Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 39 (2009): 1–10

The Wajīhids of Oman

Ab d u l r a h m a n a l -Sa l i m i

Summary The downfall of the first Omani imamate in 280/885 represented the beginning of clashes betweenIbāΡī ideology and the emerging family dynasties in different Omani provinces. The dynastic rulers sought to abolish the imamate system in the country, which led to serious conflict between distinguished political families and IbāΡī scholars. Perhaps Wajīhid’s reign in the fourth/tenth century symbolizes this best. This important family’s rule of the country brought about fundamental changes in the areas of politics and commerce, which in turn has occupied the interest of many historians and archaeologists. This paper focuses on the emergence of the Wajīhid, their relations with Omani IbāΡīs, and the subsequent political and economical changes in Oman. Finally, the paper examines this development in relation to the centre of the caliphate in Baghdad, the Būyids and Qarmatians (Carmathians).

Keywords: first Omani imamate, IbāΡīs, Wajīhid, Qarmatians (Carmathians), coins

I The problem with the primary sources from Oman is that they are highly fragmentary, and neither they nor Records dealing with the history of Oman after the the classical sources supply much information about the downfall of the Omani imamate in 280/894 at the hands personalities involved. Fortunately, numismatic evidence, of the Abbasid commander MuΉammad b. Thūr provide much of it recent, has helped fill the lacunae in the last three only a fragmented picture of this time. Piecing together decades or so. Researchers have attempted to reconstruct the chronology of events that took place following that elements of this history, although the only person to have time requires consideration of a complex range of factors. made an attempt to synthesize it is Wilkinson in various There are three sets of sources that may be drawn upon: studies.2 a. Local Omani written sources The present paper attempts to bring together these b. Non-Omani written sources various sources in order to try and make sense of the c. Numismatic evidence1 complicated history of the period following the caliphate Attempting to reconstruct a chronology from the invasion. Three competing forces are intertwined: the standard Omani sources such as the historical chapters Abbasid caliphate based in Baghdad, the Qarmatians in of the Kashf al-Ghumma is problematic as these were al-Ihsā in eastern Arabia, and the Сāffarids and then the composed long after the events took place, and there is Būyids in Persia. Understanding the relationship between little which deals specifically with the historical narrative those involved in Omani overseas trade and the principles of events. However, some relevant material is available of the IbāΡī Κulamā who preserved the traditions of the in works of jurisprudence (fiqh) and the epistolary (siyar) imamate is also an important theme in explaining the literature. Yet non-Omani sources such as Ibn al-Athīr dynamics and major events of the period. and Ibn Khaldūn, and some classical Arab geographers Ibn Khaldūn and the Omani historians point out that indicate that the fourth/tenth century was a period of great following the defeat of the Omanis in 280/893 at the battle economic prosperity and architectural development, at of Damā (Sīb), MuΉammad b. Thūr shifted leadership least in the СuΉār area. The best attempt to reconstruct to MuΉammad b. al-Qāsim al-Sāmī of the Sāmids, who the history of the period is that which is contained in the were affiliated to the Quraysh (Ibn Khaldūn 1956, iv: TuΉfat al-Κayan by Nūr al-Dīn ΚAbd Allāh b. Дumayd al- 198; Ibn al-Mujāwir 1951–1954: 281, pl. 1; SirΉān 1874: Sālimī (d. 1914). 