DESCRIPTION OF THE NANTAHALA QUADRANGLE.

By Arthur Keith.

GEOGRAPHY. have been changed to slates, schists, or similar except the eastern slope is drained westward by beyond the junction of these two rivers the valley rocks by varying degrees of metamorphism, or tributaries of the Tennessee or southward by tribu­ is hemmed in by steep mountains and becomes a GENERAL RELATIONS. igneous rocks, such as granite and diabase, which taries of the Coosa. narrow and rocky gorge. The descent of 4000 feet Location. The Nantahala quadrangle lies mainly have solidified from a molten condition. The position of the streams in the Appalachian from Hangover to the mouth of Cheoah River is in North Carolina, but in its northwest corner The ,western division of the Appalachian prov­ Valley is dependent on the geologic structure. In accomplished in a trifle over 4 miles. includes also a few square miles of Tennessee. It ince embraces the Cumberland Plateau and Alle­ general they flow in courses which for long dis­ Hiwassee River below Hayesville is bordered by is bounded by parallels 35° and 35° 30' and merid­ gheny Mountains and the lowlands of Tennessee, tances are parallel to the sides of the Great Valley, plateaus of the same character as those on the Little ians 83° 30' and 84°, and contains 985 square miles, Kentucky, and Ohio. Its northwestern boundary following the lesser valleys along the outcrops of Tennessee. A short distance above that point the in Graham, Swain, Macon, Clay, and Cherokee is indefinite, but may be regarded as an arbitrary the softer rocks. These longitudinal streams empty river is nearly at the level of the plateau. Valley counties, North Carolina, and Monroe and Blount line coinciding with the eastern boundary of the into a number of larger, transverse rivers, which River, although a smaller stream, has cut its chan­ counties, Tennessee. Mississippi embayment as far up as Cairo, and cross one or the other of the barriers limiting the nel wider than the Hiwassee, because much of its In its geographic and geologic relations this then crossing the States of Illinois and Indiana. valley. In the northern portion of the province course is on the marble beds (see fig. 3 on colum­ quadrangle forms part of the Appalachian prov­ Its eastern boundary is sharply defined along the they form Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, nar section sheet). The ready solubility of these ince, which extends from the Atlantic Coastal Plain Appalachian Valley by the Allegheny Front and and Roanoke rivers, each of which passes through beds has resulted in broad and open valleys along on the east to the Mississippi lowlands on the west, the Cumberland escarpment. The rocks of this the Appalachian Mountains in a narrow gap and the river, from 200 to 300 feet below the plateau and from central Alabama to southern New York. division are almost entirely of sedimentary origin flows eastward to the sea. In the central portion level. Both these rivers have broad terraces cov­ All parts of the region thus denned have a common and remain very nearly horizontal. The character of the province, in Kentucky and Virginia, these ered with- waterworn pebbles from 25 to 50 feet history, recorded in its rocks, its geologic structure, of the surface, which is dependent on the character longitudinal streams form New (or Kanawha) above the stream level. Each river in this quad­ and its topographic features. Only a part of this and attitude of the rocks, is that of a plateau more River, which flows westward in a deep, narrow rangle has worn its basin down to its particular history can be read from an area so small as that or less completely worn down. In the southern gorge through the Cumberland Plateau into Ohio local base-level, and the plateaus thus produced represented on a single atlas sheet; hence it is neces­ half of the province the Plateau is sometimes River. From New River southward to northern have different heights, varying according to the sary to consider the individual area in its relations extensive and perfectly flat, but it is oftener much Georgia the Great Valley is drained by tributaries difficulty of erosion. All of the stream valleys to the entire province. divided by streams into Large or small areas with of Tennessee River, which at Chattanooga leaves except the Nantahala were reduced to substantially Subdivisions of the Appalachian province. The flat tops. In West Virginia and portions of Penn­ the broad valley and, entering a gorge through the same level 2000 to 2100 feet. The plateaus Appalachian province is composed of three well- sylvania the Plateau is sharply cut by streams, leav­ the Plateau, runs westward to the Ohio. South which now appear on the Nantahala were pro­ marked physiographic divisions, throughout each of ing in relief irregularly rounded knobs and ridges of Chattanooga the streams flow directly to the duced at a considerably earlier date than those of which certain forces have tended to produce similar which bear but little resemblance to the original Gulf of Mexico. the other streams and are about 1000 feet higher. results in sedimentation, in geologic structure, and surface. The western portion of the Plateau has Above the levels of the different plateaus the val­ DETAILED GEOGRAPHY OF THE QUADRANGLE. in topography. These divisions extend the entire been completely removed by erosion, and the sur­ leys are wild and rocky V-shaped ravines, with length of the province, from northeast to southwest. face is now comparatively low and level, or rolling. Geographic divisions. The Nantahala quadran­ slopes steadily increasing nearly to the divides. The central division is the Appalachian Valley. Altitude of the Appalachian province. The gle is included entirely in the Mountain division Topography. The variations in the topography It is the best defined and most uniform of the Appalachian province as a whole is broadly dome of the Appalachian province. The quadrangle of this region depend very largely upon the influ­ three. In the southern part it coincides with the shaped, its surface rising from an altitude of about includes the Great Smoky Mountains on the north, ence of erosion on the different formations. Such belt of folded rocks which forms the Coosa Valley 500 feet along the eastern margin to the crest of the Blue Ridge on the southeast, and various cross