The French and Indian War 1754-1763 Teacher's Education Kit

Home , Edward Braddock, Fort Duquesne, Fort Oswego

French The and Indian War 1754-1763

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Ft. Loudoun

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Ft. Toronto

(Fort Pitt)

Ft. Niagara

Ft. Cumberland

n R Ft. Necessity

Ft. Ligonier D K Winchester Fredericksburg E Ft. Frontenac ALGONQUIN a E n O

Ft. Oswego

p T

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N A R R Williamsburg

Baltimore I

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New Ber

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Montréal L Richelieu

New Haven

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Boston

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Ft. Augusta s

Ft. Allen Nor th Philadelphia 0 0 French & Indian War Fort (included for reference only) Modern State Lines Indian Town Braddock's Road Forbes' Road KEY 100 100 200 Kilometers 200 Miles

11 12

Before 1763

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Treaty of Paris 1763

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After 1763

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Reserved for L A K E M O

I C H I G R British Land A N the Indians

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13 14 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

Who Were the People Involved? to coordinate their actions, policy, and trade. The confederacy was extremely he French and Indian War started powerful and often dominated neighboring as a struggle for control of the land T nations. The Seneca in the Ohio River west of the Allegheny Mountains in the Valley were members of the Iroquois Ohio River Valley. As the conflict spread, Confederacy. The Iroquois Confederacy European powers began to fight in their would send representatives to the colonies throughout the world. It became Delaware and Shawnee to advise them a war fought on four continents: North and let them know the Iroquois position America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. on political matters. In the 1750s, the area west of the Beyond the Ohio River Valley were the Allegheny Mountains was a vast forest. nations around the Great Lakes. These American Indians primarily from three nations were traditionally French allies. nations – the Seneca, the Lenape The French called these nations the “far (LEN-ah-pay) or Delaware, and the Indians” and often called on these warriors Shawnee – inhabited the upper Ohio River to assist them in defending their colony. Valley. About 3,000 to 4,000 American The French also relied on the American Indians were living there. Their economy Indian nations along the St. Lawrence was based upon hunting, fishing, and River for assistance. agriculture. With enough land they were self-sufficient. They hunted beaver and The population of all the Indian nations other animals for trade. A few French and in northeastern North America was British traders traveled through the area. about 175,000. The American Indians traded furs and food for metal products, cloth, firearms, and other products. The American Indians were excellent warriors and scouts. During battles in the French and Indian War, their presence often made the difference between winning and losing. (For more on the American Indians please see the Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life, pages 28-33). Northeast of the Ohio River Valley, in what is now western New York, was the home of the Haudenosaunee (hou-DE-noh-saw-nee) or Iroquois Confederacy. To form the confederacy, six nations had come together

Stretched beaver skin

Teacher’s Background 15 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

New France had three colonies: Canada To the east of the Allegheny Mountains (along the St. Lawrence River), the Illinois lived more than 1 million colonists in country (the mid-Mississippi Valley), and the 13 British colonies. They had a Louisiana (New Orleans and west of the strong economy based on farming. Their Mississippi). There were about 70,000 population was expanding rapidly, both colonists throughout the French through immigration and population settlements. Their economy was based on growth. Although they had no settlers in trade with the American Indians. It was a the Ohio River Valley in 1750, the British weak economic system, and the colonies colonies claimed the land. Virginia, in fact, were not self-sustaining. They needed to claimed this land and all the lands as far purchase food from the Indians or import west as the “islands of California.” it. The French colonists had a much Although their economy did not depend on different relationship with the American it, many Pennsylvania and Virginia traders Indians than the British did. They viewed traveled to the Ohio River Valley to trade. the Indians as trade partners and They did not have river access to the valley, established personal relationships with the and there were no roads for wagons. To get nations they traded with. They became their goods across the mountains they used members of the native communities and packhorses. often inter-married and had children. Rivers and waterways were the best means The British colonists generally did not mix of transportation through the interior of the with the American Indian societies. continent. The French had a series of forts However, the two cultures needed to deal and trading posts along their main travel with each other. They needed people who and trading route, west of the Ohio River could interpret the languages and also Valley. The Ohio River Valley was an understand the different cultural customs alternate transportation route. Even though and manners. The people who did this were the French did not have trading posts or called “Go Betweens.” They were more than settlements in the Ohio River Valley, they translators, they were also diplomats. claimed the land as theirs.

