our key staff.” (P25).

However, one of the participants is indifferent with this practice,

“our organisation though with a strong cultural value, we are open to the opinion of our customers, meetings are held with our clients and consultants and other stakeholders from time to time regarding the projects and the approach (PMTT) used (C. study).

Business practice

One of the challenges to the adoption of PMTT is the organisational norms or culture that shapes business practice. This key factor is vital and needs to be taken into consideration when introducing a new practice into the system as the best practice; of course, in a long- standing organisation questions and agitation will be set into the system. According to the respondents:

“At the moment there are a lot of factors that hinders us not to adopt these tools in our organisation…, I mean the way we carry out our operation is another factor” one the participants states, that “it is difficult to change, particularly with the old staff who are still in the system, may not want the practice to be changed.” (P13) while some participants give room for change in spite of the organisational culture, “we give room for flexibility in our practices without compromising with the standard and quality of our work” (C, study)

Most of the participants are difficult to change due their rigid norms and culture in the organisation that drive them as expressed by one of the participants, “our decision is motivated via our organisational culture.” (P2). This fits with Nguyen and Watanabe’s (2017) opinion that

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Organisational culture is a key driving force in the construction business that influences the work climate; it is a vital determinant of business practice.

The study revealed that current practice in the construction companies is being influenced by the norms of the system or cultural factors, thus determining the direction which the organisation will follow over time.

Transparency

The issue of transparency in this context is a burning issue in construction projects. Hence, evidence suggests the following:

“…. Well, the organisation has core values right from the selection point of view, we select people who seem to align with our core values we re-emphasize what the core value of the organisation is at every point in time and we cascade such values to all stakeholders, vendors and suppliers working on our project sites through our project managers.” (P7)

“This is very important in our business because the construction work as a whole entail a lot of money. The number of projects available and the team of project management available at every point in time, transparency is another factor.” (P20)

Secondly, evidence claims that having a dedicated project management officer (PMO) can influence the adoption process:

“Lack of a dedicated PMO manager is one of the key factors that influence PMTT adoption. To implement this tool the organisation requires a dedicated PMO manager who will ensure adequate implementation process of these tools and techniques.” (P4)

7.2.5 Perceived needs The previous section presented various factors (Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture) that influences the use of project management tools in private construction organisation and supported it with the empirical evidence from the pilot study, case study and the main study and these findings were validated using the relevance from the literature. This section conducts a cross-sectional analysis of the solution or perceived needs factors that will allow for the implementation of the PMTT in NPCI. Literature identified these needs as factors that must be put in place in order to address the problem (Olateju et al. 2011) affecting the adoption of the PMTT in construction firms in Nigeria. Secondly, the empirical evidence also attests to these factors as significant to the adoption of these tools. These needs are presented in the framework of this study as part of the conceptual framework. These perceive needs factors are demonstrated in Figure 7.5.

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Figure 7.5: The Needs Factor

Limited expertise

Limited expertise refers to shortage of skilled labour in a particular field of endeavour, which applies to many disciplines such project management. In this context it is understood that due to lack of expertise has made some organisations not to invest on any tools and techniques. In a number of cases, participants reported limited expertise as being a significant factor for adopting project management tools rather than financial investment. The participants describe it as need that must be addressed by the management. One of the participants mentioned that the reason why many people are not investing into PMTT fully is because it is new in most industry including construction firms and it becomes very difficult getting workforce with the right skills. This is in line with Shenhar (2001) opinion that PM is still young and lacks theoretical concepts as well as bases.

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Some of the participants expressed the need of expertise in their organisation, and having these will actually promote the adoption of PMTT as well as their practices. The participants stated that;

“Our problem is not money to invest on this tool, it is getting the right people that have a full understanding of this tools and how it works and at the same time train others on how this tools work in other to change our practices (P13).

This is in line with the pilot study,

“Currently we lack the expertise in this area and employing external consultants to assist in the implementation of PMTT is obviously very expensive, especially when the organisation is passing through financial challenge.” (P1).

This is in support of Ali’s (2010) opinion that, the need for PM tools and project manager expertise in private sector companies has become central in order to manage the vast responsibility of dealing with number of projects.

In addition, participants were interested in having a dedicated PMO to run their project management department or skilled person to shoulder project management responsibilities. In line with this, one of the respondents stated that;

“Lack of a dedicated PMO manager is one of the key factors that influence PMTT adoption.” (P4), “I think we need someone that knows the technical know-how of this practice” (P6).

The participants where more concerned on how their practice can change from their current practice to a new practice, and one way to do this was a need for an experienced project manager. However, lack of skilled personnel is recognised in this context as one of the key factors limiting adoption of new practices such as the adoption of PMTT.