rock-forming minerals as carbonates of lime and of Georgia and Alabama and the Great Valley of the Appalachian Mountains and thence descending ranges in the center. In this region there is less magnesia, and to a less extent feldspar, are East Tennessee and Virginia. Throughout the cen­ westward to about the same altitude on Ohio and correspondence than usual between the forms of the removed by solution in water. Rocks contain­ tral and northern portions the eastern side only is Mississippi rivers. surface and the underlying strata. This-is true ing these minerals in large proportions are, there­ marked by great valleys such as the Shenandoah Each division of the province shows one or of the details of the formations as well as of the fore, subject to decay by solution, which breaks up Valley of Virginia, the Cumberland Valley of more culminating points. Thus the Appalachian broad geologic divisions. The surface of the region the rock and leaves the insoluble matter less firmly Maryland and Pennsylvania, and the Lebanon Mountains rise gradually from less than 1000 feet is that of a number of mountain ranges running in united. Frost, rain, and streams break up and Valley of eastern Pennsylvania the western side in Alabama to more than 6700 feet in western various directions, separated by narrow stream val­ carry off this remainder, and the surface is thus being a succession of ridges alternating witK narrow North Carolina. From this culminating point leys and small plateaus. The area which lies in worn down. According to the nature and amount valleys. This division varies -in width from 40 to they decrease to 4000 or 3000 feet in southern Tennessee is very small and differs in no respect of the insoluble matter the rocks form high or low 125 miles. It is sharply outlined on the southeast Virginia, rise to 4000 feet in central Virginia, and from the North Carolina portion. ground. Calcareous rocks, leaving the least resi­ by the Appalachian Mountains and on the north­ descend to 2000 or 1500 feet on the Maryland- Drainage. The region is drained by six rivers. due, make the low ground. Such are the Nottely west by the Cumberland Plateau and the Alle­ Pennsylvania line; One of these, the Tallulah, flows south from the marble and the Andrews schist; these leave a fine gheny Mountains. Its rocks are almost wholly The Appalachian Valley shows a uniform Blue Ridge at Standing Indian and finds its way clay after solution. The least soluble rocks are sedimentary, "and are in large measure calcareous. increase in altitude from 500 feet or less in into the Atlantic. Of the others, the Nantahala the quartzites and the more siliceous portions of The strata, which must originally have been nearly Alabama to 900 feet in the. vicinity of Chatta­ and Cheoah join the Little Tennessee within this the Great Smoky conglomerate. Since most of horizontal, now intersect the surface at various nooga, 2000 feet at the Tennessee-Virginia line, quadrangle; Valley and Hiwassee rivers unite just their mass is left untouched by solution they are angles and in narrow belts. The surface features and 2600 or 2700 feet at its culminating point, west of the quadrangle and also join Tennessee among the last to be reduced in height. The vary with the outcrops of different kinds of rock, on the divide between Newx and Tennessee rivers. River on the western side of the Great Valley. quartzite formations in this quadrangle, however, so that sharp ridges and narrow valleys of great From this point northward it descends to 2200 Thus practically all of the water of this region seldom have bulk sufficient to maintain very great length follow narrow, belts of hard and soft rock. feet in the valley of New River, 1500 to 1000 feet flows into the Ohio and the Gulf of Mexico. heights. Teyahali Bald, 4708 feet, and Tusquitee Owing to the large amount of calcareous rock in the James River basin, and 1000 to 500 feet in All the rivers in this region have heavy grades. Bald, 5291 feet, are exceptional heights for the brought up on the steep folds of this district its the Potomac River basin, remaining about the Valley River has the least fall- from 2700 feet -at quartzite. Apparently much of the Great Smoky surface is more readily worn down by streams and same through Pennsylvania. These figures repre­ Red Marble Gap to about 1500 feet at the border conglomerate forms an exception to the rule, for is lower and less broken than the divisions on sent the average elevation of the valley surface, of the quadrangle. Nantahala River has by far it contains much soluble matter in feldspar and either side. below which the stream channels are sunk from 50 the greatest descent, falling from 4100 feet on the yet maintains great heights, such as Hooper Bald, The eastern division of the province embraces to 250 feet, and above which the valley ridges rise Blue Ridge to a little less than 1600 feet at the 5485 feet; Hangover, 5147; Cheoah Bald, 5065; the Appalachian Mountains, a system which is from 500 to 2000 feet. point where it joins the Little Tennessee, an aver­ and Tellico Bald, 5200 feet. For this result the made up of many minor ranges and which, under The Plateau or western division increases in age grade of about 65 feet per mile, the greater part immense mass of the formation and the insolu­ various local names, extends from southern New altitude from 500 feet at the southern edge of the of it coming in the upper 25 miles. A similarly bility of the quartz it contains are largely respon­ York to central Alabama. Some of its prominent province to 1500 feet in northern Alabama, 2000 rapid fall characterizes the lower portion of Cheoah sible. Many portions of the Roan gneiss areas parts are the South Mountain of Pennsylvania, the feet in central Tennessee, and 3500 feet in south­ River. Originally the Nantahala flowed in a direct also attain great altitudes, although much of the Blue Ridge and Catoctin Mountain of Maryland eastern Kentucky. Its height is between 3000 and course down the Cheoah Valley. It was diverted hornblende and feldspar occurring in them is com­ and Virginia, the Great Smoky Mountains of 4000 feet in West Virginia, and decreases to about about midway in its course by a branch of Little paratively soluble. The Carolina gneiss forms Tennessee and North Carolina, and the Cohutta 2000 feet in Pennsylvania. From its greatest