23–35).3 Ibn Khaldūn in his short account of Omani 2 Abdulrahman al-Salimi history provided a great deal of what historians who came al-MūΚthir al-Сalt b. Khamīs (d. 285/898) ordered that the after him relied upon. The most significant explorations houses of Qarmatians and their collaborators should be that proved that Сaffārids existed were the four monetary burnt down so that they may not return (IsmāΚī1 1984, pieces that were minted in Oman and which date back to i: 360). This incident most likely took place between the the years 290, 294, 295, and 298/910 (Darley 1990: 22; years 280–283/893–896. Yet the Qarmatian campaigns Williamson 1973: 22). The oldest coin that was minted did not cease but continued under Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī bears the name Кāhir b. MuΉammad b. ΚUmar b. al-Layth (273/886–301/913), and then under his son Abū al-Qāsim and the most recent bears the name al-Sabkarī, who SaΚīd b. Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī (301/913–305/917). The served the Сaffārids.4 In addition, the Omani historian biggest campaign took place during the time of Abū Кāhir al-ΚAwtabī deals with the events involving a certain al- Sulaymān b. Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī (305/917–332/944), Mahdī b. Sulaymān, who was appointed Emir of Hormūz, who took control over most of northern Oman with the and then his sons, on behalf of the Сaffārids (al-ΚAwtabī exception of СuΉār (al-Sālimī 1961, i: 269). 1984: 323). Clashes which took place between the Nizārī and There is, therefore, a link between the events. The Yemeni tribes of Oman benefited the invading forces. Сaffārids, whose main port was Sirāf, may have occupied The Nizāri tribes had long felt that they had been unjustly northern Oman in order to take control of the commercial treated by the Yemeni tribes, and so they called for a revolt maritime trade in the Gulf. After conquering the country, against them. The Yemeni tribes formed a confederation the Сaffārids might have made peace with its rulers the under the leadership of the Azd and with the support Samids, who were the deputies of the Abbasids. The most of the IbāΡī scholars in order to maintain Omani unity significant conflict, of course, was over the control of (Wilkinson 1987: 42). СuΉār, which was in competition with the port of Sirāf to attract the Indian Ocean trade. However, the classical II: Bahlā/al-ΚAtīk and AΉmad b. Hilāl geographical literature mentions that the Banū ΚUmara, who were descended from al-Julandā b. Karkar’s family, Both Omani and non-Omani historical sources indicate controlled those parts (al-Istakhrī 1870–1894: 85; Ibn that MuΉammad b. Thūr appointed AΉmad Hilāl and made Дawqal 1938–1939: 44). the town of Bahlā his base (SirΉān 1874: 24). AΉmad This discovery fills a time gap of almost a decade. subsequently appointed a person named BayΉara to the However, this was rarely considered in the Omani position of governor of Nizwah, although he was swiftly historical sources. Archaeological studies examining ousted and killed by the local population in 282/895. coinage give an important insight into relations between This allowed the IbāΡī scholars to appoint MuΉammad Persia and Oman at that time. The Sistan province b. al-Дasan al-Kharūsī as imam. However, he was where the Сaffārid’s state was centred, was one of the immediately removed from this position. Several imams most significant locations of the Kharijite revolts, which succeeded him, but were unable to lead the country with was the main motivating factors behind the Kharijite any measure of success (al-Sālimī 1961, i: 272; SirΉān separation from the Abbasids. The historical sources, 1874: 24). It is uncertain whether AΉmad b. Hilāl was of however, do not clarify the extent of Сaffārid relations Sāmid descent. If he was, then all he would have had to with Oman, but the end of their state in the early tenth do was maintain his strong position in the town of Izkī, century AD do not show any further development in such the stronghold of the Sāmid tribe. Another probability is relations ( Madelung 1988: 54–76; Van Ess 1992–1997, that he was from the al-ΚAtīk tribe, as he chose Bahlā as ii: 573–655). his base rather than Nizwah. Such rivalry occurred later Another important political force at the time was the among the Omani Azd during Nabhāni rule in