Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

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Cytotoxicity of 91 Kenyan indigenous medicinal plants towards human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells

Leonidah K. Omosa a,c,n, Jacob O. Midiwo a, Veronica M. Masila a, Boniface M. Gisacho a, Renee Munayi a, Francisca-Kamakama a, Kitur Phylis Chemutai b, Gihan Elhaboob e, Mohamed E.M. Saeed c, Sami Hamdoun c, Victor Kuete c,d, Thomas Efferth c,n a Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya b Department of Chemistry, Kisii University, P. O. Box 408-40200, Kisii, Kenya c Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128 Mainz, Germany d Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon e Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, P. O. Box 321-11115, Khartoum, Sudan article info abstract

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Plants from Kenyan flora are traditionally used against many ailments, Received 5 August 2015 including cancer and related diseases. Cancer is characterized as a condition with complex signs and Received in revised form symptoms. Recently there are recommendations that ethnopharmacological usages such as immune and 19 December 2015 skin disorders, inflammatory, infectious, parasitic and viral diseases should be taken into account when Accepted 20 December 2015 selecting plants that treat cancer. Available online 22 December 2015 Aim: The present study was aimed at investigating the cytotoxicity of a plethora of 145 plant parts from Keywords: 91 medicinal plants, most of which are used in the management of cancer and related diseases by dif- Albizia schimperiana ferent communities in Kenya, against CCRF-CEM leukemia cell line. Solanum aculeastrum Materials and methods: Extracts from different plant parts (leaves, stems, stem bark, roots, root barks, Cancer aerial parts and whole herb) were obtained by cold percolation using different solvent systems, such as Kenyan flora Leukemia (1:1 v/v) dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) and n-hexane (1), methanol (MeOH) and CH2Cl2 (2); neat MeOH (3), Traditional medicine 5% H2O in MeOH (4) and with ethanol (EtOH, 5); their cytotoxicities were determined using the resazurin reduction assay against CCRF-CEM cells. Results: At a single concentration of 10 μg/mL, 12 out of 145 extracts exhibited more than 50% cell in- hibition. These include samples from the root bark of Erythrina sacleuxii (extracted with 50%

n-hexane-CH2Cl2), the leaves of Albizia gummifera, and Strychnos usambarensis, the stem bark of Zan- thoxylum gilletii, Bridelia micrantha, Croton sylvaticus, and Albizia schimperiana; the root bark of Erythrina

burttii and E. sacleuxii (extracted with 50% CH2Cl2–MeOH), the stem bark of B. micrantha and Z. gilletii (extracted using 5% MeOH–H2O) and from the berries of Solanum aculeastrum (extracted with neat EtOH). The EtOH extract of the berries of S. aculeastrum and A. schimperiana stem bark extract displayed

the highest cytotoxicity towards leukemia CCRF-CEM cells, with IC50 values of 1.36 and 2.97 mg/mL, re- spectively. Other extracts having good activities included the extracts of the stem barks of Z. gilletii and B.

micrantha and leaves of S. usambarensis with IC50 values of 9.04, 9.43 and 11.09 mg/mL, respectively. Conclusions: The results of this study provided information related to the possible use of some Kenyam medicinal plants, and mostly S. aculeastrum, A. schimperiana, C. sylvaticus, Z. gilletii, B. micrantha and S. usambarensis in the treatment of leukemia. The reported data helped to authenticate the claimed tra- ditional use of these plants. However, most plants are used in combination as traditional herbal con- coctions. Hence, the cytotoxicity of corresponding plant combinations should be tested in vitro to au- thenticate the traditional medical practitioners actual practices. & 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