Map of the Forks of the Ohio, 1754

16 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

What Were They Fighting For? the region. The French were not interested in settling the area. However, they were he Ohio River Valley Indians wanted to determined to maintain authority over it. Tmaintain their land, their lifestyle, and control of their future. They sought to trade By the 1750s British colonial settlement with the Europeans but prevent settlement. had reached the eastern base of the By this time the American Indians Allegheny Mountains. They saw wealth and depended on European goods. Guns, opportunity in the vast lands west of the gunpowder, knives, lead for musket balls, mountains. Many settlers hoped to own rum, and cloth were a few of the items their own property. Wealthy colonists they did not want to live without. They sought land grants in the hopes of securing were excellent hunters and were able to lands that they could sell to settlers at a kill the game and beavers the Europeans profit – land speculation. However, to get sought. Most of the Shawnee and Delaware land speculation profits they needed more living in the Ohio River Valley had only land, and the Ohio River Valley looked like started living there in the 1720s. They a perfect place to get it. The British colonial had moved to the region from their homes traders involved with Indian fur trade were in eastern Pennsylvania. As the British already making money in the region. None colonists settled that land, the Indians of these colonists wanted to see the French moved west. The Shawnee and Delaware control the Ohio River Valley. The British in the Ohio River Valley were under saw many opportunities, and they did not the political influence of the Iroquois intend to lose them to their enemies, Confederacy. They didn’t like this and the French. wanted to speak for themselves. The The goals and economies of the three Iroquois Confederacy wanted to maintain nations also affected how they viewed and control of the Ohio River Valley to improve interacted with each other. The British its negotiating position with the French emphasis on farming and owning land and British. often put them in competition with the The French depended on the Indian trade American Indians. The French were more as the basis of their economy. They were likely to view the Indians as allies since upset when Pennsylvania and Virginia their economy depended so heavily on the started trading with the Ohio River Valley Indian trade. The preservation of trade was Indians. This area was on the eastern edge important to the American Indian nations of their main trading routes, and they did and often influenced which alliances not want to lose control of any of the trade. they made. Also, they used the Ohio River Valley and its river systems as a transportation route. They wanted their traders, priests, and soldiers to be able to travel freely through

Barrels of gunpowder

Teacher’s Background 17 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

How Did the Conflict Begin? colony. In 1753, he received instructions from the King of England “for erecting forts n 1749 the French were becoming within the king’s own territory.” Dinwiddie concerned with the Pennsylvania and I was very upset about all the French activity Virginia traders in the Ohio River Valley. in the Ohio River Valley. He sent a young That summer they sent an expedition of volunteer, George Washington, to deliver a 247 men under the command of Captain letter to the French demanding that they Pierre-Joseph Céloron (SEL-or-ohn) leave the region. de Blainville* down the Ohio River. Céloron buried lead plates in the ground Not surprisingly, the French refused to stating the French claim to the land. leave. While Washington made the arduous He made speeches to the Ohio River Valley 900 mile winter trip from Williamsburg to Indians warning them not to trade with the Fort LeBoeuf and back again, he noted British and expelled the traders he found. that the point of land at the junction of In Logstown (near present day Ambridge, the Allegheny and Monongahela Pennsylvania) he found 10 British traders (meh-NON-gah-HAY-lah) Rivers, called with 50 packhorses and 150 packs of fur. the “Forks of the Ohio,” would be an When he returned to Canada he had a excellent place for a fort. bleak report. The Ohio River Valley Indians In the spring of 1754 the French had a post “are very badly disposed towards the at Venango, near where French Creek and French.” In order to keep the valley he the Allegheny River meet. At the same time recommended that the French build a the British started to build a fort at the fortified military route through the area. Forks of the Ohio. They had just hung the In 1752, the Marquis Duquesne* gate when 360 French canoes and over 500 (dyoo-KAYN) was named Governor of French troops, with eight cannons, Canada. His instructions were “to make appeared. The British commander, Ensign every possible effort to drive the English Edward Ward, quickly realized that he was from our lands... and to prevent their badly outnumbered. He and his soldiers left coming there to trade.” The next year he the fort to the French, who began began building a series of forts along the building a much stronger fortification that waterways in the Ohio River Valley. The they named Fort Duquesne. first two forts were at Presque Isle (presk eyel), on the south shore of Lake Erie, and Fort LeBoeuf (luh-BOOF) on French Creek, a tributary of the Allegheny River. Meanwhile, Robert Dinwiddie (DIN-wid-dee), the Governor of Virginia, was granting land in the Ohio River Valley to citizens of his

Governor Robert Dinwiddle

*Names in bold print indicate a biography card on that person.

18 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

Many of the Ohio River Valley Indians were and wet overnight march. It was morning concerned with the large number of troops before they arrived at the Half King’s and their fort building activities. Since the camp. Together they decided to surround British traders had been forced to leave, the the French. Indians in the region now traded with the Unaware, the French under the command French. They found the French trade goods of Ensign Joseph Coulon de Villiers de to be more expensive and of a poorer Jumonville* (joo-MON-vil) were just quality than those of the British. waking up. A French soldier spotted the Later the same year Washington was sent British and yelled. They all ran for their to the Ohio River Valley with the Virginia muskets. A shot was fired. Then militia. He and his troops were told to take Washington ordered his troops to fire. The the “Lands on the Ohio; & the Waters French were in a bad position at the bottom thereof.” Their orders specified that they of a ravine. They tried to escape down the were to widen the packhorse trail into a ravine but met the Half King and his road wide enough for wagons. While at warriors. They came back and surrendered. Will’s Creek (what is today Cumberland, The whole skirmish lasted only 15 minutes. Maryland), Washington learned that the One Frenchman escaped and 21 were French were in control of the Forks of the captured. Jumonville lay wounded and Ohio and the fort the British had built 12 others were dead. The Half King there. Washington proceeded forward approached the wounded Jumonville and with the construction of a road across said, “Thou art not yet dead, my father.” the mountains. The British hoped to Then he raised his tomahawk and killed use this road to retake control of the him. It was both a horrifying and a Ohio River Valley. symbolic act. To the Half King and his Over 50 miles west of Will’s Creek, people Jumonville represented the French Washington stopped to rest his men and in the Ohio River Valley and his death horses in an open meadow called the clearly showed the Half King’s desire to Great Meadows. While camped in the have them leave. These were the first shots meadow, Washington received a message of what was to become the French and from Tanaghrisson* (tan-ah-GRIS-suhn). Indian War. Shortly after the incident, the Tanaghrisson was a Seneca sent by the British historian Horace Walpole noted, Iroquois Confederacy to govern the “The volley fired by a young Virginian in the Delaware and Iroquois in the Ohio River backwoods of America set the world on fire.” Valley. His position was given the title “the This skirmish invited retaliation from the Half King.” The Half King sided with the French and their American Indian allies. British. His message to Washington stated Washington returned to the Great Meadows that there was a band of French soldiers where his troops built a small fort they camped only a few miles from the Great named Fort Necessity. Washington was Meadows. On the night of May 27, 1754, joined by more troops bringing the total Washington and 40 soldiers began a dark number of British to nearly 400.