Oman (al- Qarmatians who, according to the Omani sources, were the Salimi 2002: 259–268). It is increasingly probable that first foreign power with whom the Omanis clashed after AΉmad b. Hilāl belonged to or was somehow related to the collapse of the imamate. The political and ideological the tribe of Azd Oman in Basra, in view of the fact that reasons for this clash differ significantly from those that they were mostly from al-Atīk. However, he probably led to conflict with the Abbasids. The conflict between worked in the office of the royal court of the Abbasid the Omanis and the Qarmatians was due to the IsmāΚilī caliph al-Muqtadir bi-Allāh as a kātib (clerk) (Yāqūt ideology of the Qarmatians and the close proximity of 1936, viii: 86). Thus, AΉmad might have been appointed Oman to the Qarmatian state in eastern Arabia. The IbāΡī by al-Muqtadir to be his deputy in Oman. scholars faced an enormous challenge from them, and Abū The Wajīhids of Oman 3

The Omani historical sources conflict with the almost annually, and with no specific vision as far as their accounts of Ibn Khaldūn which deal with the issue political demands were concerned. Their activities were of whether it was the Sāmid family or AΉmad b. Hilāl restricted to the collection of taxes, which began under who controlled Oman at that time. However, the coins the leadership of Abū al-Qāsim (281–301/894–913) and discovered in Oman were dated to 300/912 and 305/917, then Abū Кāhir (301–305/913–917), who both altered and are marked with the name al-Muqtadir bi-Allāh their strategic perspective towards trade in the Gulf. The and the names AΉmad b. Khalīl and ΚAbd al- Дalīm/al- Abbasids allowed the Qarmatians to use the port of Sirāf Дatim b. Ibrāhīm, who were governors in Oman (Darley in 304/917 under the supervision of the Abbasid minister 1990: 25). This has led to some confusion as to who was ΚAlī b. ΚIsā, who was accused of making peace with the the actual governor of Oman appointed by the Abbasid Qarmatians and so was subsequently removed from his caliph. A coin minted in Oman which is kept in the Qatar post. This was followed by a Qarmatian attack on Basra in National Museum bears the name of AΉmad b. Hilāl. This the year 307/311, and Abū Кāhir claiming control of both suggests that three different governors ruled Oman at the Basra and al-Ahwāz (Ibn al-Athīr 1348–1349/1929–1930, same time, and the country was divided into provinces. It viii: 95, 112). AΉmad b. Hilāl succeeded in strengthening is reasonable to assume that AΉmad was the governor of his control of СuΉār by driving the Qarmatians out and Oman and tribal authority fell to the Sāmids. Therefore, I making it one of the main ports of the Islamic empire. believe that AΉmad b. Khalīl, ΚAbd al-Дalīm b. Ibrāhīm, This success continued until 315/927.5 This historical and ΚAbd al-Дātim b. Ibrāhīm were the governors of information was gleaned from recently discovered coins. northern Oman, which was controlled by the Сaffārids. On the other hand, in the mountain region of Oman Hence they minted currency bearing their names. the IbāΡī scholars successfully gained power following The prosperity of СuΉār strengthened AΉmad b. Hilāl’s a violent conflict between the schools of Rustāq and political position in his clash with the Qarmatians, who Nizwah. This took place under the auspices of the neutral were seeking to control the commercial sea ports in their cleric Nabhān b. ΚUthmān during the imamate of Abū al- political assent. Their role in the conflict inside Oman did Qāsim SaΚīd b. ΚAbd Allāh al-RuΉaylī who, according to not go beyond seeking sources of tax revenues. However, al-Sālimī (1380/1960, i: 292), was appointed in 320/932. this group confronted IbāΡī ideology, and some Omani This marked the beginning of a new era of solidarity tribes allied themselves with the Qarmatians. This led to not only among the scholars but also the warring tribes, violent clashes between the tribes, and raised a challenge following a conflict that extended over a period of about to any attempt to unite the Omani tribes (Miles 1966: forty years. 