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The Wajīhids of Oman

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The Wajīhids of Oman Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 39 (2009): 1–10 The Wajīhids of Oman ABDULR A HM A N A L -SA LIMI Summary The downfall of the first Omani imamate in 280/885 represented the beginning of clashes betweenIbāΡī ideology and the emerging family dynasties in different Omani provinces. The dynastic rulers sought to abolish the imamate system in the country, which led to serious conflict between distinguished political families and IbāΡī scholars. Perhaps Wajīhid’s reign in the fourth/tenth century symbolizes this best. This important family’s rule of the country brought about fundamental changes in the areas of politics and commerce, which in turn has occupied the interest of many historians and archaeologists. This paper focuses on the emergence of the Wajīhid, their relations with Omani IbāΡīs, and the subsequent political and economical changes in Oman. Finally, the paper examines this development in relation to the centre of the caliphate in Baghdad, the Būyids and Qarmatians (Carmathians). Keywords: first Omani imamate, IbāΡīs, Wajīhid, Qarmatians (Carmathians), coins I The problem with the primary sources from Oman is that they are highly fragmentary, and neither they nor Records dealing with the history of Oman after the the classical sources supply much information about the downfall of the Omani imamate in 280/894 at the hands personalities involved. Fortunately, numismatic evidence, of the Abbasid commander MuΉammad b. Thūr provide much of it recent, has helped fill the lacunae in the last three only a fragmented picture of this time. Piecing together decades or so. Researchers have attempted to reconstruct the chronology of events that took place following that elements of this history, although the only person to have time requires consideration of a complex range of factors. made an attempt to synthesize it is Wilkinson in various There are three sets of sources that may be drawn upon: studies.2 a. Local Omani written sources The present paper attempts to bring together these b. Non-Omani written sources various sources in order to try and make sense of the c. Numismatic evidence1 complicated history of the period following the caliphate Attempting to reconstruct a chronology from the invasion. Three competing forces are intertwined: the standard Omani sources such as the historical chapters Abbasid caliphate based in Baghdad, the Qarmatians in of the Kashf al-Ghumma is problematic as these were al-Ihsā in eastern Arabia, and the Сāffarids and then the composed long after the events took place, and there is Būyids in Persia. Understanding the relationship between little which deals specifically with the historical narrative those involved in Omani overseas trade and the principles of events. However, some relevant material is available of the IbāΡī Κulamā who preserved the traditions of the in works of jurisprudence (fiqh) and the epistolary (siyar) imamate is also an important theme in explaining the literature. Yet non-Omani sources such as Ibn al-Athīr dynamics and major events of the period. and Ibn Khaldūn, and some classical Arab geographers Ibn Khaldūn and the Omani historians point out that indicate that the fourth/tenth century was a period of great following the defeat of the Omanis in 280/893 at the battle economic prosperity and architectural development, at of Damā (Sīb), MuΉammad b. Thūr shifted leadership least in the СuΉār area. The best attempt to reconstruct to MuΉammad b. al-Qāsim al-Sāmī of the Sāmids, who the history of the period is that which is contained in the were affiliated to the Quraysh (Ibn Khaldūn 1956, iv: TuΉfat al-Κayan by Nūr al-Dīn ΚAbd Allāh b. Дumayd al- 198; Ibn al-Mujāwir 1951–1954: 281, pl. 1; SirΉān 1874: Sālimī (d. 1914). 23–35).3 Ibn Khaldūn in his short account of Omani 2 Abdulrahman al-Salimi history provided a great deal of what historians who came al-MūΚthir al-Сalt b. Khamīs (d. 285/898) ordered that the after him relied upon. The most significant explorations houses of Qarmatians and their collaborators should be that proved that Сaffārids existed were the four monetary burnt down so that they may not return (IsmāΚī1 1984, pieces that were minted in Oman and which date back to i: 360). This incident most likely took place between the the years 290, 294, 295, and 298/910 (Darley 1990: 22; years 280–283/893–896. Yet the Qarmatian campaigns Williamson 1973: 22). The oldest coin that was minted did not cease but continued under Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī bears the name Кāhir b. MuΉammad b. ΚUmar b. al-Layth (273/886–301/913), and then under his son Abū al-Qāsim and the most recent bears the name al-Sabkarī, who SaΚīd b. Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī (301/913–305/917). The served the Сaffārids.4 In addition, the Omani historian biggest campaign took place during the time of Abū Кāhir al-ΚAwtabī deals with the events involving a certain al- Sulaymān b. Abū SaΚīd al-Jannābī (305/917–332/944), Mahdī b. Sulaymān, who was appointed Emir of Hormūz, who took control over most of northern Oman with the and then his sons, on behalf of the Сaffārids (al-ΚAwtabī exception of СuΉār (al-Sālimī 1961, i: 269). 1984: 323). Clashes which took place between the Nizārī and There is, therefore, a link between the events. The Yemeni tribes of Oman benefited the invading forces. Сaffārids, whose main port was Sirāf, may have occupied The Nizāri tribes had long felt that they had been unjustly northern Oman in order to take control of the commercial treated by the Yemeni tribes, and so they called for a revolt maritime trade in the Gulf. After conquering the country, against them. The Yemeni tribes formed a confederation the Сaffārids might have made peace with its rulers the under the leadership of the Azd and with the support Samids, who were the deputies of the Abbasids. The most of the IbāΡī scholars in order to maintain Omani unity significant conflict, of course, was over the control of (Wilkinson 1987: 42). СuΉār, which was in competition with the port of Sirāf to attract the Indian Ocean trade. However, the classical II: Bahlā/al-ΚAtīk and AΉmad b. Hilāl geographical literature mentions that the Banū ΚUmara, who were descended from al-Julandā b. Karkar’s family, Both Omani and non-Omani historical sources indicate controlled those parts (al-Istakhrī 1870–1894: 85; Ibn that MuΉammad b. Thūr appointed AΉmad Hilāl and made Дawqal 1938–1939: 44). the town of Bahlā his base (SirΉān 1874: 24). AΉmad This discovery fills a time gap of almost a decade. subsequently appointed a person named BayΉara to the However, this was rarely considered in the Omani position of governor of Nizwah, although he was swiftly historical sources. Archaeological studies examining ousted and killed by the local population in 282/895. coinage give an important insight into relations between This allowed the IbāΡī scholars to appoint MuΉammad Persia and Oman at that time. The Sistan province b. al-Дasan al-Kharūsī as imam. However, he was where the Сaffārid’s state was centred, was one of the immediately removed from this position. Several imams most significant locations of the Kharijite revolts, which succeeded him, but were unable to lead the country with was the main motivating factors behind the Kharijite any measure of success (al-Sālimī 1961, i: 272; SirΉān separation from the Abbasids. The historical sources, 1874: 24). It is uncertain whether AΉmad b. Hilāl was of however, do not clarify the extent of Сaffārid relations Sāmid descent. If he was, then all he would have had to with Oman, but the end of their state in the early tenth do was maintain his strong position in the town of Izkī, century AD do not show any further development in such the stronghold of the Sāmid tribe. Another probability is relations ( Madelung 1988: 54–76; Van Ess 1992–1997, that he was from the al-ΚAtīk tribe, as he chose Bahlā as ii: 573–655). his base rather than Nizwah. Such rivalry occurred later Another important political force at the time was the among the Omani Azd during Nabhāni rule in Oman (al- Qarmatians who, according to the Omani sources, were the Salimi 2002: 259–268). It is increasingly probable that first foreign power with whom the Omanis clashed after AΉmad b. Hilāl belonged to or was somehow related to the collapse of the imamate. The political and ideological the tribe of Azd Oman in Basra, in view of the fact that reasons for this clash differ significantly from those that they were mostly from al-Atīk. However, he probably led to conflict with the Abbasids. The conflict between worked in the office of the royal court of the Abbasid the Omanis and the Qarmatians was due to the IsmāΚilī caliph al-Muqtadir bi-Allāh as a kātib (clerk) (Yāqūt ideology of the Qarmatians and the close proximity of 1936, viii: 86). Thus, AΉmad might have been appointed Oman to the Qarmatian state in eastern Arabia. The IbāΡī by al-Muqtadir to be his deputy in Oman. scholars faced an enormous challenge from them, and Abū The Wajīhids of Oman 3 The Omani historical sources conflict with the almost annually, and with no specific vision as far as their accounts of Ibn Khaldūn which deal with the issue political demands were concerned. Their activities were of whether it was the Sāmid family or AΉmad b. Hilāl restricted to the collection of taxes, which began under who controlled Oman at that time. However, the coins the leadership of Abū al-Qāsim (281–301/894–913) and discovered in Oman were dated to 300/912 and 305/917, then Abū Кāhir (301–305/913–917), who both altered and are marked with the name al-Muqtadir bi-Allāh their strategic perspective towards trade in the Gulf.
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