alti­ Tennessee River, working back along the soluble much high ground, including Standing Indian, Mountains of Georgia, -s The eastern division also tude, along its eastern edge, the Plateau- slopes Murphy marble. Its old elevation of 2800 feet is 5495 feet, one of the highest points on the Blue embraces the Piedmont Plateau, a vast upland gradually westward, although it is generally sepa­ marked by pebble deposits on summits }/{. miles Ridge. Many other summits formed by the gneiss which, as its name implies, lies at the foot of the rated from the interior lowlands by an abrupt nearly west and 3 miles nearly southeast of Nan­ are over 5000 feet. Appalachian Mountains. It stretches eastward escarpment. tahala. On the upper reaches of both of these Erosion of the sedimentary formations has tended and southward from their foot from New York to Drainage of- the Appalachian province. The streams small plateaus and terraces, rarely over a to produce a series of ridges and valleys which Alabama, and passes into the Coastal Plain, which drainage of the province is in part eastward into mile in width, accompany the watercourses. Below follow the belts of rock, but only where the for­ borders the Atlantic Ocean. The Mountains and the Atlantic, in part southward into the Gulf,, and Aquone, on the Nantahala, and Buffalo Creek, on mations differ from one another considerably in the Plateau are separated by no sharp boundary, in part westward into the Mississippi. All of the the Cheoah, the channels of the rivers descend in solubility is this result attained to any great but merge into each other. The same rocks and western or Plateau division of the province, except narrow and rapidly deepening canyons (see fig. degree. In the basin of Valley River and in the the same structures appear in each, and the form a small portion in Pennsylvania and another in 1 on columnar section sheet). Similar plateaus, vicinity of Peachtree Creek the results of this of the surface varies largely in accordance with the Alabama, is drained by streams flowing westward from 2 to 4 miles wide, border the upper parts process are marked, Where the formations spread ability of the different streams to wear down the to the Ohio. The northern portion of the eastern of the Little Tennessee and Tuckasegee./ The out with a low dip the valleys and ridges are rocks. Most of the rocks of this division are more or Appalachian Mountain division is drained east­ river channels have cut their way 200 to/500 feet broad, and where the strata dips steeply the val­ or less crystalline, being either sediments which ward to the Atlantic, while south of New River all below the surface of these plateaus. Not far leys are narrow. Each turn in the course of a formation is reflected in the turn of the ridge or During succeeding epochs masses of igneous sition of sediment in the Appalachian province, ally found near the bodies of Roan gneiss. The valley which it causes. Each rock produces a rock were forced into the gneiss. The lapse of except along its borders in recent times. garnets may be due in places to contact action near uniform type of surface so long as its composition time was great; igneous rocks of many different The columnar section shows the composition, the eruptive Roan gneiss, but they also occupy situ­ remains the same; with each change in composi­ kinds were intruded, and later intrusive masses name, age, and, when determinable, the thickness ations too remote for such a cause. Most of the tion the surface changes form. Conspicuous were forced into the earlier. The granitic texture of each formation exposed in the quadrangle. garnets are less than a quarter of an inch in diam­ examples of the control of the topography by the of some of the formations and the lamination and eter. In some places, however, as on Eagle Fork DESCRIPTION OF FORMATIONS. character of the rock are afforded by the areas of schistosity of others were produced at great depths of Shooting Creek, they are from 1 to 2 inches in the Nottely quartzite and the Murphy marble. The below the surface. EOCKS OF THE QUADEANGLE. diameter. As a rule they lie in rather distinct limestones have disappeared through solution from Upon these once deep-seated rocks now rest The rocks of this district are sedimentary, igne­ bands in the gneiss, but are freely disseminated the valley floors which they underlie, and the lavas which poured forth upon the surface in ous, and metamorphic; most of the varieties of through the schist. clays which they left have been swept over with pre-Cambrian time. Thus there are in contact sedimentary rock are present, and a few of the igne­ Cyanite is found in the gneiss of Nantahala waste from the adjacent mountains. This material two extremes of igneous rocks those which con­ ous and crystalline. They range in age from the Mountains east of Aquone. The mineral occurs forms the terraces and bottoms which follow the solidated at a considerable depth, and those which earliest known formation of the Archean well into in flat stubby crystals half an inch long accom­ streams, even far up toward their heads. In the cooled at the surface. The more ancient crystal­ the Cambrian. Rocks of still later age are found in panied by small garnets. They follow distinct basins of Valley and Hiwassee rivers these are con­ line complex had therefore undergone uplift and dikes cutting the Archean and Cambrian beds, but layers in the rock and usually their crystals are spicuous. In most of the quadrangle, however, the long-continued erosion before the period of vol­ the dikes are too small to be shown on the map. parallel to the foliation. Their color is light gray rock belts are broad and differences in solubility canic activity began. The complex may safely be The strata of Cambrian age are those which constitute or dark gray. are not great, consequently the valleys and ridges referred to the Archean period, being immeasura­ the Ocoee group. Until recently the age of these Pegmatite. Included in the area of the forma­ do not follow the rock belts at all closely. In the bly older than any rocks of known age. Whether strata was not definitely settled. They are now tion are many sheets or veins of pegmatite. These streams which drain the Great Smoky conglomerate these ancient lavas represent a late portion of the assigned to Cambrian, upon evidence gathered