n Corresponding authors. The use of herbal medicine to manage various ailments is a E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L.K. Omosa), common practice in developing countries, where most people [email protected] (T. Efferth). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.12.028 0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. 178 L.K. Omosa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196 depend on herbal drugs as the major form of treatment. Although studied as alternative cancer therapies. cancers have been managed with herbal drugs as practiced in The traditional use of all plants investigated in the present traditional medicine, there is very little scientific evidence on the study is complied in Table S1 with special emphasis on the efficacy of such herbs, since ethno-medical knowledge is normally treatment of cancer and cancer-related symptoms. The four plants, held in secrecy by traditional herbalists, making it difficult to which showed the highest cytotoxic activity and S. usambarensis conduct any scientific investigations. It is therefore imperative to are exemplarily described in more detail in the following conduct biological assays on such herbs to establish their phar- paragraphs. macological efficacy and also possible toxic side effects. This strategy may also unveil novel bioactive molecules with anti- 1.1. Zanthoxylum gilletii cancer potential. The global burden for cancer has increased phenomenally in Plants of this genus are used in Kenya to manage a number of recent times and there was an estimated 14.1 million new cases of ailments including cancer and related diseases. The stem bark of cancer in the world in 2012 (Ferlay et al., 2013). It was just recently this plant is used to manage skin cancer (Ochwangi et al., 2014) that the cancer burden in Africa came into the center of scientific and for reducing high blood pressure and coughs (Namukobe interest (Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration, 2015). The et al., 2011); the bark is chewed for treatment of stomach ache and development of drug resistance remains a major obstacle hinder- toothache, joint pains, fever, rheumatism, sexually transmitted ing successful cancer chemotherapy (Efferth et al., 2008, 2010; infections (STI) and for washing wounds (Kokwaro, 1993); the Kadioglu et al., 2015; Kuete and Efferth, 2015). These challenges leaves are also used to ease coughs and are effective on gonorrhea among others have aggravated the continuous search for novel and bilharzia (Gaya et al., 2013). This plant has only been evaluated anticancer drugs. Natural sources of anticancer drugs, such as for its antimalarial activity (Nkunya et al., 1990), however, this is paclitaxel (Taxus brevifolia) and Vinca alkaloids (periwinkle plant, the first report of its anticancer activity. The compounds that have Catharanthus roseus) are examples for the value of traditionally been isolated from different parts of this plant that are most used plants for modern drug development (Takimoto and Calvo, probably responsible for its bioactivities include; coantins alka- 2008). Previous studies have shown that extracts of African plants loids, aromatic and aliphatic amides, sterols and phenylpropa- exhibited interesting cytotoxicity against sensitive (Choumessi noids-lignans and coumarins, xanthophylls, phenolic acids, sapo- et al., 2012a, 2012b; Dzoyem et al., 2013; Kuete et al., 2014a) and nins, hydroxycinnamic acids (Adesina, 2005; Islam and Ahsan, drug-resistant cell lines (Kuete et al., 2011, 2014b, 2014c; 2015a; 1997). 2015b). Plant extracts consisting of complex concoctions of com- pounds display more than one mechanisms of action on several 1.2. Strychnos usambarensis targets and therefore might be better treatment options than synthetic drugs, because multifactorial activities may decrease the The roots and leaves of S. usambarensis have antitumoral probability of emergence of resistant tumor clones (Efferth and properties (Bassleer et al., 1982) and are used as arrow poison Koch, 2011). (Bassleer et al., 1982). Different plant parts have shown strong In Kenya, the cancer burden for the entire country is unclear; activity against P. falciparum (Wright et al., 1991; Frederich et al., however, most practicing physicians have reported an increase in 2004; Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim, 2008a, 2008b); have anti- cancer cases among patients visiting local health facilities (Mutu- amoebic (Wright et al., 1991) due to the presence of alkaloids ma and Rugutt, 2006). Surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy (Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim, 2008a, 