Teacher’s Background 19 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

On July 3, 1754, about 600 French and The Ohio River Valley Indians who felt more 100 of their American Indian allies arrived comfortable dealing with the British than in the Great Meadows just beyond the French moved from the area. Many of Washington’s fort. Jumonville’s brother them moved east to central Pennsylvania. Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers* Although officially not at war, both France (duh VIL-yay) commanded the French and Britain supported the fighting by army. They quickly found a weakness in sending troops and supplies. Early the next the fort: in one area the trees were within year, Major General Edward Braddock* firing range of the fort. The French and arrived to take command of all the British their allies concentrated their troops forces in North America. Braddock invited behind those trees. Then the weather George Washington to join him as a turned against the British. It began to rain. volunteer. Washington eagerly accepted The gunpowder that fired the muskets and went along as his aide. Braddock would not ignite. As night approached the would personally command the troops that British were in a bad position. They had set out to capture the Forks of the Ohio. been fighting all day and had many dead They would march to Will’s Creek, where and wounded. About 8:00 in the evening over the previous winter Fort Cumberland the French called and asked if they would had been built. From there they would cut like to negotiate a surrender. Realizing a road through the forested mountains to their poor situation, the British agreed Fort Duquesne at the Forks of the Ohio. to negotiate. Braddock had trouble from the start Washington sent Captain Jacob Van locating horses and wagons to move Braam to negotiate. Although he was a the supplies for his army. Luckily, Dutchman, he spoke French and English. Benjamin Franklin* came to the rescue. After four hours of negotiating, the final He convinced farmers to rent their wagons surrender document was ready and and horses to Braddock. One hundred and Washington signed it. The document was fifty wagons and 259 packhorses arrived at written in French and contained many Braddock’s camp just when they were provisions. One provision, as Washington needed most. understood the translation, held the British responsible for the death of Jumonville. By the time they reached Fort Cumberland, Later Washington learned that the the British were well behind schedule. document, actually twice mentions the While preparing at Fort Cumberland, assassination of Jumonville. This was a Braddock managed to anger and alienate surprise and a humiliation for Washington. almost all of the American Indians who It also gave the French a document pinning had come to participate as allies. Shingas* the blame for the fighting on the British. (SHIN-gas), the leader of the Ohio River Valley Delaware, was so angry he left and When Washington and his troops departed, immediately joined the French. Scarouady* the French again controlled the land west (SCAR-roh-ah-dee) and seven other of the Allegheny Mountains. American Indians were the only ones

20 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

who assisted the British. The 2,400 (moo-ay duh LON-glayd) quickly took the troops began leaving Fort Cumberland high ground and were able to dominate the May 29, 1755. battle. The British suffered a terrible defeat. The uncut forests and mountainous terrain Two-thirds of the British troops and most slowed the army’s progress. Braddock of the officers were killed or wounded. decided to divide his army. A “flying Braddock received a serious wound before column” was created. It consisted of 1,300 the British army retreated. Washington soldiers who would move ahead quickly rode all night to reach the slow-moving without all the heavy baggage. The baggage part of the army that had not been in would come up behind as fast as possible. battle. He had supplies sent back to the retreating troops. Four days later, The French at Fort Duquesne were Braddock died of his wounds. well informed by their American Indian scouts of Braddock’s progress. There As a result of Braddock’s defeat, many Ohio were hundreds of Indians around Fort River Valley Indians decided to side with Duquesne, mostly warriors from the Great the French. For the next few years Fort Lakes region. They thought Braddock’s Duquesne became the starting point for army was too large and were unwilling to hundreds of French and Indian raids along join the French. On the morning of July 9, the Pennsylvania and Virginia frontier. Captain Daniel-Hyacinthe-Marie Lienard de Beaujeu* (BOH-joh) did the impossible. He convinced the American Indians to join the French. That morning 254 French and 637 Indians left Fort Duquesne. Over two- thirds of the army was made up of Indians. Eight miles east of the fort the French and British armies spotted each other. Both sides were surprised and scrambled to get organized for the battle. The American Indians under the command of Ensign Charles-Michel Mouet de Langlade*