User-friendly

User-friendly in this context refers to ease of use or the simplicity of the tool, and how easy it can be used by the end-user. Another need that was raised by the participant apart from the expertise was the need for ‘ease of use’ of these tools. A total number of twenty-one participants believed that if the tools are easy and not complicated it can be adopted as their new practice, while fifteen participants doubt the practicability of this tools and techniques in their current practice. Their observation was on the infrastructure in the country such as ‘power’ (electricity) that will facilitate the usage of these tools. Others (seventeen participants) assert that they need a tool that is user-friendly. Some comments relating to this issue are:

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“First, investing in a tool is one aspect and being able to understand the intricacies of the tool is another” (P9). Ability for the respondents to the use of these tools has been a major concern to most of the interviewee. Evidence pointed out that:

“Before the company can buy into any new technology, we must first check the complexity of the techniques, can our people use it without any difficulty.” (P16)

The respondent wanted to know if the tool is user friendly and if it is suitable for their practices hence, “… The question is, is it compatible and user friendly, can we use it without any difficulty….” (P15). The responses from these respondents indicated that, their adoption behaviour is based mainly on the adaptability and user-friendliness of these tools

However, it was interesting to note that though most respondents give reason why they cannot adopt this practice, ten participants express their strong involvement towards the adoption of this practice. They stated that the tools are easy to use especially the MS project tools.

“We used these tools (MS project tools) because they are compatible with our current practice and are easy to use.” (P8).

This is in collaboration with Tan, and Jones’s (2008) observation that, like other agile tools, MS Project is user friendly, flexible and ease, has the capacity to track actual (Sajad, et al., 2016) work in the project plan.

Willingness to change

This factor in this context implies the ability for both the top management and the entire project team to see the need to adapt to another practice. Willingness to change was another point raised as a ‘need’ to facilitate the adoption of PMTT during the findings. More than two respondents mentioned that because of the willingness to change, they are incapable of adopting new technology as a practice in their organisations. This shows a significant limitation to their adoption of PMTT. Some comments related to this are:

“… The society is resistant to change; we believe we can achieve success using our old method….” (P25)

“So, we are being influenced by politics, corruption and that is the way we are, as people are very difficult to change.” (P20)

There is a great potential in these tools and techniques as we all know, but we have to make our mind to change from our existing practice” (P13).

These viewpoints could be motivated by their acceptance of the situations and how their organisations operate compared to other sectors as well as the fact that many of the

289 respondents do not seem to see their organisations as having significant change from the old practice. This fits with Ogunsanya et al.’s (2016) opinion that organisations in developing economies found it difficult to change from their old practice to a new practice (new technology).

However, a total number of nine respondents seem to be happy with the changes in their organisation regarding project management practice. Respondents comment ranges from,

“change is constant in our organisation and this is what we do, we are open to new ideas” (P8): “we are happy to adapt to changes any time it comes, mainly when it has to do with work practices” (P4). “we don’t use it in all the phases in our project but in most of the stages in the project (P17).

Lack of dedicated PMO

In discussing on their project management practices, some respondents indicated that their quality of work and performance is directly influenced by lack of PMO. While others were of the view that PMO is not too significant in their business as long as they are delivering their project on time and with quality, they were satisfied with that.

For this group of people, the aspect of multiple projects which involves a dedicated person to control and coordinate key project-related tasks was not visible in their organisations. While others deem it fit to employ the service of a PMO to handle their complex or intricate projects that are undertaken in their organisations. This is in agreement with the opinion made in the literature (Aubry and Hobbs, 2012). Observations from the respondents attest that:

“Lack of a dedicated PMO manager is one of the key factors that influence PMTT adoption.” (P4). This is in collaboration with the pilot study,

“The thing is that we do not have someone that is dedicate to manage these tools and encourage others to adapt to new practice” (P15).

“….. But for now, it is not visible and if we buy it, we do not have the expertise in this field.” (P14)

Few participants acknowledge that, “although we don’t have many of them in our company, apart from the one that comes from the head office to advice on what to do when we face challenges in the work and with our stakeholders” (P6).

This is in collaboration with the case study,

“We hope to fully implement PMTT as soon as the necessary things are put in place and when we are able to have some dedicated project managers that will know how

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to use the tools. And I believe with this our practice will improve and the quality of project delivery will also be improved” (C. Study).

Lack of PMTT awareness

Most of the respondents show the need for PMTT awareness and what it entails in clearer and simple terms that will encourage them to change their mind and support the adoption of PMTT. Evidence suggests that lack of awareness can cripple the adoption process of PMTT (Ofori et al., 2015). Related responses from the respondents are:

“…. Availability of the tools in one issue and exposure to such tools is another issue….” (P8)

“If the staff has the technical know-how, they will now be able to apply the tools that you have.” (P7)

“…. Some are not even trained in the use of such tools so you still have that prevalence in some organisations and Nigeria so to say.” (P18)

The statements suggest that the potential of these tools will not be realised if there is no adequate exposure to or training in PMTT for users.

Training

From the participants point of view training is the core issue in many private construction companies and to what use is it having the tools but no skilled person to use it. Also, training has reduced in many construction companies in Nigeria overtime and thus, giving room for quack workman to fill the industry. This is in agreement with Ayodele (2015) opinion that fewer construction companies are offering training to their staff. In addition, the case study attests that “effective training could be an effective channel in making people to use or adopt these tools, so they can inform other people. Hence, this will improve awareness”. The response from the participant was not different from the voice of the literature and case study. One of the respondent emphases that:

“…. Availability of the tools is one issue and exposure to such tools is another issue…. without adequate training and awareness of these tools, it will be difficult to adopt it” (P8).