2008b; Wright et al., 1991). remain gold standards in effective cancer management. However, This is the first report of the cytotoxic effects of the leaf extracts the development of chemo- and radio-resistance could be a major (50% MeOH in CH2Cl2) of this plant. factor for high relapse rates and mortality. Furthermore, it is dif- S. aculeastrum different parts of S. aculeastrum are used to ficult for scientifically untrained traditional practitioners to diag- manage various ailments; the root bark, leaves and fruits are used nose cancer. Recently, there are recommendations that the eth- to treat skin and cervical cancer (Ochwangi et al., 2014; Madhuri nopharmacological use of plants for immune and skin disorders, and Pandey, 2009; Koduru et al., 2006) the root bark is used used inflammatory, infectious, parasitic and viral diseases should be for sexually transmitted bacterial diseases including gonorrhea taken into account, when selecting plants used to treat cancer, and the berries to treat treating jigger infestations as well as acne since these reflect disease states may bear relevance to cancer or a (Agnew and Agnew, 1994; Kokwaro, 1993). The plant has been cancer symptoms (Cordell et al., 1991; Popoca et al., 1998) studied for its antitumor activity (Koduru et al., 2006); mollusci- To date, a lot of progress has been made towards the discovery cidal (Mkoji et al., 1989; Wanyonyi et al., 2003) and antimicrobial of effective anticancer drugs. This has involved the use of high activities (Wanyonyi et al., 2003; Koduru et al., 2006; Steenkamp through put technology such as computer-aided drug design but et al., 2007). The activitities of different parts of this plant could be so far, screening of natural products has proved to be more pro- due to the presence of steroidal alkaloid glycosides (Wanyonyi mising (Kuete et al., 2015b). African flora has the potential to fight et al., 2002, 2003) and saponins (Wanyonyi et al., 2002) char- multidrug resistance of cancer (Kuete and Efferth, 2015). acterized from these plant. Kenya has a rich biodiversity and rich folklore on use of med- icinal plant for the treatment of various ailments including cancer, 1.3. Albizia schimperiana which has been well documented (Glover, 1996; Kaendi, 1997; Lindsay and Hepper, 1978; Maundu and Tengnäs, 2005; Kokwaro, A. schimperiana is used extensively in Eastern Africa to manage 2009). Approximately 80% of Kenya's population especially in rural a number of ailments. The roots are used to treat headache areas use traditional medicine for primary health care. This is (Kokwaro, 1976), cure skin diseases and other pains (Kokwaro, partly due to low coverage of conventional primary health care 1993), drunk to treat pneumonia, tuberculosis, infertility of wo- facilities and other socio-economic factors such as cost of con- men and as an aphrodisiac (Bekele-Tesemma et al., 1993). The ventional medicines and flexible modes of payment for services of stem bark is used to treat cancer related diseases as warts (Kok- traditional practitioners. However, traditional medicine practice waro, 1976; Thulin et al., 1989). The leaves and bark to manage faces challenges such as quality of preparation, standardization, ulcerative lymphangitis, colic, myiasis in animals (Tamiru et al., and unconfirmed safety profiles. Although many herbal remedies 2013) and the bark is used to treat malaria (Burkill, 1995; Beentje, lay claim to anticancer effects, only a few have substantially been 1994). Previous studies has shown that this plant elaborates L.K. Omosa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196 179 antimicrobial (Chhabra et al., 1981; Tariku, 2008; Samoylenko waivers that have been developed in these countries to cover the et al., 2009; Orwa et al., 2009); anthelmintic (Tariku, 2008; Eguale high expenses incurred in cancer treatment using the high-tech et al., 2011); antitrypanosomal (Cao et al., 2007); in vitro trypa- drugs. It is therefore imperative to develop novel and alternative nocidal (Eguale et al., 2011); in vivo anti-trypanosomal activities treatment strategies to address these challenges that are leading to (Tesfaye et al., 2015) and antiparasitic and cytotoxicity (Cao et al., increasing cancer incidences and deaths especially from these 2007; Shugeng et al., 2007; Samoylenko et al., 2009); mainly at- countries. The purpose of the present study, was to establish the tributed to the presence of Spermine alkaloids (budmunchia- anti-leukemic potential of 145 extracts of 91 plants derived from mines) and triterpenes (Endale et al., 1998; Eguale et al., 2006a, Kenyan flora, preferably using human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells.