occur in the shape of lenses from 1 to 10 feet in areas there is no such relation apparent. Even Archean or are of Algonkian age is not certain. within this quadrangle and in those situated far­ thickness and in places over a mile long. They where there is some difference in solubility for The latter is more probable, for they are closely ther north and east, particularly the Knoxville, lie for the most part parallel to the foliation of instance, between the Great Smoky conglomerate associated with the Cambrian rocks. Yet they are Mount Guyot, Asheville, and Roan Mountain. the gneiss, but sometimes cut the latter abruptly. and the Nantahala slate the streams are not yet separated from the Cambrian strata by an uncon­ The evidence includes structural position, the Many of the smaller lenses can be seen to be sur­ adjusted to the rock belts, but are forced by their formity, and fragments of the lavas form basal details and sequence of the different formations, rounded on all sides by mica-gneiss, and apparently high grades into the most direct channels. conglomerates in the Cambrian. and the tracing of distinctive beds throughout were deposited from aqueous solutions. Near the Next, after a period of erosion, the land was the entire region from points where their age is contacts of the Carolina and Roan gneisses these peg­ GEOLOGY. submerged, and sandstones, shales, and limestones known, as in the Roan Mountain quadrangle. matites are most conspicuous. They consist chiefly were laid down upon the older rocks. In these The older, or Archean, group occupies the lesser of very coarsely crystalline feldspar, quartz, bio­ GENERAL GEOLOGIC RECORD. sediments are to be seen fragments and waste from area and the Cambrian rocks the greater. tite, and muscovite. Much merchantable mica is Nature of the formations. The formations which the igneous and metamorphic rocks. The different The Archean and Cambrian rocks occupy two secured from the pegmatites, and many rare min­ appear at the surface of the Nantahala quad­ sedimentary formations are classified as of Cam­ very distinct areas. South and east of Tusquitee erals are found in them, such as beryl, aquamarine, rangle and adjoining portions of the Appalachian brian or later age, according to the fossils which Mountains and Tellico Bald lie the Archean rocks, garnet, and others less valuable. province comprise igneous, ancient metamorphic, they contain. Remnants of these strata are now while the remainder of the quadrangle is occupied Metamorphism. The Carolina gneiss covers and sedimentary bodies, all more or less altered infolded in the igneous and metamorphic rocks, by the Cambrian rocks. Along the line of Valley a greater area than any other formation in this since their materials were first brought together. and the portions thus preserved from erosion cover and Nantahala rivers are found the youngest strata region. On account of the uniform aspect of its Some of them are very ancient, going back to the large areas of the mountains. The submergence in the region, while the basins of Cheoah and Little beds over large areas, no true measure of its thick­ earliest known period. They are found mainly in which caused their deposition began at least as Tennessee rivers are mainly occupied by the Great ness can be obtained; even an estimate is of no value. two groups, of different age and character. These early as the beginning of Cambrian and extended Smoky conglomerate, the oldest sedimentary deposit. The thickness is apparently enormous, having been are (1) igneous and metamorphic rocks, including at least into Silurian time. It is possible that the The two groups are sharply defined and only one increased many times by the folding and the very gneiss, schist, granite, diorite, and similar forma­ beginning was earlier and the end not until the area of the Archean rocks appears within the dis­ great metamorphism to which the gneiss has been tions; and (2) sedimentary strata, of early Cam­ close of Carboniferous time; the precise limits are trict occupied mainly by the sedimentary rocks. subjected. The original nature of this gneiss is brian age, including conglomerate, sandstone, shale, not yet known. The formations into which the rocks are separated uncertain. It is possible that the whole mass was limestone, and their metamorphosed equivalents. These strata comprise conglomerate, sandstone, will be described in order of age, beginning with once a granite. Some of the material has a gran­ The older of these groups occupies the greater slate, shale, limestone, and allied rocks in great the oldest. itic character now, and its local metamorphism to area, and the younger the lesser. The materials variety. They were far from being a continuous schist can be readily seen. Other and similar AECHEAN EOCKS. of which the sedimentary rocks are composed were series, for the land was at times uplifted and areas material might easily have been altered into the originally gravel, sand, and mud, derived from the of fresh deposits were exposed to erosion. The sea CAROLINA GNEISS. great body of mica-schist. Such an origin can less Avaste of older rocks, and the remains of plants and gradually advanced eastward, however, and land Distribution. A wide area in the southeastern easily be attributed to the beds of banded gneiss, animals. All have been greatly changed since their areas which furnished sediment during the early part of this quadrangle is covered by this forma­ however, since it fails to account for the parallel deposition, the alteration being so profound in some Cambrian were covered by later Paleozoic deposits. tion, which is so named because of its great extent layers and banding. In the Cowee quadrangle of the older gneisses and schists as to destroy their The sea occupied most of the Appalachian prov­ in North Carolina and South Carolina. The for­ many parts of the formation for instance, the original nature. ; ince and the Mississippi basin. The area of the mation is the oldest in this region, since it is cut marble beds and the adjoining gneisses are doubt­ From the relations of the formations to one Nantahala quadrangle at first formed part of the by all igneous rocks and is overlain by the sedi­ less of sedimentary origin. It is very likely that another and from their internal structures many eastern margin of the sea, and the materials of