Felling axe

Teacher’s Background 21 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

How Did the War Progress? The only British success in 1756 was at Kittanning. Colonel John Armstrong led a t was not until May 1756, that Britain party of 300 against the Delaware town of officially declared war on France and the Kittanning. They surprised the town at two countries began fighting in Europe. dawn; however, the Indians put up a French and British colonies in the West strong fight. The British eventually set the Indies, India, and Africa were also drawn town on fire. Delaware Chief “Captain” into the conflict. In Europe the war became Jacobs was killed when the gunpowder known as the Seven Years War. stored in his house exploded after the That same year both French and British house was set on fire. Armstrong left with colonies got new commanders. The British 11 recovered British captives and about a commander-in-chief, Lord Loudoun, did dozen scalps. The Pennsylvanians viewed not understand the American colonists. this as a victory while the French and Ohio When he made requests of colonial River Valley Indians saw it as a massacre. governors, they sent the requests through To avenge the attack the French and their assemblies. Often the assemblies did Indians intensified their raids on the not comply, and Lord Loudoun would Pennsylvania frontier. threaten to use force against the colonies. The French victory at Fort William Henry Some colonists started to see Lord in 1757 ended in disaster for all. Montcalm Loudoun as being as much of a threat to had 1,800 American Indians with him. their freedom as the French and American They fought with the French without pay Indians. Lord Loudoun’s actions created in the hope of victory. Then they would get resentment and resistance. Resentment their compensation by taking captives, of his policies did not help the British booty, and scalps. Many Indians had war effort. traveled hundreds of miles to participate The new military commander for the in the battle. French colonies, Major General Louis- Joseph de Montcalm* (mon-KALHM) arrived in Canada in May of 1756. He was reluctant to use the American Indians to their full advantage and was disdainful of the Canadians. Although it took several years, his attitudes and actions eventually affected France’s success. In 1756, while the French were still successfully using their American Indian allies, the army continued to be victorious in North America. They defeated the British at Fort Oswego.

Lord Loudoun

22 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

When the British surrendered Fort William at Louisbourg, which guarded the St. Henry, Montcalm did not consult his Indian Lawrence River. General James allies when he drew up the surrender Abercromby was assigned to take Fort terms. The surrender terms denied the Ticonderoga. General John Forbes* was warriors the plunder they had fought for. given the task of capturing Fort Duquesne. The day after the surrender the American In July, Amherst captured Louisbourg, Indians decided to take what they saw as which opened the St. Lawrence River and their due and on August 10 captured or a water route to Canada. Although not killed hundreds of British, most of them ordered in the plan, Lieutenant Colonel colonists. The American Indians Bradstreet also successfully captured Fort unknowingly took captives and clothing Frontenac. This fort supplied the goods infected with smallpox. That winter many and ships for the entire western French nations suffered heavy losses due to the army and the important French trade with disease. The Indian attack on the British the American Indians. Bradstreet reported colonists after the surrender intensified the that the French told him “their troops to colonists’ hate for the French and their the southward and western garrisons will Indian allies. Although the surrender was suffer greatly, if not entirely starve, for a victory for the French, it was also a want of the provisions and vessels we turning point. After the way the American have destroyed.” Abercromby did not take Indians were treated by the French at Fort Fort Ticonderoga. William Henry, many of them decided not to fight with the French again. The French Forbes believed in a strategy known as a were never able to ask for Indian “protected advance.” As the army moved assistance to the extent they had before. forward, it would build forts or supply Loss of their American Indian allies was bases at regular intervals. He ordered one of the factors that contributed to construction of a new road across turning the tide of war against the French. Pennsylvania, guarded by a chain of fortifications. The last fort built in In 1758, policy changes helped the British. September was the “Post at Loyalhanna,” William Pitt, Secretary of State in Britain, Fort Ligonier (lig-oh-NIHR), about 50 miles recalled Lord Loudoun and sent a new from Fort Duquesne. It served as a supply commander-in-chief. He repealed depot and a staging area for a British- unpopular policies and enacted some that American army of 5,000 troops. were very advantageous to the colonies. The colonies reacted with enthusiastic On September 14 the British made a support of the war. For the first time foolish attempt to capture Fort Duquesne colonial manpower and money were and were defeated with many casualties. wholeheartedly put into the war. Pitt also On October 12 the French attacked sent many more troops to the colonies. Loyalhanna (Fort Ligonier), but the British successfully defended their position. That year Pitt ordered a three-pronged Washington arrived at Loyalhanna in attack on French strongholds. General late October. Jeffery Amherst was to attack the fortress

Teacher’s Background 23 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

While Forbes was moving forward, an Point. The opening of the St. Lawrence important conference was taking place in River allowed the British to sail to Quebec. Easton, Pennsylvania. Representatives All summer British Major General James from the Iroquois Confederacy, the Wolfe was unsuccessful in attacking the Shawnee, and the Delaware met to make city situated on the top of a cliff. Finally in peace with the British. The British made September, under the cover of darkness, several promises to the American Indians Wolfe used a small footpath to get his in return for not fighting with the French. troops up the cliff and onto a flat field The treaty they signed promised that the outside the city. He might have learned of British would prevent settlement on all of the footpath from Major Robert Stobo* the lands west of the Allegheny Mountains who was with him that summer. Stobo had after the war. The British also committed been a prisoner in Quebec and had just to regulating the rum trade and recently escaped. Wolfe’s troops fought the eliminating forts on Indian lands. The French under the command of General treaty was signed in October. “Go Montcalm and won. The British took Betweens” brought news of the treaty to control of Quebec. Both generals died the Ohio River Valley Indian towns. This from wounds they received during the was bad news for the French. battle. The French colonial government By this time, it was so late in the fall moved to Montreal. that Forbes was considering ending the The destruction of the French fleet in campaign for the winter. On November 12, November 1759 was the final blow for the near Loyalhanna, Washington captured a French. Without supplies the French army soldier from Fort Duquesne. The soldier could not retake Quebec. In 1760 the confessed that the French were very weak. British captured Montreal. The war Forbes decided to continue his campaign between France and England ended in against Fort Duquesne. The French were in North America. a bad position. They could no longer count on help from the American Indians, and with the fall of Fort Frontenac, they had very few supplies. They decided to abandon Fort Duquesne. The French destroyed the fort before they left. Forbes occupied the ruined fort on November 25. In 1759, the British continued their success in battle. The Iroquois Confederacy, which had remained politically neutral until this point, decided to side with the British. During the summer, the British captured Fort Niagara, Fort Ticonderoga, and Crown