2006b). Minimum cytotoxic effect were experienced by the CH2Cl2 Most of the investigated plants are used in indigenous medicine by and MeOH extracts of the leaves of A. schimperiana with IC50 va- different communities in Eastern Africa to manage cancer and lues of 225.6 and 184.1 mg/mL, respectively, on HL-cells (Nibret and related ailments. However, to the best of our knowledge, no sci-

Wink, 2011). The stem bark (50% CH2Cl2 in MeOH) together with entific evidence is available on most of these plants regarding their the spermine alkaloids, the budmunchiamines, showed cytotoxic cytotoxic potential. effects against human cancer cells (Samoylenko et al., 2009).

1.4. Bridelia micrantha 2. Materials and methods

Virtually, all parts of B. micrantha, that is, the stem bark, roots 2.1. Plant material and leaves are used to manage cervical, breast, skin colorectal cancer (Ochwangi et al., 2014); the bark is used to bring full-term The plant parts (leaves, stems, stem bark, roots, root barks, prolonged pregnancy (Brikensha, 2011); to treat skin ailments aerial parts and whole herb) of 91 plants species, most of which (Okello et al., 2010); venereal diseases, stomach ache, tapeworms are used in the management of cancer and related diseases by and diarrhea in children (Kokwaro, 1993), dysentery (Hallam, different communities in Kenya (Table S1) were collected from 1979), pre-hepatic jaundice (Ssegawa and Kasenene, 2007); the different area in Kenya between August and September, 2014. The stem bark is used as an abortifacient (Arnold and Gulumian, 1984; plants were identified by a taxonomist, Mr. Patrick Mutiso, from Van Wyk and Nigel, 2000, Steenkamp, 2003), to treat gastro- the University of Nairobi Herbarium, School of Biological Sciences intestinal ailments, paralysis and painful joints (Lin et al., 2002), to (SBS) where voucher specimens are deposited (Table S1). The manage diabetes (Gbolade, 2009), as a remedy for severe epigas- traditional uses of these medicinal plants were established in tric pain, relief of headache and as purgative (Watt and Breyer- surveys carried out in earlier studies and by local traditional Brandwijk, 1962); bark and leaves are used for the treatment of medical practitioners as summarized in Table S1. syphilis (Ssegawa and Kasenene, 2007), the leaves are given to expel guinea worm (Abo et al., 2008; Nwaehujor and Udeh, 2011), 2.2. Extraction as powerful purgative in cases of obstinate constipation and poi- soning (Koné and Atindehou, 2008), for sore eyes (Watt and The plant materials were air dried in the laboratory at room Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), for management of diabetes mellitus temperature for one week and milled into fine powder using an (Abo et al., 2008), used against malaria-related fevers (Watt and electric mill at the Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi. Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Mabogo, 1990) and the roots are used as a Five grams of the ground plant material were extracted with remedy for severe epigastric pain, relief of headache and as a 100 mL of five different solvent systems including a mixture purgative (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The following ac- (1:1 v/v) of n-hexane-dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) (1), CH2Cl2–me- tivities have been reported from this plant including hepatopro- thanol (MeOH) (2); neat MeOH (3), 5% MeOH–H2O (4) and with tective and antioxidant potentials (Nwaehujor and Udeh, 2011), ethanol (EtOH, 5). The crude extracts were obtained by filtering antimicrobial (Hamill et al., 2003; Green et al., 2011; Okeleye et al., the resultant solvent and evaporating it using a rotary evaporator 2011; Traoré et al., 2015), in vitro anti-helicobacter pylori (Okeleye in vacuo at reduced temperatures. The extracts were then con- et al., 2011), anticonvulsant and sedative (Bum et al., 2011; Bum served at 4 °C until further use. et al., 2012), anti-diarrheal (Lin et al., 2002), antiplasmodial Clarkson et al. (2004), antiviral (Bessong et al., 2006), anthelmintic 2.3. Cell line (Waterman et al., 2010), in vitro antiplasmodial activitities (Bapela et al., 2014) and weak cytotoxic activities (Ajaiyeoba et al., 2006). The human CCRF-CEM leukemia cell lines were maintained in The classes of chemical principles that have been reported from RPMI 1640 (Life Technologies) supplemented with 10% FCS in this plant previously include methyl salicylate (Ngueyem et al., humidified 5% CO2 atmosphere at 37 °C. All experiments were 2009), phenolic compounds (Pegel and Rogers, 1968), alkaloids, done with cells in the logarithmic growth phase. flavonoids, steroids, tannins and saponins (Okeleye et al., 2011). The current study was focused on leukemia, categorized as one 2.4. Resazurin growth inbibition assay of the ten most prevalent tumor types in Africa today (Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration, 2015), with limited and The in vitro response to drugs was evaluated by means of traditional treatment options. Furthermore, these leukemia cell growth inhibition resazurin reduction assay (O’Brien et al., 2000) lines were selected as test model cells due to their high sensitivity to assess the cytotoxicity of the test samples towards the human towards cytotoxic agents as compared to tumor cell lines derived drug sensitive cancer cell lines (CCRF-CEM). The assay is based on from solid tumor types. Using these cell lines, it is possible to reduction of the indicator dye, resazurin, to the highly fluorescent observe inhibition effects even from extracts with modest activ- resorufin by viable cells. Non-viable cells rapidly lose the meta- ities that could otherwise be deemed inactive with solid tumor bolic capacity to reduce resazurin and thus produce no fluorescent cells. The modern treatment options entailing the use of ther- signal. Briefly, the crude extracts were dissolved in dimethyl apeutic monoclonal antibodies and target-specific small molecule sulfoxide (DMSO) and diluted with RPMI medium to give an initial inhibitors pose considerable challenges in terms of accessibility concentration of 20 mg/mL of various extracts. To determine the and affordability to majority of the population in developing 50% inhibition from the dose response curves for most of the ex- countries. In addition, there are no proper medical policies or fee tracts that exhibited 470% cell inhibition including B. micrantha 180 L.K. Omosa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196

