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A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates

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A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev DOI 10.1007/s10567-008-0037-9 A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates Nicole Heilbron Æ Mitchell J. Prinstein Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008 Abstract The emergence of a research literature explor- decades, a considerable empirical literature has demon- ing parallels between physical and nonphysical (i.e., social, strated associations between physical aggression and relational, indirect) forms of aggression has raised many various indices of social incompetence, including social- questions about the developmental effects of aggressive cognitive biases, social skill deficits, and peer rejection behavior on psychological functioning, peer relationships, (e.g., Dodge 1983; Lochman and Dodge 1998). Numerous and social status. Although both forms of aggression have longitudinal studies have identified childhood physical been linked to problematic outcomes in childhood and aggression as a risk factor for a variety of deleterious adolescence, more recent findings have highlighted the outcomes, including future delinquency, criminal activity, importance of considering the possible social rewards school dropout, and substance use during adolescence and conferred by socially aggressive behavior. This paper adulthood (e.g., Broidy et al. 2003; Nagin and Tremblay examines relevant theory and empirical research investi- 1999; Patterson et al. 1991). Given that treatment of anti- gating the adaptive and maladaptive correlates specific to social and aggressive behavior represents a primary cause nonphysical forms of aggression. Findings are explored at of referral to inpatient and outpatient clinics for adoles- the level of group (e.g., peer rejection), dyadic (e.g., cents, knowledge of the adverse correlates and friendship quality), and individual (e.g., depressive symp- consequences of aggression is critical for informing toms) variables. Key developmental considerations and effective intervention and prevention programs (Barkley methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations and Connor 2002). for future research integrating current theoretical concep- Although physical behaviors have been the focus of the tualizations and empirical findings on social aggression are majority of research efforts on aggression, recent interest in advanced. the constructs of social, relational, and indirect aggression has prompted a reexamination of the form, function, and Keywords Social aggression Á Relational aggression Á operationalization of aggressive behavior (Underwood Adaptation Á Peer relationships Á Social status 2003). Indeed, over the past 15 years there has been a dramatic increase in the number of studies aimed at understanding nonphysical forms of aggression. Whereas Introduction physical and verbal aggression involve overt behaviors such as inflicting or threatening physical harm, social, Perhaps one of the most pressing concerns examined in relational, or indirect forms of aggression are defined in clinical child psychology pertains to the predictors and terms of behaviors aimed at causing social or interpersonal consequences of aggressive behavior. Over the past three harm through overt or covert means. The earliest studies of this broadened conceptualization revealed that nonphysical aggression (e.g., snubbing, ignoring) was experienced as & N. Heilbron ( ) Á M. J. Prinstein hurtful by victims (Feshbach 1969; Feshbach and Sones Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, CB#3270, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3270, USA 1971). Research demonstrating similar deleterious conse- e-mail: [email protected] quences of nonphysical forms of aggression has rapidly 123 Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev proliferated in the past decade (e.g., Crick 1997; Crick and mood), or behavioral (e.g., externalizing behavior) out- Grotpeter 1996; Galen and Underwood 1997). However, comes that may be related to psychosocial adjustment. empirical work on these topics may have outpaced the development of theory needed to guide this research in the most productive directions. Review of Definitions As research on nonphysical forms of aggressive behavior Purposes of the Present Review has rapidly expanded over the past decade, theorists have lamented the definitional obfuscation that now character- This review was motivated by the central hypothesis that izes work in this area. Therefore, it may be instructive to socially aggressive behaviors may be associated with both begin by clarifying underlying differences in constructs adaptive and maladaptive social-psychological correlates. referred to as social, relational, and indirect aggression. Although this hypothesis is by no means entirely novel, it is Social aggression refers to behaviors that intentionally striking that the conceptualization of aggression as a form damage interpersonal relationships and/or social status of psychopathology continues to dominate the empirical through nonconfrontational and generally concealed literature on social aggression (see Smith 2007, for a methods (Galen and Underwood 1997; Underwood 2003). review). There are notable exceptions to this emphasis on These behaviors typically require the involvement of the ‘‘dark side’’ of aggressive behavior (e.g., Hawley et al. members of the social community (e.g., gossip, social 2007b); however, findings from studies of concurrent and exclusion, ostracism, negative facial expressions; Cairns longitudinal correlates of social aggression have yet to be et al. 1989; Galen and Underwood 1997; Paquette and systematically reviewed. Accordingly, this paper seeks to Underwood 1999). This broad definition is designed to address this gap in the literature in an effort to underscore include both direct and indirect behaviors, verbal and the importance of considering potential adaptive correlates nonverbal social exclusion, malicious gossip, and friend- of social aggression and thereby advance a more balanced ship manipulation (Underwood 2003). conceptualization. Though similar to social aggression, the construct of To explore specific questions related to the aforemen- relational aggression has subtle, but important distinctions. tioned hypothesis, at least two key issues must be Relationally aggressive behaviors also are defined as addressed. First, there remains considerable confusion behaviors that cause social rather than physical harm; regarding the nomenclature used to describe social types of however, relationally aggressive behavior primarily aggressive behaviors. Second, work on nonphysical forms involves the direct manipulation of peer relationships and of aggression has remained relatively detached from the- by definition, does not include negative facial expressions oretical advances that have been widely adopted regarding or gestures (Crick 1995, 1997; Crick and Grotpeter 1995). the psychological mechanisms of physically aggressive These behaviors may be confrontational (e.g., publicly behavior. Accordingly, the purposes of the present review excluding a peer from the social group) or nonconfronta- are: (a) to outline basic strategies used to define social tional (e.g., character defamation), and may or may not forms of aggression; (b) to review several key theories involve members of the social community. Individual dif- developed predominantly in reference to physical aggres- ferences in relational aggression are typically assessed with sion; and (c) to explore the applicability of such theoretical peer nomination methods (e.g., Crick and Grotpeter 1995). perspectives to socially aggressive behaviors. To further Several factor analytic studies report evidence that the examine these issues from an empirical perspective, find- behaviors used to define social and relational aggression ings from the extant literature on adaptive and maladaptive cluster together (Bjo¨rkqvist et al. 1992a; Crick and Grot- longitudinal correlates of social aggression in group-, peter 1995). That said, this issue has been confounded by dyadic-, and individual-level contexts are reviewed. measurement and methodological constraints, and there- This approach is consistent with a longstanding tradition fore continues to be a subject of considerable debate within of examining peer effects in multiple social and interper- the literature (e.g., Archer and Coyne 2005; Bjo¨rkqvist sonal contexts (Hartup 1996). Group-level peer experiences et al. 1992a; Crick and Grotpeter 1995; Underwood 2003). are focused on peer experiences and reputations within the Lastly, indirect aggression broadly refers to behaviors overall social context (such as peer acceptance/rejection or that may be covert (i.e., the aggressor does not intend to be peer-perceived popularity). Dyadic-level peer experiences known to the victim), such as ignoring, avoiding, or include participation in friendships, friendship stability, and excluding others from social interactions (Bjo¨rkqvist et al. the positive and negative friendship qualities of these 1992a; Lagerspetz et al. 1988). This terminology was first relationships. Lastly, individual-level correlates refer to any introduced by Feshbach (1969) and Feshbach and Sones cognitive (e.g., attributional bias), affective (e.g., depressed (1971) to define the behavior of individuals who snubbed a 123 Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev newcomer during a laboratory observation session. Lag- to a relative neglect of girls’ mental health issues (Crick erspetz and colleagues later adopted the term to refer to 2003; Crick et al. 1999b). As definitions of nonphysical behavioral strategies
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