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The Role of ROS/Superoxides, NFAT and MEK/ERK Signaling

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The Role of ROS/Superoxides, NFAT and MEK/ERK Signaling Oncogene (2006) 25, 5640–5647 & 2006 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0950-9232/06 $30.00 www.nature.com/onc ORIGINAL ARTICLE Proline oxidase activates both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways for apoptosis: the role of ROS/superoxides, NFAT and MEK/ERK signaling Y Liu1, GL Borchert2, A Surazynski1, C-A Hu3 and JM Phang1 1Metabolism and Cancer Susceptibility Section, Laboratory of Comparative Carcinogenesis, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, USA; 2Basic Research Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., Frederick, MD, USA and 3Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico Health Science Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA Proline oxidase (POX), often considered a ‘housekeeping Introduction enzyme’ might play an important role in apoptosis. We have shown that POX generated proline-dependent Proline oxidase (POX), localized at the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), specifically superoxide inner membrane, catalyzes the conversion of proline to radicals, and induced apoptosis through the mitochondrial pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C). Together with P5C (intrinsic) pathway. In our current report, we used DLD-1 reductase, POX mediates the proline cycle to shuttle colorectal cancer cells stably transfected with the POX redox equivalents between mitochondria and cytosol gene under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter (Hagedorn and Phang, 1983; Phang, 1985; Phang et al., and found POX-stimulated expression of tumor necrosis 2001). Also important, P5C is the intermediate provid- factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL), DR5 inga direct carbon bridgeconnectingthe tricarboxylic and cleavage of caspase-8. Importantly, apoptosis acid and urea cycles (Phang, 1985; Phang et al., 2001). measured by flow cytometry was partially inhibited by As a residue in proteins, proline contributes special Z-IETD-FMK, a specific inhibitor of caspase-8. These features. In addition to the well-recognized physical findings suggest that the extrinsic (death receptor) path- properties in structural proteins, for example, collagens, way also is activated by POX. Furthermore, the mechan- proline-containingregionsprovide tertiary structure ism of this effect on the extrinsic pathway, specifically, the necessary for protein–protein interactions and are induction of TRAIL by POX, may be mediated by NFAT critical for the function of WW and SH3 domains for transcription factors. Additionally, POX expression also specific recognition and phosphorylation (Macias et al., dramatically decreased phosphorylation of MEK and 2002). Ser/Thr-Pro motifs are the exclusive phosphor- ERK, and the decrease was partially reversed by ylation sites for a large number of Pro-directed protein expression of manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD). kinases that play essential roles in signal transduction Overexpression of constitutively active form of MEK, and cell cycle progression (Lu, 2003). Additionally, acMEK, partially blocked POX-induced apoptosis. These hydroxylation at certain conserved proline residues of findings suggest the involvement of MEK/ERK signaling HIF1-a functions as an oxygen sensor (Semenza, 2003). and further confirm the role of ROS/superoxides in POX- Accumulation of proline may cause oxidative stress induced apoptosis. Combined with previously published (Delwing et al., 2003). In pre-clinical cancer research, data, we conclude that POX may induce apoptosis through proline analogs modulate tumor cell growth, perhaps by both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways and is involved in targeting extracellular matrix and/or critical proline nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) signaling and residues of tumor-associated proteins (Hamilton et al., regulation of the MEK/ERK pathway. It is suggested that, 2004). Proline and prolidase, like matrix metalloprotei- as a nutrition factor, POX may modulate apoptosis signals nases, may induce hypoxic and angiogenic effects in induced by p53 or other anti-cancer agents and enhance human cancer cells (our unpublished data). apoptosis in stress situations. Recently, research has focused on proline metabolism Oncogene (2006) 25, 5640–5647. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1209564; and proline-metabolizingenzymes duringresponses to published online 17 April 2006 stress, especially in programmed cell death. The role of POX in apoptosis has been well documented. First, Keywords: proline oxidase; apoptosis; superoxide radi- usingSerial Analysis of Gene Expression, Polyak et al. cals; NFAT; ERK; metabolism (1997) showed that p53-dependent apoptosis is preceded by the induction of 14 of 7202 genes, including POX. We showed that POX catalyzed the generation of reactive Correspondence: Dr Y Liu or Dr JM Phang, Metabolism and Cancer oxygen species (ROS), particularly superoxide radicals Susceptibility Section, Laboratory of Comparative Carcinogenesis, (Donald et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2005) and overexpression Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, of POX causes apoptotic cell death in a variety of cancer MD 21702, USA. cell types (Donald et al., 2001; Maxwell and Rivera, E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Received 2 December 2005; revised 1 March 2006; accepted 1 March 2003; Liu et al., 2005). Although findings from several 2006; published online 17 April 2006 labs suggest that in p53-induced apoptosis, the direct Mechanistic study of POX-induced apoptosis YLiuet al 5641 signaling cascade may be p53 induction of PUMA/ NOXA which interact with BCL-2 or BCL-XL thereby freeingBAX to alter mitochondrial membranes (Naka- no and Vousden, 2001; Yu et al., 2001, 2003), but alternative or modulatingpathways dependingon the metabolic environment may be critical for altering expression of the malignant phenotype. We propose that POX regulates cell survival in situations of nutritional and energetic stress. Therefore, POX may be a good target for matrix/nutrition-dependent mod- ulation of carcinogenesis. Several pathways by which POX induced apoptosis have been studied (Maxwell and Rivera, 2003; Liu et al., 2005; Rivera and Maxwell, 2005). We and others have shown that in POX-induced apoptosis, cytochrome c is released into cytosol from mitochondria and caspase-9 and 3 are activated, suggesting the involvement of the mitochondrial pathway. To better understand POX- induced apoptosis, we expanded our research into several areas and our new data clearly demonstrated that the death receptor pathway also contributed to POX-induced apoptosis. An important mechanism involvingthe induction of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducingligand (TRAIL) appears to be mediated by nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) stimulation of transcription. Furthermore, the inhibi- tion of MEK/ERK signaling was involved and impor- tantly, our data support the interpretation that the generation of superoxide radicals plays a critical role in many of these processes. Results Proline oxidase expression activated the extrinsic apoptotic pathway It has been reported that POX-induced apoptosis is mediated by the mitochondrial pathway (Maxwell and Rivera, 2003; Liu et al., 2005). We considered that the death receptor pathway might also be involved. To test this, we examined the main components of this pathway. After DOX was removed from culture medium to induce POX, caspase-8, the central component of the death receptor pathway was progressively cleaved and thereby activated (Figure 1a). We also examined the upstream components of this pathway. Although the expression of DR4, Fas, FasL, tBid and FADD (not shown) were not altered, the expression of TRAIL and death receptor 5 (DR5) were induced by POX (Figure 1a). To determine Figure 1 POX activated the extrinsic apoptotic pathway. (a) DLD-1 Tet-Off POX cells were cultured after removal of DOX for whether these changes in protein levels were corrobo- 1, 3, and 5 days. Western blots for different proteins involved in the rated by induction at the transcriptional level, we extrinsic pathway were performed. (b) DLD-1 Tet-Off POX cells performed RNA protection assays and found that were cultured without DOX for 1 or 3 days. The RPA was done DR5 and TRAIL mRNA increased (Figure 1b). These usingAmbion’s RPA III TM and BD PharMingen’s hAPO-3d Multi- w data clearly demonstrated that, in addition to the Probe Set accordingto the manufacturers’ instruction. The ‘ ’ indicates that the expression of these genes has been changed by mitochondrial pathway, components of the death POX. receptor pathway also are activated by POX. Involvement of NFAT in TRAIL activation by POX 2004), the mechanisms mediatinginduction of TRAIL As TRAIL is widely considered a promisingtargetin by POX are of special interest. In this regard, the NFAT cancer prevention and treatment (Kelley and Ashkenazi, family of transcription factors is an attractive target for Oncogene Mechanistic study of POX-induced apoptosis YLiuet al 5642 exploration. Studied primarily in immune cells, stimula- apoptosis by flow cytometry (Figure 3a). These data tion by cytokines increases cellular calcium levels and suggests that the death receptor pathway contributes to activates calcineurin. Calcineurin, a phosphatase, de- the mediation of POX-induced apoptosis in this system. phosphorylates NFAT which undergoes cytoplasmic to We previously showed that the production of ROS, nuclear translocation where it regulates the expression especially superoxides, is critical for POX-induced of target genes as a transcription factor (Crabtree and Olson, 2002). Several lines of evidence prompted us
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