(68.5%) and S. usambarensis (56%) after initial screening, various concetrations of these extracts from 0.0025 to 50 mg/mL were prepared. The cells were plated at a density of 1 104 cells/well in a 96-well plate, in a total volume of 100 μL. The extracts at a concentration of 20 mg/mL were then added immediately in an additional 100 μL of cuture medium to obtain a total volume of 200 μL, therefore reducing the initial concentration of each extract by half to only 10 mg/mL. After 72 h incubation at 37 °C, 5% CO2 and 95% relative humidity, 20 mL resazurin (Sigma-Aldrich, Schnelldorf,

Germany) 0.01% w/v in double-distilled water (ddH2O) was added Fig. 2. Dose response curves of 5 selected extracts, which revealed high cytotoxi- to each well and the plates incubated for a further 4 h. Fluores- city in pre-screening shown in Fig. 1. cence was measured on an Infinite M2000 Pro™ plate reader (Tecan, Crailsheim, Germany) using an excitation wavelength of 544 nm and an emission wavelength of 590 nm. Each assay was in Supplementary Table S2. done at least two times, with six replicate each. The viability was The four most cytotoxic extracts except for C. sylvaticus which fi evaluated based on a comparison with untreated cells. IC50 values was unavailable and S. usambarensis, tested at a xed comcentra- represent the sample's concentrations required to inhibit 50% of tion of 10 mg/mL were then tested at different concentrations to cell proliferation and were calculated from a calibration curve by obtain dose response curves to calculate 50% inhibition con- linear regression using Microsoft Excel. The resulting growth data centrations (IC50)(Fig. 2). The ethanol extract of the berries of S. represent the net outcome of cell proliferation and cell death. aculeastrum and the stem bark of A. schimperiana (50% MeOH in CH2Cl2) exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity with IC50 values of 1.36 and 2.97 mg/mL, respectively. The other extracts that showed 3. Results and discussion good activity included the extracts of the stem barks of Z. gilletii (5% MeOH–H2O), B. micrantha 50% CH2Cl2–MeOH and leaves of S. In the present work, 145 extracts from 91 plants from the usambarensis (50% MeOH in CH2Cl2) with IC50 values of 9.040, 9.43 Kenyan flora were tested for their cytotoxic effect with an ultimate and 11.090 mg/mL. aim of exploiting them as possible sources for leukemia therapy. More than one solvent systems from the following list; 50% The viabilities (% of untreated control) of CCRF-CEM cells after CH2Cl2 in n-hexane, 50% MeOH in CH2Cl2, neat MeOH, 5% H2Oin treatment with a fixed concentration of 10 mg/mL each are pre- MeOH and EtOH were used for extraction of some of the plant sented in Fig. 1 (Also see Supplementary data, Table S2). As can be materials to determine the variations of cell inhibition of the re- seen, the majority of extracts were inactive or weaky active. sultant extracts expected to vary in composition. The solvent Twelve plant extracts from nine plants inhibited the proliferation systems that were frequently used in the experiments included; of CCRF-CEM cells by more than 50% following incubation for 48 or 50% MeOH in CH2Cl2 and 5% H2O in MeOH which have proved to 72 h and therefore can be considered as being cytototoxic (Boik, be effective from previous studies carried out at the Chemistry 2001). The extracts included the root bark of E. sacleuxii extracted Department, University of Nairobi, Natural Products Laboratory (Personal communication). with 50% n-hexane-dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) , the leaves of A. gummifera, S. usambarensis; the stem bark of Z. gilletii, B. micrantha, In the current study the most active extracts of some plant C. sylvaticus, and A. schimperiana; the root bark of E. burttii and E. parts were those obtained using 50% MeOH in CH2Cl2 as elabo- rated in the stem bark of the following plants; C. sylvaticus Hochst sacleuxii extracted with 50% CH2Cl2–MeOH, the stem bark of B. (cell viability, 23.5%), B. micrantha (Hochst.) Baill (31.5%), Erythrina micrantha and Z. gilletii extracted using 5% MeOH–H2O and the berries of S. aculeastrum extracted with EtOH (Fig. 1). burtii Bak.f.(47.5%), E. sacleuxii Hua (53.6%); the root bark of E. The established anticancer drug, doxorubicin, was included into sacleuxii Hua (37.4%); aerial parts of S. usambarensis (42.9%), the this cytotoxicity testing as a control drug. CCRF-CEM- cells re- leaves of A. gummifera (JF. Gmel.) C.A.Sm. (45.9%) and Senna di- vealed a viability of 6.573.66% after treatment with 10 mg/mL dymobotyra (Fresen.) Irwin and Barneb (56.6%). The extracts that doxorubicin. A detailed presentation of all screening data is given were most active when extracted with the more polar solvent systems including; 5% H2O in MeOH included; Z. gilletii (De Wild.) P.G. Waterman (28.5%), Croton macrostachyus Del. (60.4%), and with ethanol; the berries of S. aculeastrum Dunal (0.8%). Most of