This fits with the pilot study opinion that “Training is vital if actually we want to adopt these tools, this will help to create awareness of this new technology to our team” (P25).

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Other related comments are:

“… Some are not even trained in the use of such tools so you still have that prevalence in some organisations and Nigeria so to say.” (P2)

“If these staff have the technical know-how, they will now be able to apply the tools that you have.” (P7)

These indicate that the adoption of PMTT may be difficult in these organisations as the people who are to implement these tools are not exposed to the technology in terms of training. The respondents noticed that the only way they can adopt these tools is only if they have people who can use the tools, and involving a consultant is often very expensive.

7.3 Summary The three major objectives of this research were to investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and their current practice, to examine from the NPCI’s perspective the factors that will influence their PMTT adoption and to develop a framework to improve the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. This study has achieved these objectives. First, objectives one and two were realised by conducting a semi-structured interview to investigate the current practice in NPCI and the key factors influencing the adoption of PMTT, based on this, data were collected and analysed accordingly. Secondly, the third objective was achieved by developing a validated conceptual framework for the improvement of NPCI practice. Institutional theory aid to unveil the findings and provide a useful “theoretical lens” to investigate the adoption of PMTT in NPCI. The chapter shows the main activities necessary for the engagement of PMTT practice highlighting the factors that could influence the adoption of these tools in private construction companies in Nigeria. Furthermore, the chapter identified some perceived needs that could help in facilitating the adoption of these tools and also help both the top management and low- level management see the need to engage fully in the practice of PMTT in their organisation.

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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION

8.0 Overview This chapter presents the concluding part of this study. It commences with the conclusion of the research, followed by the summary of the main findings; the contribution to knowledge of this study is also discussed, the theory and practice, as well as the research limitation and suggestion for further study.

8.1 Summary of the Research and Main Findings This section offers a summary of this research demonstrating the way it met the initial objectives of this study. It defines also the main findings of the research, highlighting how they link to the research objectives. The aim of this research is to investigate from the NPCI’s perspectives the key factors influencing their adoption of PMTT and to develop a framework to improve PMTT adoption. Furthermore, three objectives were set out in order to realise this aim. This study adopted ‘qualitative in-depth’ interview in order to collect robust data related to NPCI practice, and several institutional factors (coercive (regulative) and normative as well as mimetic (cultural-cognitive) pressure) (Lawrence et al., 2011; Scott, 2008) relating to political, economic, technology and organisational culture pressures on the various private construction organisations.

The research was conducted using a qualitative semi structured interview with a sample of project managers in private construction companies from a total number of thirty private construction companies (eighteen participants from the pilot study and forty-three from the main study, including the two case studies for better triangulation) within five of the six geopolitical zones in the county, excluding the North-East zone due to security issues. The key objectives were to investigate the NPCI’s perception of PMTT adoption and current practice and the factors influencing this, to determine from their viewpoint or perspective the factors that would influence their PMTT adoption, to develop a framework to improve the adoption of PMTT in NPCI.

To achieve these objectives, this research made efforts to understand the factors associated with the practice of PMTT by reviewing the current literature (Chapter two), and investigating the existing situations in the Nigeria private construction companies (chapters four and five). It developed a validated conceptual framework to describe PMTT adoption practice, identified the key factors influencing the evolving PMTT adoption process as well as challenges for the project managers.

Considering the limitation and criticism, this research adopted institutional theory and qualitative method to gain a robust and a more in-depth knowledge of the study subject. Again,

293 the research adopted the generic purposive sampling strategy because it was best suitable for the context of this research; the study further adopted thematic analysis to properly analyse the obtained data, incorporating it within NVivo for better management of the obtained data due to the large data volume. The data collection and analysis processes are presented in chapters four and five, respectively.

8.2 Conclusions The findings of this thesis were discussed in detail in Chapter 7, Findings and Discussion. The major points and the way they relate to the research objectives set initially for this research are summarised as follows.

Finding A: One of the key findings is that NPCIs require a lot of support from the top management to enable them to adopt PMTT in order to improve their practices. Objectives one and two can be linked to this finding since it identifies the need for PMTT as factors for improving NPCI practice. According to Powell and DiMaggio (1991), influence from the higher authority regulates organisational practice. Therefore, top management has a greater role to play in the implementation of PMTT. Also, from the literature, it was discovered that most organisations lack adequate information on project management software as it links or relates to private construction business (Olateju et al., 2011). Hence, an adequate ‘business case’ showing the benefits to be obtained and the results of not engaging in the practice of PMTT and direction on how to employ PMTT is required. Consequently, it is essential to make available this information to NPCIs in a clear, unmistakeable and simple format to aid their PMTT practice. Therefore, this research has met these objectives.