ments. Inclosed within it are numerous represen­ still other sedimentary masses have not been events in their history can be deduced. Whether which the rocks are composed were derived largely tatives of the igneous formations, too small to be distinguished in the Carolina because of their the crystalline rocks were formed at great depth or from the land to the southeast. The exact posi­ shown on the map. total metamorphism and similarity to 'the igneous at the surface is shown by their structures and tex­ tion of the eastern shore line of this ancient sea General character. The formation consists of an gneisses. tures. The amount and the nature of the pressure is known only here and there, and it probably immense series of interbedded mica-schist, garnet- Whatever their original nature, one deforma­ sustained by the rocks are indicated in a measure varied from time to time within rather wide limits. schist, mica-gneiss, garnet-gneiss, cyanite-gneiss, tion produced a foliation of these rocks, and a sub­ by their folding and metamorphism. The com­ Cycles of sedimentation. Four great cycles of and fine granitoid layers. Most of them are light sequent deformation folded and crushed the earlier position and coarseness of the sediments show the sedimentation are recorded in the rocks of this or dark gray in color, weathering to dull gray and planes and structures. Before the latter period the depth of water and the distance from shore at which region. The first definite record now remaining greenish gray. Layers of white granitic material pegmatites were formed. These were thoroughly they were produced. Cross-bedding and ripple was made by coarse conglomerates, sandstones, and are not uncommon, and lenses and veins of pegma­ mashed by the second deformation and retain in marks in sandstones indicate strong and variable shales, deposited in early Cambrian time along the tite are frequent. Much the greater part of the many places only a fraction of their original coarse­ currents. Mud cracks in shales show that their eastern border of the interior sea as it encroached formation consists of mica-gneiss and mica-schist. ness. In most of the formation excessive metamor­ areas were at times above and at times below upon the land. As the land was worn down and Toward the southeast the strictly gneissic beds are phism has destroyed the original attitudes and most water. Red sandstones and shales were produced still further depressed the sediment became finer, more numerous and their banding becomes slightly of the original appearance of the rocks. The rocks when erosion was revived on a land surface long until in the Cambro-Ordovician Knox dolomite coarser and better defined. In them the minerals of the formation are now composed entirely of the subject to decay and covered with a deep resid­ very little trace of shore material is seen. After are segregated into layers, either singly or in combi­ metamorphic minerals. These are usually arranged ual soil. Limestones show that the currents this long period of quiet came a slight elevation, nations, thus producing rocks with a marked banded with their longer dimensions nearly parallel to one were too weak to carry sediment or that the land producing coarser rocks; this uplift became more appearance. These rocks have more feldspar than another and to the different layers. Where the was low and furnished only fine clay and sub­ and more pronounced, until, between the Ordo- the schists. The schists are composed of quartz, layers have been bent by the later deformation the stances in solution. Coarse strata and conglomer­ vician and Silurian, the land was much expanded muscovite, a little biotite, and a very little feldspar. minerals are bent into corresponding curves. In ate indicate strong currents and wave action during and large areas of recently deposited sandstones They have a fine grain and a strong schistosity, places where by the second deformation a second their formation. were lifted above the sea, thus completing the first but their texture is even and the minerals are uni­ schistosity was produced, this schistosity cuts in Principal geologic events. The rocks themselves great cycle. After this elevation came a second formly distributed. The granitoid layers contain parallel planes across the older schistose layers. thus yield records of widely separated epochs from depression, during which the land was again worn quartz and feldspar, with muscovite and biotite Since the schistosity is produced more strongly the earliest age of geologic history through the down nearly to base-level, affording conditions for in small amounts; in the light-colored layers the by the micas than by other minerals, the coarse Paleozoic. The entire record may be summarized the accumulation of the Devonian black shale. biotite and most of the muscovite are wanting. and granitoid layers are least schistose and the as follows, from the oldest formation to the latest, After this the Devonian shales and sandstones The gneisses and schists alternate in beds from a mica-schists most so. as shown in this general region: were deposited, recording a minor uplift of the few inches to 50 feet thick. Layers similar in com­ Decomposition. The schistose planes of the Earliest of all was the production of the great land, which in northern areas was of great impor­ position and from one-tenth to 1 inch in thickness various layers afford easy passage for water and bodies of Carolina gneiss. Its origin, whether tance. The third cycle began with a depression, compose the banded gneisses. That part of the are deeply decayed. After decomposition has igneous or sedimentary, is buried in obscurity. during which the Carboniferous limestone accu­ formation which is adjacent to the Roan gneiss con­ destroyed the feldspar the resultant clay is filled It represents a complex development and many mulated, containing scarcely any shore waste. A tains some thin interbedded layers of hornblende- with bits and layers of schist, quartz, mica, and processes of change, in the course of which the third uplift brought the limestone into shallow schist and -gneiss precisely like the Roan gneiss. granite. Solid ledges are seldom found far from original characters have been largely obliterated. water portions of it perhaps above the sea and The areas of the formations thus merge somewhat^ so the stream