the extracts obtained using the non-polar solvent, 50% CH2Cl2 in n- hexane exhibited poor activities, most probably, as they did not target the compounds responsible for the biological activities ex- pected to be mainly different classes of flavonoids, alkaloids and terpenoids from the active plants. Furthermore, the plant parts used for traditional medicine seemed to be more active than those parts not used. The root bark, leaves and fruits of the most active plant, S. aculeastrum, are used to treat skin and cervical cancer (Ochwangi et al., 2014; Madhuri and Pandey, 2009; Koduru et al., 2006). The anticancer activities of different parts of this plant are attributed to the presence of steroidal alkaloid glycosides (Wanyonyi et al., 2002, 2003) and saponins (Wanyonyi et al., 2002) characterized from this plant. Solanum species are known to elaborate these classes of compounds and their aglycones known to have different bioactivities including; anticancer, anticholesterol, antimicrobial, Fig. 1. Cytotoxicity of 145 extracts from 91 Kenyan medicinal plants at a fixed fl concentration of 10 mg/mL towards CCRF-CEM cells as determined by the resazurin anti-in ammatory, antinociceptive, antitussive and antipyretic assay. effects, toxicity (Jiang et al., 2005; Milner et al., 2011). Other L.K. Omosa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196 181 compounds characterized from this the genus Solanum include; the cytotoxic activities should also be established. The hydroxyl phenolics, flavonoids, sterols known to have different biological groups on the macrocyclic ring, which adversely influenced the activities and hence could boost the activities of the major com- biological activities of the budmunchiamines should be modified pounds; steroidal alkaloid glycosides and saponins (Amir and to obtain different analogs expected to show varied activities. Kumar, 2004) The present investigation was designed as an exploratory The present study involved the ethanol extract of the berries of screening study. Using 91 Kenyan plants, we analyzed a large panel S. aculeastrum against the drug sensitive human leukemia cells of medicinal plants used in traditional Kenyan medicine. The aims (CCRF-CEM) which exhibited interesting cell inhibition with an were first to give an overview of the traditional uses of these

IC50 value of about 1.36 mg/mL. The results of this study are con- plants with a focus on cancer and cancer-related symptoms. As sistent with those of Koduru et al. (2006) in which the methanol indigenous knowledge on traditional plants is handed over in oral extract of the berries of this plant showed antiproliferative activ- form from generation to generation, there is a danger that this ities against HeLa, MCF7 and HT29 with IC50 values between 17.1 knowledge or parts of it will get lost over time. Therefore, it is of and 41.9 mg/mL while the activities of the aqueous extract were utmost importance to document the traditional uses of medicinal lower, ranging between 27.9 and 48.5 mg/mL (Koduru et al., 2006). plants. A second aim of this study was to screen these plants for The stem bark of A. schimperiana, which also showed good cell their cytotoxic activity towards human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells. inhibition effect, is used widely in Eastern Africa to treat cancer We have chosen