Finding B: The project team believe that lack of adequate training is the reason why PMTT is not adopted in their organisation and it will be a waste of resource to buy what cannot be used in the organisation. Objective two can be related to this finding since it provided insight into what management can do to address the issues of unskilled labour and make them think creatively and be innovative in their practices. The view that private construction companies believe training can be one of the solutions to address this issue is interesting to take note of as most managements ignore the aspect of developing their staff (workforce) and focus on profit making. Based on the case study, it was revealed that organisational practices can imitate other organisations’ in order to improve their practice. This finding also confirms the opinion of DiMaggio and Powell (1983) that mimetic force brings about the structural similarity among institutions, which will determine the business best practices within organisations that operate in the same domain. Moreover, the best practice such as training implemented, will help an organisation to control the business domain by gaining advantage over their competitors. Hence, this objective has been met.

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Finding C: Following the critical review of the literature, the study found that there have been various studies that investigated several factors influencing PMTT adoption in private construction companies in Nigeria and their current practice in the industry, however ignoring the perceived needs that could facilitate the adoption of PMTT in the organisation. This finding can be linked to the three objectives in this study. Objective one: having an ‘in-house method’ as a management approach was identified as being their practice over time and this has become their norm. This influences the way individuals behave or conduct themselves in order to realise organisational objectives (Scott, 2008); Objective two: Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture were identified as the key factors that influenced the adoption of PMTT; and Objective three: these factors constitute part of the conceptual framework obtained from the research and needed for NPCIs to take adequate action to the adoption PMTT. All these objectives have been met.

Finding D: As a follow up of Finding C, apart from ignoring the needs factor, the concept of PMTT was directed towards specific perspectives – political, economic, technological and organisational culture – neglecting the numerous sub-factors impacting on PMTT implementation, Objective two can be related to this finding. This study has identified these sub-factors from the main factors highlighted above and grouped them under each factor in Chapter 5, and in order to gain a robust understanding and a comprehensive outcome or result for PMTT implementation in private construction companies in developing countries, this study has presented these challenges under each factor in the proposed framework. This objective has been met.

Finding E: The major gap acknowledged by this study is that no prior study in PMTT implementation in the private construction industry has proposed a framework that adopts institutional theory highlighting the four main institutional pressures or influencing factors; Political, Economic, Technology and Organisational Culture in the business environment; these four main factors are confirmed or validated in Chapter 6 in this study. Again, the framework in Figure 6.2 presents other factors that emerge from the findings.

8.3 Contributions of the Study This section summarises this research’s contributions to knowledge, theory and practice.

8.3.1 Contribution to Knowledge • This research contributes to knowledge (body of literature) by developing a conceptual framework of various factors influencing the adoption of PMTT in private construction companies in Nigeria.

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• This study can aid in bridging the gap that exists between the NPCIs recognition of the benefit and value of PMTT as well as actions taken by them to operate their businesses. • The research adopts a comprehensive view of the study of PMTT in private construction companies by investigating not only the factors that affect the adoption of PMTT but also the factors that could facilitate the adoption of PMTT in NPCIs.

8.3.2 Contribution to Practice • From the findings of this research, a comprehensive perception and further information emerge with regards to the factors that hinder PMTT implementation in private construction projects in Nigeria. Also, these findings ought to have implication for top management and allow them to establish more suitable policies to positively encourage adoption of PMTT in NPCIs. • The conceptual framework that is developed from this study serves as a foundation for taking appropriate steps in creating awareness for PMTT practice. • Based on the research findings, a more obvious picture regarding the challenges and issues facing the NPCIs in adopting PMTT practice is painted and this would make it very easy for top management to address these issues so as to benefit the NPCIs. • The research employed NPCIs perspectives to make specific recommendations for fostering a positive PMTT practice.

8.3.3 Contribution to Theory This research contributes to theory by developing a detailed framework to investigate key factors that influence PMTT implementation in the private construction industry. The institutional theory that underpins this study presents three isomorphic pressures: regulative, normative and mimetic (cultural-cognitive) (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983) and these are presented in the conceptual framework in Figure 6.2. These three pillars may influence the decision of top management in the adoption PMTT. Having an understanding of these different pressures is important in addressing challenges in an organisation. Using this theory in the context of adoption of project management tools (software tools) in private construction companies has contributed to theory and extended the use of this theory.

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8.4 Recommendations Though the conceptual framework was validated in detail, the researcher maintains that there are some limitations which show that this study can be developed further. The study recommends the following:

• The data for this study was collected using qualitative in-depth interviews together with major employees (project managers) responsible for managing projects of different sizes, official documentation and observations. On the other hand, to increase the ability to generalise and utilise these empirical findings in a larger Nigerian context, further study must be conducted in other sectors of economy, in order to achieve the required degree of data triangulation. • Since the aim of this study was to investigate factors influencing the practice of PMTT in NPCIs, a face-to-face interview was conducted in private construction organisations; therefore, this study could further be extended to public construction organisations to make certain the views of a larger audience (project managers) in government agencies in the three tiers of government in Nigeria, such as the Ministry of Works, Ministry of Environment, and Federal Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development. • Since this study was carried out to investigate the key factors that influence the adoption of PMTT in private construction companies, the researcher noticed that there are external factors apart from the internal factors that also have a strong influence on PMTT implementation in the construction industry and these factors includes: regulatory bodies, government agencies and institutions (Scott, 2008; Powell and DiMaggio, 1991). The study recommends future research to be conducted with a comprehensive identification as well as analysis of both the internal and the external factors relating to PMTT adoption in private construction companies in Nigeria. • This study has contributed to knowledge by proposing a conceptual framework for the adoption of PMTT that could be implemented in Nigerian private construction companies. Though institutional theory aids in understanding of the factors influencing the process of PMTT adoption, it is also important to note that institutional theory does not pay attention to stakeholders, who appear to be the key decision makers in this study. Also, institutional theory is associated with only power and interest with “dominance of bureaucracy”, and it lacks an adequate documentation (Ibrahim, 2017; Tolbert and Zucker, 1999). Hence, future study may be required to complement institutional theory with another theory. Scholars may combine institutional theory with stakeholder theory for the purpose of formally introducing decision makers as the key stakeholders in the study.

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• The proposed framework in this thesis demonstrates various factors that influence PMTT adoption. The research also involves quite a number of different perceived needs (needs factors) that could facilitate the adoption of PMTT; hence, it is appropriate to further explore these factors as well as the ‘needs factors’ with the wider population. This may offer a comprehensive perception and interpretation of factors and perceived needs. • Future study could be built up on the research finding by using the developed conceptual framework to investigate factors influencing the adoption of PMTT practice in other sectors.

8.5 Limitations of this Research The critical literature review discussion on the theoretical perspective and the research findings, which is presented in chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4 as well as Chapter 6, shows the study of PMTT implementation in private construction firms in developing countries. The analytical research and theoretical analysis are limited to private construction companies in Nigeria. PMTT are customised or tailored down based on the demand or the need of the individual company and this is different from company to company or even from nation to nation. Hence, it might be challenging to generalise the result of this research to the entire construction industry in Nigeria, or even for African countries generally. Moreover, the explanation in the methodology chapter (Chapter 4) of this study centred on the qualitative method (semi- structured interview) for data collection. The purpose of choosing this methodology is its advantage of gathering rich data in order to have understanding of the organisational issues (political, economic, technology and organisation culture) and different actors or players in the industry. However, this approach has its limitations, and that it is time-consuming: a considerable amount of time is spent in collecting and analysing of the results of the data collected.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Characteristics of the positivist and post-positivist paradigms

POSITIVISM POST-POSTIVISM ONTOLOGY Naïve Realism –. Critical Realism – Reality is It is independent of the observers. considered as imperfect. Can Reality is apprehendable with be understood probabilistically. suitable methods. EPISTEMOLOGY Dualist, objectivism, findings true. Modified Dualist as well as Objectivist. Findings possibly true. AXIOLOGY Research embarks on a value- The same view as positivism. free viewpoint. Is inherently valuable. METHODOLOGY Tantamount with quantitative Manipulative techniques. procedure or methodology. Modification of quasi- Largely experimental in nature, it experiments. As well as verifies hypotheses and also manipulation techniques. A correlates survey designs as well qualitative method is use when as quantitative analysis. necessary. METHODS Adopt quantitative methods with The same as positivism. the aim of aligning social research method to scientific approach. Largely uses experimental designs as well as surveys consisting of very large samples in order to help with generalisations. DATA Structured interviews, It shares the same elements COLLECTION quantitative, questionnaires. Uses with positivism, but also adopts financial database and qualitative method. organisational reports as secondary sources.

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DATA ANALYSIS Involves the following elements: Same characteristics as quantitative approach for positivism. instance, content analysis. Statistical tools, for example SPSS, using regression analysis, multivariate analysis, as well as structural equation model (SEM). EVALUATION Validity – this involves the Same elements as positivism. CRITERIA genuineness of findings as well as the integrity of inferences created from the study. Internal Validity – tries to affirm results are valid and that the final conclusions reach are right. External Validity –capability of generalising the finding with other contexts as well as with the settings. Reliability –the extent to which estimation of an idea or phenomenon is stable notwithstanding how repeatable research outcomes are. Objectivity – establishes transparency and value-free method in the process of carrying out the research and ensuring the investigator’s personal bias has little or no influence on the process.

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STRENGTHS AND Strengths: The same is applicable as to WEAKNESSES • Offers wide scope of a positivism. range of circumstances • Mainly value-free • It is cost-effective and fast • Generalizability Weaknesses: • The approaches are not flexible and are artificial. • Both the meaning the individual attached to them and the processes are not understood, and as a result it is not useful. • Not suitable to use for theory generation. • Not beneficial for concluding future changes. Source: Guba and Lincoln (2000) and Bryman (2012)

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Appendix 2: Attributes of the interpretivist paradigm