96–100). The Qarmatians were not capable of establishing a III political centre permanently in Oman, as their campaigns were infrequent and their sole aim was to collect zakāh. The end of the second decade of the fourth/tenth century They made the town of Tawām (now called Buraymī) saw the emergence of the pivotal personality in Oman of the centre of their operations in their campaigns to Yūsuf b. Wajīh. Many questions remain unanswered with establish alliances with the northern tribes. Solidarity respect to his background. Miles, for example, suggests between the tribes and the IbāΡī scholars by the end of that he was a Turkish soldier sent by the Abbasids, whereas the second decade of the third/ninth century prevented the Wilkinson believes that he had a direct relationship with Qarmatians from achieving their goals. The three forces the Qarmatians and that perhaps he came from Bahrain were present in Oman at the same time. One of these, the (Miles 1966: 102; Wilkinson, forthcoming).6 Researchers Abbasids, was concentrated in СuΉār and along the coast have taken a particular interest in this personality for two extending from Julfār (now RāΜs al-Khaymah) to Qalhāt. reasons: The second power was represented by the IbāΡī scholars 1. The recent discovery of relevant coins; of the interior, especially those residing in the towns of 2. The use of the phrases “Sayyid ΚUman” and the western Дajar mountains. The third was represented “SāΉib ΚUmān” (the Master of Oman) in the classical by the Caramathians, who were based in Tawām. historical sources dealing with Omani history in the During the time of Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī (273– fourth/tenth century. 281/886–894) it appears that the Qarmatians invaded the Al-Tanūkhī (d. 384/994) referred to an important interior region as far as Nizwah but quickly withdrew after relationship between Yūsuf b. Wajīh and AΉmad b. Hilāl in an internal revolt erupted. Their campaigns took place his Nishwār. He mentions that AΉmad b. Hilāl was Yūsuf 4 Abdulrahman al-Salimi b. Wajīh’s maternal uncle (al-Tanūkhī 1921–1922, i: 350; IV ii: 405–408). This relationship tells us something of his personality. It is reasonable to believe that Yūsuf b. Wajīh The first mention of Yūsuf b. Wajīh occurred during was a member of the Дaddān tribe of the Nizār, although the reign of Imam Abū al-Qāsim SaΚīd b. ΚAbd Allāh b. he was probably raised in Bahlā and succeeded AΉmad b. MuΉammad b. MaΉbūb al-RuΉaylī, the grandson of the Hilāl in СuΉār. This would have helped him to capture and last IbāΡī leader in Basra, who was appointed imam in extend his control of СuΉār after the death of his uncle. the year 320/932 (al-Sālimī 1380/1960, i: 275; Crone & According to the coins, AΉmad b. Hilāl was governor of Zimmermann 2001: 309–315). According to al-Sālimī, СuΉār from the year 314/926 and ΚAbd al-Дalīm b. Ibrāhīm this nomination led to clashes that began in Nizwah and was a governor in 316/928 (Darley 1990: 26; Bivar & then spread to the western mountain regions. The imam Stern 1958: 147–156). The suggestion can be made that subsequently occupied Rustāq and the surrounding ΚAbd al- Дalīm was an Abbasid governor in the northern areas and a modus operandi was established. However, part of Oman, and that his base was centred in Dabā or relations between the two groups remained calm. Both Julfar. Many researchers have attempted to explain these groups worked together to repel the Qarmatians and end facts by placing the rule of these men in chronological their occupation of the areas they held. This region saw order. Other researchers believe that AΉmad b. Khalīl a flourishing of IbāΡī scholarship, especially through was in fact AΉmad b. Hilāl. However, these suggestions the efforts of notable scholars from Bahlā such as Abū cannot be accepted, as AΉmad b. Khalīl is only mentioned MuΉammad ΚAbd Allāh b. Baraka and Abū SaΚīd b. on the coins, while AΉmad b. Hilāl is only mentioned in MuΉammad b. SaΚīd al-Kudamī. Stability in relations the historical sources. Regarding Yūsuf b. Wajīh and his between the two groups brought about IbāΡī unity, and a family, the oldest coins show the following information: dissipation of individual tribal influences in the imamate 1. Yūsuf b. Wajīh 314–332/926–943 (on a number of (Wilkinson 1987: 166), despite the differences between coins). the schools of Ibn Baraka and al-Kudamī. 