leukemia cells, because leukemia are very fre- related diseases as warts (Thulin et al., 1989; Kokwaro, 1976). quently more sensitive to cytotoxic agents than most other tumor Previous studies has shown that this plant elaborates anti- types. Therefore, they are better suited for initial compound microbial (Chhabra et al., 1981; Samoylenko et al., 2009; Tariku, screenings than tumor cell lines from other tumor origin. This was 2008; Orwa et al., 2009); anthelmintic (Tariku, 2008; Eguale et al., also the strategy of the National Cancer Institute, U.S.A., which 2011); antitrypanosomal (Cao et al., 2007); in vitro trypanocidal screened compounds for many years with the murine leukemia (Eguale et al., 2011); in vivo anti-trypanosomal activities (Tesfaye cell line P388, before they enlarged their screening panel to cell et al., 2015) and antiparasitic and cytotoxicity (Cao et al., 2007; lines of other tumors types. The present study represents a start- Shugeng et al., 2007; Samoylenko et al., 2009); mainly attributed ing for subsequent investigations. The extracts which showed to the presence of spermine alkaloids (budmunchiamines) and promising cytotoxicity will be investigated in more detail con- triterpenes. The budmunchiamines from the genus Albizia have cerning (1) their activity towards cell lines from different types of demonstrated different bioactivities in previous studies including; solid cancers, (2) their activity towards cell lines resistant to es- in vivo antimalarial activity, suppressing Plasmodium berghei in- tablished anticancer drugs, including multidrug-resistance phe- fection in mice after oral administration (Rukunga et al., 2007; notypes, and (3) their active chemical constituents by means of Samoylenko et al. 2009), in vitro antimalarial activities against P. bioactivity-guided fractionation and isolation. falciparum D6 (chloroquine-susceptible) and W2 (chloroquine-re- sistant) strains with IC50 values ranging from 120–270 ng/mL, strong antileishmanial activities with 5,14-dimethylbudmunchia- Authors’ contribution mine L1 and 6-hydroxy-5-normethylbudmunchiamine K exhibit- ing equipotent activities with the standard drug, pentamidine, and L.K.O carried out the experiments; L.KO, wrote the manuscript, 5-normethylbudmunchiamine K being more potent. The two J.O.M and V.K edited the manuscript. M.E.M, S.H and T.E. designed spermine alkaloids ca, 5,14-dimethylbudmunchiamine L1 and the bioassay experiments; B.M.G, R.M and V.M.M, F.K.-K, con- normethylbudmunchiamine K also exhibited significant in vitro tributed to extraction of plant materials. G.O contributed in read- antimicrobial activities against a panel of microorganisms and ing bioassay results in Tecan scanner. T.E. supervised the work, moderate cytotoxic activities (Samoylenko et al., 2009). The bud- provided the facilities for the study, edited the manuscript. All munchiamines L4 and L5 isolated from Pithecolobium saman authors read the manuscript and approved the final version. (Wiesner et al., 1952, 1968) and Albizia species from both India (Mar et al., 1991; Pezzuto et al., 1992; Misra et al., 1995) and Kenya (Rukunga and Waterman, 1996a, 1996b) exhibited mild activities Conflict of interests against plasmepsin II, with IC50 values of 14 and 15 μM, respec- tively (Ovenden et al., 2002). The authors declare not to have a conflict of interest.