INTERPRETIVISM ONTOLOGY Is of the view that, there is no one truth, rather many truths, it depends on the observation and emphasises socially constructed reality which can change and is subjective naturally. EPISTEMOLOGY It is subjective and transactional in nature. Subjectivists are of the opinion that a social phenomenon is a product of people’s perception and the action of individual in the social setting. Transactional – focuses on the interactions that take place between the investigator and the participants. METHODOLOGY Concentrates on the observation of the phenomenon, describing and studying the phenomena within their natural setting. Accommodates various viewpoints in the quest to give answers to probing questions regarding a specific phenomenon. AXIOLOGY Investigator in the approach is considered as value-bound, part of the findings, cannot be seen as separate entity from the main study. METHODS Makes use of qualitative approach, for example: grounded theory, structured interview, case studies, as well as ethnography. These instruments assist the researcher in gaining information about the phenomenon in its natural domain. DATA COLLECTION The size of the sample used is small to give room for a far- reaching analysis of individual case/s, e.g. interviews, observations, field notes as well as diaries. DATA ANALYSIS Applied analytical induction and grounded analysis, as well as thematic analysis. Furthermore, it employs software such as computer-aided quantitative software (CAQDAS) to simplify the analysis, for instance, NVivo, ATLAS.ti

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STRENGTHS AND Strengths: WEAKNESSES • Try to understand a person (or people) in their natural setting, also view phenomenon from their own standpoint. • Ability to investigate change over a period of time. • Data gathering process is conducted naturally. • It is flexible in nature, this allows new issues to be adjusted as new ideas are discovered. • Ability to contribute to the creation of new theories. Weaknesses:

• Collection of data is considered as time-consuming as well as resource-intensive. • The process of data analysis and data interpretation is challenging as the investigator depends mainly on the knowledge and experience of the researcher. • As a result of the subjective nature, scholars may give low credibility to findings. • It appears untidy due to the lack of structure; this makes it difficult for the investigator to have an overview of their progress, their pace as well as end points. Source: Guba and Lincoln (2000) and Bryman (2012)

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Appendix 3: Qualities of the Critical Paradigm

CRITICAL THEORY ONTOLOGY Reality is constructed historically; however, it occurs externally from the mind. Gender values, cultural, ethnic and economic factors shape virtual reality which over time have been codified. EPISTEMOLOGY Research results are naturally subjective and transactional, comprising findings such as value-mediation. Cognizes values of participants as well as researcher to be inter-linked. The research process is influenced by the values of the researcher. METHODOLOGY Its approaches are dialogic and dialectic. As a result of the transactional nature, this approach necessitates dialogue among both parties, such as the researcher and participants. METHODS Seeks to produce change and enable transformation to develop research context. Employs ideology critique, critical ethnography, as well as action research. DATA COLLECTION Applies qualitative methods, for instance, interviews and diaries, however, focuses on mixed methods. DATA ANALYSIS Uses qualitative and quantitative analysis methods, whichever is considered suitable. EVALUATION Evaluation is based on the capability to attain its general objective CRITERIA of developing study based on the social context and quality criteria of the way data are collected, either qualitative or quantitative. LIMITATIONS • Own political agenda • The presumed objectivity of the investigator • Scepticism of the capability of action research to really change conditions. Source: Guba and Lincoln (2000) and Easterby-Smith (2012)

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Appendix 4: Data imported into NVivo 11

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Appendix 5: Generation of nodes

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Appendix 6: Transcription of data in NVivo

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Appendix 7: Relate the codes and classify the themes

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Appendix 8: The factors that hinder the PMTT adoption process

Main codes Factors influencing Supporting evidence PMTT adoption Political Unstable policy P1, P24, P25, P25, P12 Change in government P25, P7, P17, P6 Institutional Policy P12, P9, P13, P15 Top management P12, P22, P1, P13, P21, P15 Economic Investment cost P13, P2, P30, P19 Lack of funds P15, P17, P16, P5, P3 Renewal of license P34, P25, P6, P19 Unstable economic P24, P14, P11 Technology Compatibility P15, P14, P17

Easy to use P16, P10, P23, p26 Professional body P24, P7, P9 Adoption P10, P11, P14, P20, P25, P17 Organisational Business process P25, P2, P13, P34, P15 culture Transparency P7, P20, P4

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Appendix 9: Main challenges together with supporting evidence

Challenges to PMTT adoption Supporting evidence from participants Complexity of technology P1, P4, P11, P8, P3, User friendly P7, P9, P10, P11, P15, P14 Unwillingness to change P19, P5, P3 Limited expertise P1, P8, P11, P14 Lack of dedicated PMO P1, P7, P20 Lack of PMTT awareness P23, P3, P10, P18 Resistance to change P17, P4, P11 Integrates with old practice P4, P20, P8, P13, P19, P12, P17 Traditional method P23, P14, P6, P9 The cost of adopting PM tools P5, P11, P16 Institutional rules and regulations P2. P8, P13 Lack of adequate facilities (power) P21, P25, P1, P6 Stakeholder’s requirement P6, P17, P15 Organisational policy P24, P2, P28, P20, P16, P8

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Appendix 10: Research Questions and Justification