2. MuΉammad b. Yūsuf 333–335/944–946 (on two Among the most important priorities of Imam Abū al- coins). Qāsim was the restoration of Islamic rule. It is to be noted 3. ΚUmar b. Yūsuf 341–350/952–961 (on a number of that relations between Yūsuf b. Wajīh and Imam Abū al- coins) (Darley 1990: 26). Qāsim were calm. No clashes occurred until the imam The dates on these coins show that the Wajīhid was overthrown in 328/940 following heavy fighting dynasty began in 314–318/926–930, when Yūsuf b. between tribes during the uprising in Rustāq (al-Sālimī Wajīh managed to take control of СuΉār. This raises the 1380/1960, i: 277). Following those incidents, authority question as to whether ruling СuΉār meant absolute rule over the imamate was handed to Rāshid b. Walīd al- over Oman, or whether it entailed rule over only part of Kindī. It is believed that the Rustāq school may have the country. The IbāΡī scholars attempted to make the played an important role in this appointment. However, interior an independent entity through several revolts at clashes broke out between the newly appointed imam and different times (282–295/895–907). The scholars did not Yūsuf b. Wajīh, although the imam retained his authority succeed at that time in uniting the fragmented country, in Nizwah. The imam successfully occupied the towns especially as the confrontation was bilateral: the Abbasids on the north-western side of the mountains, but he lost in the coastal area and the Qarmatians in the interior. one of his ministers, Abū MuΉammad b. Abū al-MuΚthīr, Actual success in that respect was achieved through the who died during the battle of al-Ghashab in Rustāq. The development of IbāΡī ideology. The scholars continued imam’s authority was limited to the mountain areas and to focus on one target, which was independence. Hence, did not extend to the coastal region of the country. After the IbāΡī scholars appeared to be the driving force behind that time, messages were sent by Yūsuf b. Wajīh to the the movement for independence from outside powers, people of Bahlā, inciting them to oppose the imam. In even when the Дaddān tribes supported the Qarmatians. spite of the imam’s efforts to gain support from his own Abū SaΚīd al- Дaddānī was appointed imam by the family members, many of them joined the army of Yūsuf IbāΡī. However, he later changed his allegiance to the b. Wajīh. They moved from СuΉār to ΚIbrī in the Dhāhira Qarmatians, and then became known as Abū SaΚīd al- province, and later to Nizwah where they successfully Qarmatī (al-Sālimī 1380/1960, i: 268). occupied the city. The imam escaped following a crushing The Wajīhids of Oman 5 defeat. Some sources suggest that Yūsuf b. Wajīh restored captured Persia and its commercial ports, resulting in peace and stability to the area and, according to some the control of the Gulf maritime trade in al-Ibilla and Arab and Omani classical sources, Yūsuf b. Wajīh gained Basra as well as taking control of the caliphate centred in full power following the overthrow of the imam. They Baghdad. In the year 341/953, Ibn Wajīh set out with his describe Yūsuf’s power as extending from al-Ihsā to the naval fleet, with the Qarmatians going by land. However, Дajar mountains in Oman (SirΉān 1874: 25). Abū MuΉammad al-Muhallabī, the minister appointed by ΚAΡad al-Dawlah, took control of Basra and kept aloof V from Ibn Wajīh and his supporters. This event marked the end of the alliance between Yūsuf b. Wajīh and the Ibn Wajīh was aware of the power of the neighbouring Qarmatians, and he later died in Oman in 341/953. As Qarmatians, and he began a new phase of co-operation for the Qarmatians, the emergence of the Būyid Shiites with