Minimal cytotoxic effects were experienced by the CH2Cl2 and MeOH extracts of the leaves of A. schimperiana with IC50 values of 225.6 and 184.1 mg/mL, respectively, on HL-cells (Nibret and Wink, References cited in the supplementary file 2011). Samoylenko et al. (2009) demonstrated the potential of the stem bark (50% CH2Cl2 in MeOH) together with the spermine al- Abate and Debdabe (1989), Abbiw (1990), Abbott (1925), Ab- kaloids, the budmunchiamines, against different human cancer dillahi et al. (2008), Abebe and Ayehu (1993), Abede et al. (2005), cells. However, the focus of the previous study was on the cyto- Abegaz and Dagne (1988), Abegaz and Peter (1995), Achenbach toxicity of the characteristic compounds of this plant. The current et al. (1994, 1996a, 1996b), Adedapo et al. (2009), Adelowotan study has generated additional data by determining the IC50 value et al. (2008), Ademola and Eloff (2010), Aderogba et al. (2004), of the stem bark (50% CH2Cl2 in MeOH) of this plant not estab- Adesegun et al. (2008), Adewusi and Steenkamp (2011), Adeyemi lished before. The observation that the cytotoxicity of the extracts et al. (2010), Adia et al. (2014), Adiele et al. (2013), Adongo et al. was higher than that of constituent compounds as shown in pre- (2012), Adzu et al. (2003a, 2003b), Afful et al. (2012), Agarwal et al. vious studies could either be attributed to the synergistic phe- (1970), Agize et al. (2013), Agll et al. (1999), Aguirre et al. (2004), nomena of the constituent components or to the fact that the most Agunu et al. (2005), Ahmed et al. (1994), Ajali and Chukwurah active compound is minor and was not isolated. Further, studies (2004), Akah and Nwambie (1993), Akinniyi and Sultanbawa should be carried out to isolate the minor budmunchiamines in (1983), Akinpelu and Obuotor (2000), Akobundu and Agyakwa order to establish their cytotoxicities. The functionalities on the (1998), Aladesanmi et al. (2007), Albuquerque et al. (2007), Ali- skeletal structures of these spermine alkaloids with moderate karidis (1987), Alitonou et al. (2012), Alli et al. (2011), Al-Mu- cytotoxic effects should be modified towards increasing their cy- qarrabun et al. (2014), Al-Rehaily et al. (2001), Ameenah et al. totoxic potencies. The effect of opening up the macrocyclic ring on (1993), Amenya et al. (2014), Amos et al. (2001), Amusan et al. 182 L.K. Omosa et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 179 (2016) 177–196

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