RESEARCH QUESTION PROPOSED INTERVIEW QUESTION JUSTIFICATION FOR THE QUESTION Q1 To what extent do private How does the adoption of PMTT Although PMTT is commonly employed as a business tool by project construction companies in contribute to the project success in managers, research on PMTT has not sufficiently examined as to Nigeria adopt PMTT in their your organisation? whether its use contributes to the success of a project (Milosevic, 2015; practice? Olusoji and Oloba, 2014; Abbasi et al., 2014). How does the use of PMTT influence Although PMTT is commonly employed as a business tool by project the entire business practice in your managers, research on PMTT has not sufficiently examined as to organisation (construction industries)? whether its use contributes to the success of a project (Milosevic, 2015; Karaman and Kurt, 2015). Could you explain at what phase in Project management, according to scholars, consists of various phases your projects do you adopt PMTT and such as initiation phase, planning phase, execution phase and closing how does this action relate in the phase, each of the project phases comprises different PMTT used for a project success? successful completion of each phase. (Maylor, 2013; Olateju et al., 2011; Idoro and Patunola-Ajayi, 2011). May I know how you measure the The criteria for success are the project objective and the degree to which project success in your organization? the objective met determines the project failure or success. However, this PM success is restricted to the three variables cost, time and quality (Atkinson, 2010 ; Abbasi et al., 2014).

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Could you describe a past situation Karaman and Kurt (2015) suggested in order to reduce product that made your organization opt for development time to market, maximize limited resource, manage PMTT as against the traditional technological complexity, meet stakeholder expectation and enhance method? global market, there is a need to employ PMTT. Q2 What are the appropriate How does the size of a project affect The implementation of PMTT in construction industries is increasingly PMTT for Nigerian PMTT practice in your organisation? becoming a vital issue in developing nations, particularly in a country like construction companies and Nigeria where projects of different size and structure are undertaken how do these relate to the (Olateju et al., 2011). theoretical and practical How does your organisation address According to Idoro and Patunola-Ajayi (2014) factors such as social, application of PMTT? factors such as cultural, political, political, corruption, cultural blocks, lack of finance and management corruption and lack of finance when decisions are the main barriers to implementation of PMTT in Nigeria. undertaking project management practice? What type of PMTT does your Several tools and techniques are employed in project implementation for organisation use in implementing managing projects for a desirable outcome. Hence, some PMTT are used small, medium and large projects? in large projects (Olateju et al., 2011). How do you use PMTT to determine PMTT is currently regarded as a managerial tool that assist organizations the quality of the project as well as to attain business objectives, helps project managers to manage limited stakeholder satisfaction? resources and satisfy the requirement of the stakeholder (Abbasi et al., 2014).

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How does project failure link to limited Research has been carried out regarding PMTT over the past two use of PMTT in your organisation? decades and scholars and practitioners have tried to examine the reasons for project failures and the factors responsible for success (Karen et al., 2010). Could you explain the reason why Research shows that conventional PMTT are not being used by some some project managers rely on project managers because they are not adequate to address the key traditionl method in carrying project concerns of project practitioners (Robina et al., 2014). management practice?

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Appendix 11: Letter to prospective participants

Business Management Research Institute (BMRI) University of Bedfordshire Business School Luton Campus- Vicarage Street Luton LU1 3JU Bedfordshire 22/05/2015

Interview on project management tools and techniques in private construction companies

Dear Sir,

I am a PhD student currently researching the adoption and implementation of project management tools and techniques in private construction companies.

The aim of the research is to help organizations, particularly private companies improve their competitiveness, complete projects on time, to budget and satisfy stakeholder requirements, therefore; your opinions will be highly appreciated.

I would be grateful if you could spare me at least 40 minutes to speak with you. All the information provided would be treated with strict confidentiality.

I would be happy to send you the summary of my research work when completed. Please let me know which email you would like me to send it to.

Thank you for your time and cooperation in advance.

Yours Faithfully,

Edidiong Sidney

PhD Student

Email: [email protected]

Tel: 07825660259: 07405909500

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Appendix 12: Letter to participants

Business Management Research Institute (BMRI) University of Bedfordshire Business School Luton Campus- Vicarage Street, Luton LU1 3JU Bedfordshire 18th March 2019

The validation of conceptual framework in private construction organisations

Dear Sir/Ma,

I want to use this opportunity to appreciate you for taking out time to participate in my last research work conducted in the Nigerian private construction companies. The research was to investigate the project management practice within the context of private construction companies in Nigeria. The study examined the type of project management tools and techniques used in Nigeria private construction companies. It also looked at the contribution of project management tools and techniques toward project success, it identified factors influencing the adoption of tools and techniques and how the adoption of these tools influences the entire organisational practice. Also, how the size of a project affect project management practice in private construction companies in Nigeria.

After the completion of the eight-week exercise, the data were collected and analysed accordingly. The key purpose of this study is to develop a conceptual framework that can be used to improve the adoption of project management tools and techniques in private construction companies.

The study has presented a conceptual framework based on the field work and from the literature. The framework also highlights factors that are considered as a challenge to a successful implementation of this tools and techniques in private construction companies in Nigeria. This framework needs to be validated in order to ascertain its usefulness in the industry. I would like to know your reaction toward this framework; will this framework meet the present demand in the construction industry? And what can be added or removed from this framework. I would like to receive your feedback through email on or before 5TH of April 2019. More so, attached is the video of the description of the conceptual framework which

403 only last for 7min; this will enhance your perception of the study and assist in your response to the questionnaire.