them. He understood the threat of the Qarmatians in Persia spelt the end of their commercial trade in the taking control of СuΉār and the coastal provinces, Gulf (Ibn al-Athīr 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 494; Ibn especially in view of the fact that the port’s growing Miskawayh 1914, ii: 46, 144). prosperity under Ibn Wajīh’s reign coincided with the Most information concerning the Wajīhids has been peak of Qarmatian power under the reign of Abū Кāhir obtained through recently discovered coins, and it is al-Qarmatī (305–332/917–944). Ibn Wajīh managed to therefore difficult to provide an accurate chronology of take control of the maritime trade in СuΉār, and remove the dynasty. Many researchers are puzzled by the question the threat of the Qarmatians through peaceful diplomacy. of who was the successor of Ibn Wajīh. It is this question This was at a time when the Gulf trade in Sīrāf was not we seek to answer. Most researchers mention his son controlled by the Qarmatians so that they attempted to MuΉammad b. Yūsuf as his successor because of the coins master it through СuΉār (Lewis 1978: 13; Lowick 1974: minted in his name. However, it appears that mentioned 231; Wilkinson 1979b). Pursuing this policy weakened that in the year 331/942, following Yūsuf b. Wajīh’s Qarmatian power to the extent that they remained under campaign in Basra his servant NāfiΚ rebelled against him Bedouin tribal power in one part of the Arabian Desert, and and took control of Oman. This may have been carried they could not extend beyond that point. The Qarmatians out on behalf of Ibn Wajīh’s son, MuΉammad b. Yūsuf, were at loggerheads with the Fatimids, who distanced and he could have minted the coins in his name. This may the Qarmatians from their supporters, the IsmāΚilīs. The have led to a division of authority between Yūsuf b. Wajīh Shiite renaissance in Persia under the Būyids was another and his son MuΉammad. We have discovered further factor in this conflict. evidence on a coin which dates from between the reign The presence of Ibn Wajīh in the interior of Oman and of Yūsuf b. Wajīh and his son MuΉammad. This coin was in the mountain regions did not prevent the Qarmatians minted in the year 332/943 and has on one side the names from trying to impose taxes. However, he desisted from MuΉammad b. Yūsuf at the top and Yūsuf b. Wajīh below initiating conflict as a result of IbāΡī influence. This is (Darley 1990: 26). It seems that following MuΉammad’s evident by the fact that according to recently discovered revolt against his father, they may have agreed to share coins, Yūsuf b. Wajīh maintained his loyalty to the the rule of the country together. Abbasids (Darley 1990: 26; Bivar & Stern 1958: 147–156). This situation continued for ten years, although However, it appears that there was a misunderstanding MuΉammad died before Ibn Wajīh’s second campaign between Ibn Wajīh and the Abbasid minister ΚAlī b. in Basra. Therefore, it is possible that his second son, Muqla that led to conflict (Ibn Miskawayh 1921, i: ΚUmar b. Yūsuf, came to power after his death, as shown 323). Following this, Ibn Wajīh refused to obey the state on the coins starting from the year 341/952, when Yūsuf authorities. His popularity, however, was recognized b. Wajīh died. It was mentioned in Kitāb biyān al-sharΚ through two prominent events that took place during his that in this year tensions broke out in Oman (al-Sālimī attempts to occupy Basra. The first was in 331/942 when 1960, i: 286). Yet, during the reign of ΚUmar b. Yūsuf, the Barīdīs attempted to manipulate and monopolize the it seems that another chapter was opened in relations Gulf trade by raising fees and taxes on commodities in between Oman and Baghdad, as is apparent when NāfiΚ Basra. He launched a campaign that almost succeeded was appointed by ΚUmar b. Yūsuf to be minister and — but eventually failed — and ultimately resulted in commander of his army (Ibn al-Athīr 1348–1349/1929– the destruction of his fleet. The second was during his 1930, viii: 597). In view of