cuts and the steeper slopes. Near the The gneiss is, however, distinct from and much upon it were deposited, in shallow water and that the boundary between them is seldom definite. Blue Ridge many large ledges and cliffs appear. older than any other formation yet identified in swamps, the sandstones, shales, and coal beds of Garnet- and cyanite-gneiss. Garnet-gneiss and The cyanite-gneiss of the Nantahala Mountains, the province, and the time of its production is the the Carboniferous. Finally, at the close of the -schist are common in the formation. They are especially, forms long cliffs and rocky slopes. earliest of which we have record. Carboniferous, a further uplift ended the depo­ not limited to any area or situation, but are gener­ The cover of clay on the decayed rocks is thin, 3 and the soil is light on account of the large propor­ sequence the formation invariably occupies high are near Hayesville, in the southern part of the other areas contain beds of limestone and limestone tion of quartz and mica that it contains. Accord­ ground and forms many of the high mountains of quadrangle, and three are near its eastern border, conglomerate. Only the slates are shown in this ingly, its natural growths are poorly sustained, even this region. It is less resistant than the Carolina in the Nantahala Mountains. Only one of these limited area, and they are of small importance here. in the areas of gentle slope where the formation has gneiss, however, and often forms gaps and hollows masses lies entirely in this quadrangle, the others Along the southeastern border of the sedimentary been well decomposed. These soils, however, are between areas of the latter. The clays accumulat­ passing northeastward or southwestward into the rocks this formation is absent, and the overlying susceptible of great improvement by careful tillage. ing on this formation are always deep and have a Cowee and Dahlonega quadrangles. Great Smoky conglomerate rests upon the Archean In the mountain areas, where slopes are steep and strong, dark-red color; the soils are rich and fertile The formation consists almost entirely of biotite- gneiss. It can not be said with certainty that the fresh rock is nearer the surface, the soils are richer and well repay the labor of removing the loose granite of fine or medium grain. The rock is sequence shown is due to deposition and that it and stronger and produce good crops and tine stones. The hilly surfaces keep the soil well composed chiefly of orthoclase and plagioclase has not been caused by faulting. The prevalence timber. The greater amount of soluble matter drained, and yet the clayey nature of the soil feldspars, quartz, biotite, and muscovite, named in of this relation both northeastward and southwest- and clay in the gneiss renders its areas somewhat prevents serious wash; hence they are extensively the order of their abundance. Subordinate minerals ward, however, and the certainty that in the Mount more productive than those of the schist. The cultivated, in situations however remote. are hornblende, pyrite, magnetite, and garnet. In Guyot quadrangle the sequence has not been caused garnet- and cyanite-gneiss areas are somewhat less the Nantahala Mountains the rock is coarsest, and by faulting, make it probable that here also it is productive than those of ordinary gneiss. SOAPSTONE, DUNITE, AND SERPENTINE. has a somewhat spotted appearance, due to the due entirely to deposition. The formation usually Distribution and relations. Many small bodies larger biotite crystals. In that region also the occupies valleys or forms low hills. Owing to its ROAN G-NBISS. of these rocks are found within the areas of the biotite is more prominent than it is near Hayes­ limited extent these features are unimportant here. Distribution. Many areas of this formation occur Roan gneiss, only that on Buck Creek exceeding ville. The granite is found massive, gneissoid, and in the southeastern part of the quadrangle. The a quarter of a mile in width and a mile in length. schistose, most of it being massive. The gneissoid GREAT SMOKY CONGLOMERATE. formation receives its name from Roan Mountain, Although the rocks break through and across the or banded aspect was produced chiefly during the Distribution. Nearly half of the quadrangle is on the boundary of Tennessee and North Carolina. beds of Roan gneiss, and are thus seen to be distinct intrusion of the granite into the gneisses. The covered by this formation in one great irregular The Roan gneiss appears to cut the Carolina gneiss, from and later than the gneiss, their association small amount of schistosity present is due to area. It is named for its extensive development but the contacts are so much metamorphosed that with the latter is close and marked and they are dynamic movements after the intrusion of the in the Great Smoky Mountains north of Little the fact can not be proved. The narrow dike-like probably of about the same age. In this quadran­ granite. These overcame the strength of the rock, Tennessee River. The formation corresponds in bodies of the former in the latter support this gle the soapstone is not found in any other forma­ fractured it, and developed new minerals out of the position and general character to the Cochran con­ view, as well as the fact that the diorites are less tion except in one instance. In areas farther east old. For the most part these secondary minerals glomerate in areas northwest of those mountains. altered than the Carolina gneiss and so appear to be it occurs sparingly in the Carolina gneiss as well consist of mica and quartz. In general they devel­ Substantial differences appear, however, especially younger. Moreover, beds of garnet-gneiss follow as in the Roan gneiss. Its alteration is as great oped in nearly parallel flakes or crystals, and have in bulk and in subsequent sediments, that make it the diorite and hornblende-gneiss and are appar­ as or greater than that of the Roan gneiss and produced a schistosity of the rock parallel to them­ advisable to distinguish the two. It is possible ently the results of metamorphism by the diorite. exceeds that of the later intrusive granites, so that selves. that in these regions the Great Smoky represents Character. The Roan gneiss consists of a great it appears to have shared in the earlier period of The granite is intrusive in the Carolina and