24 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

How Did the Conflict End? In the fall of 1761 commander-in-chief What Were the Consequences? Jeffery Amherst made some well- intentioned but ignorant changes to the fter the fall of Montreal, the warfare British–American Indian trade policies. continued in other parts of the world. A The long-standing practice of gift giving Spain entered the war when the British was curtailed. Traders were forbidden attacked and captured Havana, Cuba. from trading in the American Indian The 1763 Treaty of Paris formally ended villages. This forced the Indians, who were the war. France gave the British all of often without horses, to carry their pelts its land in North America east of the into forts in small quantities. The traders Mississippi River other than the city of were also required to limit the sale of lead New Orleans. The French land west of the and powder to five pounds at a time. This Mississippi, called Louisiana, was given to meant that the American Indians could not Spain. The Spanish gave Florida to Britain effectively carry out their fall and winter and the British returned Havana. There hunts and thus were unable to provide for were several other small exchanges and their families and towns. Additionally, the agreements. The end result was that new reforms forbade the sale of rum and the French no longer had territory in liquor to the Indians, substances that North America. had become part of their culture. These In 1759 the British began construction of changes caused suffering and hardship in Fort Pitt on the site of the French Fort American Indian villages across the region. Duquesne. The American Indians became Many nations saw the benefits of allying concerned. The Treaty of Easton promised with each other against their common to eliminate forts on Indian land – yet this enemy, the British, who were threatening fort was much larger than a trading post. their way of life. It was 10 times larger than Fort Duquesne. In the spring of 1763 Pontiac*, an Ottawa The barracks could shelter hundreds of war chief, united warriors from many men. Delaware Chief Pisquetomen wanted nations and on May 9 attacked Fort to know what “ye General meant by coming Detroit. American Indians had never before here with a great army.” mounted a united and widespread With the French gone, settlers began to attack on Europeans. move over the Allegheny Mountains. As always, they saw opportunity for profit and advancement in the Ohio River Valley. It was becoming clear the promises of the Treaty of Easton were not to be honored.

British belt axe

Teacher’s Background 25 Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

The uprising spread. Within two months Mountains. Everything between the eight British forts fell, and Fort Detroit and mountains and the Mississippi River was Fort Pitt were isolated and under siege. reserved for the American Indians. There Other frontier forts and settlements would be no settlements, only trading experienced persistent attacks and raids. posts. Signed in October of 1763, the act British commander Captain Simeon Ecuyer was called the Royal Proclamation of 1763. realized Fort Pitt was in a dangerous The proclamation angered settlers who had situation. Right before it was attacked, fought for land in the Ohio River Valley. two Delaware leaders came to the fort to Although military leaders at Fort Pitt and negotiate. Ecuyer refused to surrender. other forts were aware of the proclamation, When the chiefs departed he gave them they rarely enforced it and settlers gifts including two blankets and a continued to flock to the area. handkerchief intentionally taken from Pontiac’s War ended in 1765. The British the fort’s smallpox hospital. changed their unfavorable trade policies British Colonel Henry Bouquet* (Boo- with the American Indians. The French KAY) undertook an expedition to relieve had not joined in fighting the British as the Fort Pitt. On August 4, Bouquet left Fort American Indians had hoped. The Indians Ligonier with packhorses carrying bags were ready to resume trade. One of the of flour as well as some other provisions. conditions of peace at the end of Pontiac’s The next day American Indian warriors War was that the American Indians were attacked them at Bushy Run. Bouquet’s required to return their British captives. troops suffered under fire from an unseen The outcome of the French and Indian War enemy and from thirst in the August sun. affected all three powers. Before the French That night Bouquet, a commander who and Indian War, most wars between the old understood American Indian tactics, rivals France and Britain ended in a developed a clever plan. On the morning stalemate. The French and Indian War, of August 6, Bouquet’s troops pretended to however, had a decisive winner. Britain be retreating. Instead, they circled around defeated France and became the most and attacked the warriors from another powerful European country. It now had a direction. Bouquet’s plan succeeded. He vast new empire to manage. The French drove off the American Indians. Although were looking for an opportunity to avenge one-quarter of his men were dead or their defeat. The American Indians were wounded and he had lost all his flour, faced with British rulers who were not four days later Bouquet arrived at Fort Pitt. going to stop the flow of settlers into the His arrival allowed Fort Pitt to be relieved. Ohio River Valley and other native lands. To settle the troubles with the American The Ohio River Valley Indians eventually Indians, British policy makers in London lost their land. To keep their traditional decided to draw a line down the Allegheny lifestyle they moved further west.