this, NāfiΚ broke off his alliance with the Qarmatians against the Būyids, who alliance with the Qarmatians and announced that he 6 Abdulrahman al-Salimi was joining a new power, the Būyids. Apparently, the thus a gap in the historical record from the beginning of Qarmatians tried to fill the gap following the death of Būyid interference to the conflict between the Qarmatians Yūsuf b. Wajīh by occupying Oman, but ΚUmar b. Yūsuf and the Omani tribes. The reign of Yūsuf b. Wajīh saw managed to stabilize the situation and take control of great economic prosperity in Oman and occurred at Oman’s maritime trade during his rule. Accordingly, no a time when maritime trade in the Indian Ocean was Wajīhid coins were minted after 350/961. flourishing. This allowed him to take control of СuΉār, ΚUmar b. Yusuf was assassinated in 352/962 by NāfiΚ strengthen his authority, and consolidate his control of the because of his alliance with the Būyids. Following this, Omani coast as well as the Nizārī tribes who supported the Būyid ruler MuΚizz al-Dawlah sent his Minister Abū him. The vast area extending from the Дaddān Mountains MuΉammad al-Muhallabī to conquer Oman in 352/963, to the Buraymī oasis came under his authority, thereby but al-Muhallabī fell sick at sea and died. As a result, surrounding and isolating the interior region. Despite the campaign failed. MuΚizz al-Dawlah subsequently the split which formed between the Yamānī tribes and resumed his campaign, sending his admiral Kardak al- the alliances with the IbāΡī scholars against Yūsuf b. Naqīb in 354/965, who successfully conquered Oman. Wajīh, he refused to get involved and concentrated on NāfiΚ was then appointed governor of Oman by MuΚizz consolidating his commercial control in the area. To date, al-Dawlah, and Ibn al-Athīr states that NāfiΚ minted coins there is no historical trace of that period except in the in Oman which bore the name MuΚizz al-Dawlah. From coins that were minted during his time. that time, the circulation of the dirham and dinār in Oman was authorized by the Būyids. It appears that the year VI 354/965 marked the end of the Wajīhid state in Oman and the beginning of Būyid control. However, Būyid control Ibn Athīr describes the history of the Būyids in Oman did not last long. Ibn al-Athīr reported that in 354/965 in great detail. He mentions that the escape of NāfiΚ to the Omanis revolted against NāfiΚ and expelled him. MuΚizz al-Dawlah in the year 355/965 was at a time when According to Ibn Athīr, a successful revolt took place in СuΉār was experiencing conflict between the Omanis who СuΉār through an alliance between the Omanis and the broke away from supporters of the Qarmatians, the tribes Qarmatians. In view of this, al-Nawkānī, who was one who revolted against them, and the remnants of the Būyid of the wealthiest traders at that time, was appointed to army (Ibn al-Athīr 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 564). be their king. However, his reign did not last long, as The Zinj army, who were commanded by the Qarmatians, MuΚizz al-Dawlah threatened al-Nawkānī from one side supported ΚAlī b. AΉmad al-Kātib. ΚAlī was able to mint and the Omanis revolted against him on the other. Fearing the coins imprinted with the Qarmatian name, and recently the consequences of this situation, al-Nawkānī fled from a dinar was discovered which was minted in Oman Oman to Baghdad. On his way to Baghdad he was stopped bearing the name ΚAlī b. AΉmad on one side and al-MutīΚ by the Būyid commander Kardak al-Naqīb in the Gulf, Lillah al-Sayyid on the other (Darley 1990: 26). Indeed, and was ordered to be drowned. Kardak took possession ΚAlī b. AΉmad was an assistant to the Qarmatians, and of his property and submitted it to MuΚizz al-Dawlah commanded their army. He was able to take control of the (al-Tanūkhī 1921–1922, i: 347–348). It appears that al- country despite the fact that the IbāΡī scholars preferred to Nawkāni’s appointment was helped by the Qarmatians, support the Būyids. Subsequently, the Omanis appointed who sent a platoon of