a greater lapse of time than the Cochran conglom­ series of beds of hornblende-gneiss, hornblende- metamorphism which involved the Roan and Caro­ Roan gneisses. These relations are also seen in erate. schist, and diorite, with some interbedded mica- lina gneisses. It thus is classed with the earliest several other granites in the Appalachian Moun­ Character. The Great Smoky conglomerate schist, garnet-schist, and -gneiss. The hornblendic part of the Archean. tains. Since the granites here exposed are not contains a considerable variety of strata, compris­ beds are dark greenish or black in color and the Character. The group comprises many different connected directly with granites of known age, it ing conglomerate, sandstone, quartzite, graywacke, micaceous beds are dark gray. The mica-schist rocks, such as soapstone, dunite, amphibolite, and is not possible to correlate these precisely with mica-schist, garnet-schist, and slate. The original and gneiss beds range in thickness from a few serpentine, and many combinations of minerals either the Cranberry or the Whiteside granites, character of the beds is plainest in the conglom­ inches to 100 feet, and are numerous only near the derived by metamorphism from the original rocks. which have similar relations in adjoining areas. erates, whose layers are from 1 foot to 50 feet Carolina gneiss, into the areas of which they merge. The most common varieties in this area are an In condition of metamorphism this granite is thick. All of these rocks, except the slate, have In composition the mica-schist and -gneiss are impure soapstone containing many hornblendic intermediate between these others. It is probably a decided gray color, becoming whitish on expo­ exactly like the micaceous parts of the Carolina minerals and dunite composed almost entirely of to be referred to the Cranberry granite. sure and weathering of the feldspar which they gneiss, and are composed of quartz, muscovite, olivine. The soapstones are white and light gray. Under the attack of weather the granite yields contain. This is most noticeable in those con­ a little biotite, and more or less feldspar. The The other varieties of the formation have a green­ slowly and produces topographic forms much like glomerates whose feldspars are the coarsest and hornblende-schists make up most of the forma­ ish color, either bright or dull. In a few localities those of the Carolina gneiss. It forms either low least metamorphosed. The conglomerate pebbles tion and are interbedded with hornblende-gneisses the soapstone contains little but talc and chlorite ground or mountains, according to its relation to are not often coarse and seldom exceed half an inch throughout. The schist beds consist almost entirely and is pure enough for industrial uses, but as a the drainage lines. It finally breaks down into a in - length. From this they grade into coarse and of hornblende, in crystals from one-tenth to one- rule it contains many crystals of tremolite, actino- light-yellow or red clay soil containing considerable fine sandstones, quartzites, and graywackes. Most half inch long, with a very small amount of biotite, lite, or other hornblendic minerals. All of the fine mica and quartz. of the pebbles are of white quartz; toward the feldspar, and quartz; the gneisses contain layers or varieties of the formation may be present in a north and northeast many blue-quartz pebbles are seams consisting of quartz and feldspar interbed- single ledge, or one variety may occupy the whole CAMBRIAN ROCKS. seen, derived from the blue quartz of the granites bed with layers of hornblende-schist. In places of an area. The dunite is most common toward With the deposition of the Cambrian rocks there in that vicinity. Pebbles and flakes of black slate these are regularly disposed and give a marked the southwest and the soapstone toward the east, came a great change in the physical aspect of this are often to be seen in the coarse beds, apparently banding to the rock. Here and there the horn­ in this quadrangle. region. The sea encroached upon areas which for derived from the slates interbedded with the forma­ blende, feldspar, and quartz appear with the mass­ Alteration. -The change from the original peri- a long time had been dry land. Erosion of the tion. Feldspar pebbles everywhere characterize the ive structure of diorite. Some of these beds are dotite and pyroxenite, composed of olivine with surface and eruptions of lava were succeeded by conglomerates. As the formation is traced south­ very coarse and massive, with crystals half an inch more or less feldspar and pyroxene, to soapstone deposition of sediments beneath a sea. Extensive ward less and less conglomerate is found. There long. Many of the beds of this formation consist is enormous, far greater in appearance than that in beds of these were laid down in some areas before is always a heavy bed at the top of the formation, almost entirely of hornblende and are so basic any of the other formations. Around the borders other areas were submerged, and the sediments lap­ however, and usually several near the base. that they appear to have been derived from gabbro. of the dunite, where metamorphism was greatest, ped over lavas and plutonic granites alike. In this Interbedded with these coarse rocks are numerous So thorough is the alteration, however, that such an there is apt to be a narrower \band of soapstone. quadrangle there are no bodies of the lavas, but seams and be.ds of schist or slate. Southeast of origin is not certain. In many localities the dio­ The minerals which now appear, however, are very they appear some distance to the northeast in the Valley River the original shales have been meta­ rites contain large crystals of garnet, due to alter­ similar in chemical composition to those of the Roan Mountain quadrangle. The waste from them morphosed to schists, while toward the northwest ' ation induced by intrusive granite. original rock. The intermediate stages are obscure all was combined in one sheet of gravel and coarse the alteration is less and seams of slate are most In the Roan gneiss there are found veins and or absent in this region, and even the dunite,,which sand, which now appears as shale, sandstone, con­ comirion. The schists are of light- and dark-gray ,( lenses of pegmatite precisely similar to those is close to the original rock, may