26 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on the French and Indian War

How Did the French and Indian snake, designed by Benjamin Franklin War Set the Stage for the in 1754 as a way of rallying the colonists American Revolution? to work together during the French and Indian War now gained popularity. fter the French and Indian War the A British colonies and the mother Once hostilities broke out and the country entered into a new relationship. American Revolution began, two affects of The British government went deeply into the French and Indian War were evident. debt to pay for the French and Indian First, military officers and soldiers had War. To help cover the cost of the army gained military experience and knowledge stationed in North America, for colonial during the French and Indian War. George defense, the British imposed a series of Washington had clearly learned many taxes on the colonists. These taxes sparked important lessons and developed military the colonists’ complaints about “taxation leadership skills. The colonists had also without representation.” seen that the British army was not invincible. Second, France was very upset During the French and Indian War, about losing the French and Indian War. the American colonists resented being The desire for revenge influenced France’s treated like second-class citizens and decision to ally with Americans during threatened by Lord Loudoun. Soldiers the American Revolution. That aid was had received poor treatment from British instrumental in defeating the British. commanders. New policies, including the Royal Proclamation of 1763, angered Many of the colonial grievances before the colonists. The new taxes and policies the American Revolution had their roots revived these old resentments. in the French and Indian War. Although the French and Indian War did not directly The colonies had been forced to work cause the American Revolution, it did set together during the French and Indian the stage for what was to come. War. They saw the strength of their troops and their economies. For the American Indians, the French and Indian War and Pontiac’s War were The colonists protested each new tax the last wars they fought against the passed by parliament in the 1760s and British or Americans in which they 1770s. They asserted their “natural rights” had enough warriors —the right to life, liberty, and property— and resources to affect and their rights as British citizens were the outcome. Most being violated. Parliament steadfastly nations would be maintained its right to pass laws governing forced to either move the colonists. As the struggle continued, or integrate into the the colonists began to see the advantages dominant society. of joining together. The “Join or Die”

Teacher’s Background 27 Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

t the start of the French and Indian taking care of the crops. Women also War, there were about 175,000 gathered food such as berries and nuts. American Indians in the Great Lakes and In the late winter, both men and women northeastern regions of North America. collected sap from sugar maple trees and They were from different nations and did boiled it down into sugar. not all speak the same language, wear Women were responsible for food the same style clothes, or hold the same preparation and making the family’s beliefs. However, they did have similar clothes. Before contact with Europeans, lifestyles. Today anthropologists call these they used hides and furs decorated with nations collectively the Eastern Woodland bone, porcupine quills, and moose hair. American Indians. After they began trading with the Europeans, they used cloth and purchased Language items such as beads and ribbon as There were two main language groups, the decoration. A child’s mother was Algonkian and the Iroquoian. An Algonkian responsible for his or her upbringing. speaking Shawnee warrior would have dif- Children were rarely scolded or punished ficulty communicating with an Iroquoian and were almost never hit. If a child speaking Seneca, just as today an English misbehaved, he or she might be splashed speaker would have difficulty understand- with cold water. A child’s good behavior ing a person speaking French. was praised. Most Eastern Woodland societies had Towns matrilineal descent. This meant that In summer many families lived together in children belonged to their mother’s clan, towns. The Eastern Woodland towns were not their father’s. usually located on good farmland near a river. The river was used both for water and for transportation. Generally the Eastern Men’s Duties Woodland people made their houses with a The men did the hunting and fishing, and frame of bent saplings covered with bark. made tools. They were also responsible for In winter, family groups moved to hunting protecting the town and were the warriors. camps. Other strenuous work such as clearing fields and making canoes fell to the men. Women’s Duties All the nations cultivated crops – typically corn, beans, and squash. Planted in a mound, the beans grew up the corn stalks and the squash acted as a ground cover. Women were responsible for planting and

Beaded Indian pouch

28 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

Property A chief would remain strong and have the Both men and women owned property. support of his or her people only as long Items such as clothing, weapons, jewelry, as the people prospered. and tools were individually owned. The structure of their society and The Eastern Woodland societies did not government meant each individual recognize individual land ownership. American Indian had a high degree of The nations did have territories that they freedom. The opinions and desires of used and defended. individuals – men, woman, and children – were valued and taken into consideration. Leadership When an important decision needed to be Liberty in North America made, the women would discuss the matter and tell the men their opinions before the The individuals in Eastern Woodland men met. The men would take the women’s societies had a very high degree of opinions into consideration. Both men and freedom when compared with most women were leaders. Some women, like other people in North American society. Queen Alliquippa* (AL-uh-KWIP-uh), held Enslaved Africans had no freedom or considerable political power. Scarouady* property. In the European colonies (SCAR-roh-ah-dee) said “It is no new married woman didn’t own property. thing to take women into our councils, The husband owned all the couple’s particularly amongst the Senecas.” Leaders land, buildings, furnishings, and money. got their status because of their wisdom The only members of society who were and skill. Although the Europeans gave allowed to vote were white, male, land- them titles like “king,” “half king,” owners. and “queen” the Eastern Woodland leaders did not have the power or wealth of European monarchs. James Smith* wrote Wampum that the chief “could neither make war nor Wampum was very important in Eastern peace, leagues nor treaties…” and “the chief Woodland society. Strings and belts of shell of a nation has to hunt for his living, as beads called wampum helped with the any other citizen.” Unlike monarchs, they nation’s long-term memory of their history. needed to follow the suggestions Select members of a community were of their council and the will of their taught the history and memorized the facts community. The chief was the worker of the and stories. The beads of wampum helped people. No one would follow a chief who them remember and retell events. When was the only member of the community to used during council speeches, wampum live a certain lifestyle. showed the truth of the speaker’s words. In making each point, the speaker would offer a different string of wampum.