soldiers. The Omanis grouped a Būyid army officer called Ibn Кaghān, although Ibn together to deter them, killing many of them and breaking Кaghān was assassinated shortly thereafter. The СuΉāris the morale of the survivors. then elected ΚAbd al-Wahhāb b. AΉmad b. Marwān, Referring to the Kitāb bayān al-sharΚ, Nūr al-Dīn al- who tried to bring about an accord between the various Sālimī remarked that the imamate of Rāshid b. al-Walīd parties. However, he did not succeed due to his political ended in the year 342/953, and that this new rule by weakness. The Qarmatian representative ΚAlī b. AΉmad ruthless leaders marked the end of the imamate in Oman suddenly had the opportunity to regain power and made (al-Sālimī 1380 1960, i: 286). It is our opinion that the an alliance with the Zinj army, which became his military imamate of Rāshid b. al-Walīd probably lasted only a few force (Ibn Miskawayh 1921, ii: 217, 232; Ibn al-Athīr years. His rule was quickly weakened and his imamate 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 567). ended in 332/943. However, these political developments changed Yūsuf b. Wajīh died in the year 342/953, and this very quickly as a result of interference from MuΚizz al- marked the end of the Wajīhid state in Oman. There is Dawlah, who wanted to bring about a final solution to The Wajīhids of Oman 7 the situation with regard to the Būyid state in 355/965. MuΓahhar b. ΚAbd Allāh in 363/973, and as a result of the To this end he despatched a fleet under the command defeat, Imam ДafΒ escaped to Yemen. A new phase under of Abū al-Faraj MuΉammad b. ΚAbbās and with the the Būyids started in Oman and lasted for about a century assistance of his uncle ΚAΡad al-Dawlah (Ibn al-Athīr (Ibn al-Athīr 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 645). 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 567). Abū al-Faraj managed The following is a suggested chronology of Wajīhid to conquer Oman, and remained ruler until the death of rule in Oman: MuΚizz al-Dawlah in 356/966. Abū al-Faraj subsequently AΉmad b. Hilāl c. 285–317/898–929 appointed his assistant ΚUmar b. Nabhān al- КāΚī, but he Yūsuf b. Wajīh 314–341/926–952 did not rule for very long as the Qarmatians managed to MuΉammad b. Yūsuf 331–340/942–951 kill him. Thus, they regained control with the help of their ΚUmar b. Yūsuf 341–354/952–965 Zinj soldiers and installed an emir, who was known as Ibn Дallāj (1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 567). As far as the Omanis of the interior are concerned, they appointed Imam ДafΒ b. Rāshid, who supported the Rustāq school (al-Sālimī 1380/1960, i: 286). There was Notes an obligation on the imam to defend the independence of the interior. However, ΚAΡad al-Dawlah ordered 1 For a discussion of Omani numismatics, see Darley the mobilization of the army from Kirmān under the 1990. command of Abū Дarb b. Кaghān in 362/972. Ibn Кaghān 2 See also Wilkinson 1976; 1978; 1979a. divided his army into two groups: one group landing in 3 Banū Sāma/Samid was the main Nizār tribe in the Julfar, and the other, his fleet, in СuΉār. There, he defeated interior of Oman, which led the Nizāri tribes in the Qarmatians and pursued them to Buraymī, which was the civil war (275–280/888–893). See also Rex G. their stronghold and was a connecting point between Al- Smith’s new translation of Ibn al-Mujāwir’s Tārīkh Ihsā and Oman. The fleet finally expelled the Qarmatians al-mustabΒir (2008). from Oman (Ibn Miskawayh 1921, ii: 217, 232; Ibn al- 4 See Bosworth 1996: 172 on the Сaffārids. Athīr 1348–1349/1929–1930, viii: 575). 5 For further information about the Qarmatians, see The Omanis managed to defeat the Būyids, capture all Madelung 1995. of the coastal areas, and reappoint Imam ДafΒ b. Rāshid. 6 Wilkinson also believed this to be the case when I ΚAΡad al-Dawlah sent an army under the command of al- discussed it with him.

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Author’s address Abdulrahman al-Salimi, P.O. Box 4, P .C 421, Bidiya, Sultanate of Oman. e-mail [email protected]