Thank you for your time and cooperation in advance.

Yours faithfully,

Edidiong Sidney

PhD Student

Email: [email protected]

Tel: 07825660259.

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Appendix 13: Letter to participants

S/ 1 2 3 4 5 N Questions Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 This framework addresses the key challenges facing adoption of PMTT in the private construction organisations in Nigeria. 2 The elements in this framework reflect the current practice of using? PMTT in your Organisation. 3 The perceived need addresses your concern and can help in facilitating the adoption process of PMTT in your organisation. 4 This framework can be adopted as an approach that could address the concern in construction industry. 5 This framework addresses the issue of politicing in private construction organisations. 6 This framework addresses the issue of organisational culture in your organisation which is considered as one of the key factors influencing the adoption of the PMTT in many construction companies. 7 This framework addresses the issue of economic factor in private construction organisation. 8 This framework addresses the issue of technological factor in private construction organisations. 9 The application of project management tools shown in this framework will assist as best practice in your organisation. 10 This framework will help to reduce the rate of project delay, failure and cost overrun in your organisation. 11 This framework will aid in facilitating the stakeholder satisfaction in private construction industry.

PMTT- Project Management Tools and techniques Open question 1. How can this framework be further improved?

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Appendix 14: Conceptual framework

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Appendix 15: Response from the participants

S/ 1 2 3 4 5 N Questions Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 This framework addresses the key ✓ challenges facing adoption of PMTT in the private construction organisations in Nigeria. 2 The elements in this framework reflect ✓ the current practice of using? PMTT in your Organisation. 3 The perceived need addresses your ✓ concern and can help in facilitating the adoption process of PMTT in your organisation. 4 This framework can be adopted as an ✓ approach that could address the concern in construction industry. 5 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ politicing in private construction organisations. 6 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ organisational culture in your organisation which is considered as one of the key factors influencing the adoption of the PMTT in many construction companies. 7 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ economic factor in private construction organisation. 8 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ technological factor in private construction organisations. 9 The application of project management ✓ tools shown in this framework will assist as best practice in your organisation. 10 This framework will help to reduce the ✓ rate of project delay, failure and cost overrun in your organisation. 11 This framework will aid in facilitating the ✓ stakeholder satisfaction in private construction industry.

PMTT- Project Management Tools and techniques Open question 2. How can this framework be further improved?

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In my experience as a Project officer, it is expensive for smaller construction industries to implement a PMTT. Adopting this PMTT framework would help this smaller industry in preventing project failure.

Appendix 16: Response from the participants

S/ 1 2 3 4 5 N Questions Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 This framework addresses the key ✓ challenges facing adoption of PMTT in the private construction organisations in Nigeria. 2 The elements in this framework reflect the ✓ current practice of using? PMTT in your Organisation. 3 The perceived need addresses your ✓ concern and can help in facilitating the adoption process of PMTT in your organisation. 4 This framework can be adopted as an ✓ approach that could address the concern in construction industry. 5 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ politicing in private construction organisations. 6 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ organisational culture in your organisation which is considered as one of the key factors influencing the adoption of the PMTT in many construction companies. 7 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ economic factor in private construction organisation. 8 This framework addresses the issue of ✓ technological factor in private construction organisations. 9 The application of project management ✓ tools shown in this framework will assist as best practice in your organisation. 10 This framework will help to reduce the ✓ rate of project delay, failure and cost overrun in your organisation. 11 This framework will aid in facilitating the ✓ stakeholder satisfaction in private construction industry.

PMTT- Project Management Tools and techniques Open question 3. How can this framework be further improved?

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Answer • Simplify your process and reporting template • Effective communicate of changes through proper training should be more • Improve advocacy and awareness.

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Appendix 17: Response from the participants

S/ 1 2 3 4 5 N Questions Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree

1 This framework addresses the key  challenges facing adoption of PMTT in the private construction organisations in Nigeria. 2 The elements in this framework reflect  the current practice of using? PMTT in your Organisation. 3 The perceived need addresses your  concern and can help in facilitating the adoption process of PMTT in your organisation. 4 This framework can be adopted as an  approach that could address the concern in construction industry. 5 This framework addresses the issue of  politicing in private construction organisations. 6 This framework addresses the issue of  organisational culture in your organisation which is considered as one of the key factors influencing the adoption of the PMTT in many construction companies. 7 This framework addresses the issue of  economic factor in private construction organisation. 8 This framework addresses the issue of  technological factor in private construction organisations. 9 The application of project management  tools shown in this framework will assist as best practice in your organisation. 10 This framework will help to reduce the  rate of project delay, failure and cost overrun in your organisation. 11 This framework will aid in facilitating the  stakeholder satisfaction in private construction industry.

PMTT- Project Management Tools and techniques Open question 1. How can this framework be further improved? The perceived needs as it is being called in this framework should be a single need for the entire organisation and should be grouped together for better clarification. Or

410 better still could be consider as response, solution or answer to the factors influencing the adoption of PMTT.

411