Wampum belt

*Names in bold print indicate a biography card on that person.

Teacher’s Background 29 Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

This use of wampum was a sacred act, Just as today we would find it hard to go similar to a Christian swearing an oath on without cars or electricity, the Eastern a Bible. A speaker presenting wampum Woodland Indians in the 1700s would would not break his word. Wampum was have found it hard to return to the days also used between communities and without trade items. The muskets became nations during any important event. important tools in hunting and warfare. The European colonists quickly realized The most commonly traded items included the value of wampum and its importance scissors, knives, cooking pots, jewelry, to communication with Eastern Woodland muskets, lead for musket balls, gun nations. Without it the Indians would powder, cloth, blankets, and manufactured not believe the truth of the Europeans’ clothing. As a result of trade, the Indians statements. Because wampum was so ended up with the same technology valued by Eastern Woodland Indians it also as Europeans. became a medium that could be traded. In the Eastern Woodland society when one Warfare individual or nation wanted to convince When one nation had a grievance against another person or nation of something, another they engaged in war. Typically, the they would offer a gift. Often the gift would village decided communally if the warriors be wampum, but it could be many things. could go to war. If it was decided they could The Europeans followed this tradition. go, it was expected that the warriors would When asking favors of the Eastern return with something. The warriors Woodland people, Europeans gave them sought plunder, captives, or scalps. gifts of wampum and trade items. Generally, captives were the most valuable trophies of war. A warrior displayed greater Trade valor taking people alive, than killing them Trading was always important to the for their scalps. Many Eastern Woodland American Indians. Before European contact Indians valued the captives for adoption as they traded with other Indian nations for a replacement for dead kin. Captives who items they didn’t have access to such as were fit enough to march back to the flint and shells. When the Europeans warrior’s village (especially young women arrived, the Indians traded with them and children) had a good chance of being for manufactured European goods. They taken alive. Scalps showed a warrior’s traded furs, mostly beaver and deer, and prowess in battle. Most seriously wounded sometimes food for the items they wanted. victims of a battle or raid were killed and Before contact with Europeans, they did scalped. Anything useful was open for not have metal, firearms, cloth, or alcohol. plunder: food, equipment, clothing, After they began trading with Europeans, or trinkets. these items became part of their lifestyle.

Beads with Iroquois cross

30 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

It was natural for the Indians to continue ally with the French. Warriors from the their warfare traditions when they began Great Lakes region often traveled hundreds allying with Europeans during the French of miles to participate in battles. and Indian War. It is also logical that they During the French and Indian War, the did not understand some of the European British and French offered bounties for ideas on war. In the Eastern Woodland enemy scalps. This encouraged the practice Indian tradition, to the victor went the of scalping. spoils of war. They did not understand when victorious European commanders were reluctant to allow them to plunder. Changing Attitudes It was also baffling when the winning army Today some activities that were allowed the enemy to go, unharmed and practiced in the 1750s are considered with all its equipment. This did not reduce objectionable, and people no longer the enemy’s strength. The European idea participate in them. American Indians that if you put up a good fight, you might no longer practice scalping, just as be rewarded with your weapons and British and Americans no longer freedom (even if you lost) was foreign to practice slavery. the Indians. When making alliances, each nation acted individually and evaluated how it would Captives benefit them. They weighed many factors People who were captured by American such as how an alliance would affect their Indians during raids or battles were access to trade items, what kind of gifts generally either tortured to death or their allies gave them, whether they would adopted. If a captive was adopted, then be victorious in their battles, and how well he or she became part of the family they had been treated in the past. and was treated the same as the other The colonial French Canadian commanders family members. valued the Eastern Woodland warriors’ skills and sought them as allies more North Americans aggressively than the British did. The All the people in North America were French were more likely to understand the striving for the same thing. They were Eastern Woodland Indian traditions and either trying to preserve a lifestyle or motives. To secure allies, the French move toward a better life for themselves. generally gave the Indians more gifts As they sought their goals, they often and gave more weight to their advice. came into conflict. The French were also long-time trading partners with many nations. For these reasons many Indian nations decided to Turtle rattle

Teacher’s Background 31 Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

The Many Nations The Haudenosaunee or Iroquois- Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Lenape or Delaware Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora The people of this nation called themselves Lenape (LEN-ah-pay). The British called Probably about three centuries before them the “Delaware.” The Delaware were the French and Indian War, five nations – Algonkian speaking. Their traditional the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, homeland was in what is now New Jersey the Cayugas, and the Senecas – united to and eastern Pennsylvania. It was a form a confederacy. They called themselves Delaware chief that met with William Penn the Haudenosaunee (hou-DE-no-saw-nee) in 1682 near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. or “People Building a Long House.” In 1722 Penn was one of the few Europeans who the Tuscarora became a member of the believed in treating the American Indians confederacy. Together they became known well. By the 1750s many of the Delaware as the Six Nations of the Iroquois or the had moved from their traditional homes Iroquois Confederacy. The Iroquois lived in because of British settlement and settled what is now western and northern New in the Ohio River Valley. York State. The Iroquois Confederacy was founded on the pledge that the nations would unite and not kill each other. Shawnee They wished that all nations would join in The Shawnee were also Algonkian their league of peace. They used many speaking. Although the Shawnee language methods to get other nations to ally with was not the same as the Delaware or other them. If a nation did not ally with the Algonkian speaking nations, they could Iroquois, they were considered enemies. generally understand each other. The During the 1750s, the Delaware and difference might be similar to present day Shawnee were under Iroquois political English and Shakespearean English. influence and not considered their enemies. The Shawnee were in eastern Pennsylvania The confederacy consisted of six in the 1600s. Like the Delaware, by the independent nations, each of which had 1750s they had moved from their former its own council. Each nation elected homelands further west, with many settling representatives to the confederacy’s in the Ohio River Valley. Generally, the council, known as the Great Council or Shawnee were nationalistic and more the Onondaga Council (since the meetings hostile to the Europeans than other were held at Onondaga). The Great nations. The Shawnee were one of the few Council’s role was to come up with a Eastern Woodland nations with patrilineal unified policy, or action, for the descent, whereby the children belonged to confederacy, since all six nations did not the father’s clan. always agree. This political organization

War club with steel blade

32 Teacher’s Background Teacher Background on Eastern Woodland American Indian Life

helped them successfully coordinate their St. Lawrence Eastern wars, foreign policy, and trade policy. Woodland Indians For internal communication, the These nations also had traditional ties confederacy developed a system of relay to the French. These nations were all runners. At its maximum, the confederacy Algonkian speaking. controlled territory from the Chesapeake • Abenaki (ahbuh-NAKEE) Bay to the southern end of Lake Michigan, and north through southern Ontario • Algonquin (al-GAHNGK-win) and Quebec. • Caughnawaga (CON-uh-WOG-uh) Most Eastern Woodland people built bark • Maleseet (MALUH-seet) and wood houses for one family, but the • Micmac (MIK-mak) Iroquois lived in longhouses, inhabited by several families. Each family had its own • Nipissing (NIPI-sing) fireplace. The longhouse also symbolized their political system. Each nation in the Iroquois Confederacy spoke its own dialect of a common Iroquoian language.

Great Lakes Eastern Woodland Indians The Great Lakes Indians were traditional allies with the French. Most of these nations had been trading partners with the French for years. The majority spoke an Algonkian language, however, the Winnebagos spoke a Siouan language, and the Wyandot spoke an Iroquoian language. • Fox • Kickapoo (KI-ke-poo) • Mascouten (MUHS-koo-tuhn) • Menominee (MUH-nah-muh-nee) • Miami (MAH-ya-mee) • Ojibwa (oh-JIB-wuh) (also known as the Chippewa (CHIP-uh-wuh)) • Ottawa (ah-TUH-wuh) • Potowantomi (PAH-tuh-WAH-tuh-mee) • Sauk (souk) • Winnebagos (winuh-BAY-goh) • Wyandot (WEYE-yuhn-daht) (also known as the Huron) Bear claw necklace

Teacher’s Background 33 Teacher Background on Franklin and Braddock

n the winter of 1755, General they needed. The ad suggested that it might Braddock* arrived in Virginia with two be better to volunteer. Franklin pointed out regiments of regular English troops. The to the readers that the providers would be army began its march to the frontier. They well paid and the work would not be hard needed supplies and at least 150 wagons on the wagons or horses. and hundreds of horses to move them. Within two weeks 150 wagons and nearly Braddock sent officers into Maryland and 300 horses joined Braddock’s army. Virginia to get what they needed. They Pennsylvania also sent 20 extra packhorses returned with only 25 wagons. Braddock with provisions as a gift to the junior was very unhappy with the situation. This officers with Braddock’s army. In an lack of wagons and horses could jeopardize enthusiastic thank you letter, Braddock the whole expedition. told Franklin that Pennsylvania “had By the end of April the army had made it promised nothing and performed as far as Frederick, Maryland. Braddock everything” while Virginia and Maryland made his headquarters in the town’s stone “had promised everything and performed tavern, and it was there that Benjamin nothing.” Franklin* met with Braddock. Franklin Franklin found Braddock to be a brave was serving as Postmaster General. It was man, but with “too high opinion” of the his job to open the lines of communication British troops and too low an opinion between Braddock and the governors of of the American and American Indian the colonies where he would be operating. fighters. Franklin claims to have warned Realizing Braddock’s desperate lack of Braddock that the long line of troops transportation, Franklin offered to help marching through the woods would be the general secure horses and wagons. exposed to surprise attacks. According Braddock entrusted him with £800, to Franklin, “He [Braddock] smiled at my and Franklin contributed £200 of his Ignorance,” and pointed out that while own money. the American Indians might “be a Franklin returned to Pennsylvania and on formidable enemy to your raw American April 26, 1755, advertised in a Lancaster militia, but upon the king’s regular and newspaper for 150 wagons and drivers with disciplin’d troops it is impossible they 4 horses per wagon, and 1,500 packhorses. should make any impression.” Franklin included a letter at the end of the notice. In the letter he pointed out that the general and officers of the Army had been very upset about the lack of wagons and Gentleman’s walking stick horses. They had threatened to send armed forces into the countryside to seize what

*Names in bold print indicate a biography card on that person.

34 Teacher’s Background 90