itself have been glomerate, and rocks derived from them. The color, while the slates are considerably darker, and described under "Carolina gneiss." wholly recrystallized. The metamorphism which thickness of this first formation varies greatly and all are indistinguishable from the strata of the Alteration. Deformation and recrystallization caused these changes seems to have most easily abruptly in this region, showing that the surface Nantahala. Most of the beds of slate and schist have extensively changed the original rocks of this affected rocks of this mineral composition. Unlike on which it was laid down was irregular. Subse­ are less than a foot in thickness. In some places, formation into schists and gneisses. The exact the other metamorphosed rocks, these show little quent formations of Cambrian age came in a great however, they reach 25 or 30 feet. The amount measure of the alteration is unknown, because of schistosity, except the amphibolite, whose foliation group of alternating shale and sandstone, followed of these .strata in proportion to the coarse beds is the uncertainty as to the first nature of the rock. is frequently well marked. Near its borders the by an immense thickness of limestone and shale. much greater near Nantahala River than elsewhere. It is probable that most of the mass was originally soapstone may be schistose or fibrous, and the vari­ Fossils of Cambrian age, mainly Olgnellus, are The best measurements obtainable of the thick­ a diorite and gabbro, of much the same composi­ eties with many hornblendic minerals are rendered found as far down as the middle of the sandstone ness of the formation place it at nearly 6000 feet. tion as now. At present the minerals in most of somewhat schistose by the parallel arrangement of group in the quadrangles north of this. The strata The deformation is such, however, that this figure the formation are secondary and are arranged for the latter. The pyroxenite near Tellico Creek is lying below the fossiliferous beds differ in no is not very certain. the most part in parallel layers, causing the schis- unusually massive and free from schistosity. material respect from those above. All are Alteration. Some of the pebbles have their orig­ tosity. These minerals and schistose planes are Few rocks are slower to decay than the soap- plainly due to the same causes and form part of inal rounded form, while many have been crushed bent and closely folded, to an extent equal in stone, and its areas invariably show many ledges. one and the same group, and all are closely associ­ and flattened. East of Tusquitee Mountain many many places to all the folding of the later forma­ In extreme cases the entire area is bare rock. ated in area and structure. The lower formations pebbles are flattened to one-tenth of their original tions. Thus the Roan gneiss has passed through Solution makes little progress on the rock mate­ extend into this quadrangle from regions toward thickness. Much secondary mica was developed at two deformations, one producing the foliation and rial, which is, however, too soft to stand the direct the north where their relations are determined; the the same time in coarse and fine flakes. The beds a second folding the foliation planes. During or action of frost and rain, so that it breaks down upper formations are somewhat different in the of graywacke are most altered from their original before the second deformation the bands of quartz and occupies low ground. In places beds con­ two-areas. All of the Cambrian rocks in this character and frequently can be distinguished from and feldspar appear to have been formed. The taining a large amount of tremolite or actinolite quadrangle and the lower formations in adjoining the/gneisses of the Archean only with great diffi­ total alteration is extreme. are hard enough to make small knolls and con­ areas have been heretofore called the Ocoee group. culty. South and east of Valley River they are In reducing the surface of the formation the spicuous ledges, and on the dunite ledges are very most metamorphosed; on the lower part of Nanta­ first steps of decay were taken by decomposition common. Final decay leaves a cover of stiff yellow HIVVASSEE SLATE. hala River they are less so, and the change from of the hornblende and feldspar, but the more clay of little depth and much interrupted with rock. Only about a square mile of this formation is coarse feldspathic sandstone to graywacke is readily siliceous layers and many of the harder horn­ Soils derived from this are of almost no value. found in the quadrangle, in the extreme northwest followed. The feldspar grains during metamor­ blende-schists and mica-schists are extremely slow corner. It is the oldest sedimentary formation phism have partly recrystallized into quartz and of solution. Their outcrops form heavy ledges, GRANITE. shown in this quadrangle and is of much impor­ mica. Most of the schists are mica-schists, which and their fragments fill the streams and strew the There are five areas in the quadrangle where the tance farther north and west. It consists of blue strongly resemble those of the Carolina gneiss. surface and greatly retard its reduction. As a con- rocks are mainly or entirely granite. Two of these and gray banded slate and sandy shale, which in Frequently they are filled with small crystals of Nantahala. garnet and ottrelite, and occasionally staurolite. many high ridges, such as Tusquitee Mountains up more readily into grains and are much broken the rock, thus being in striking contrast to the In the schists the crystals are more numerous in and Teyahali Bald. The steep slope of Cliff Ridge and jointed. In the quartzites lying 2 to 4 miles positions taken by the other metamorphic miner­ bands following the original bedding, and are found occupied by this formation is one of the most west and southwest of Almond the new minerals als. The crystals of ottrelite are of uniform size in the coarser beds in the same way, but to a less striking features of the region. and the schistose planes have an attitude quite dif­ and rarely exceed one-tenth of an inch in diam­ extent. ferent from their usual steep inclinations. At that eter. Numerous crystals of garnet accompany the TUSQUITEB QUARTZITE. The rocks of this formation are very resistant to i place the quartzites dip at various angles, mostly ottrelite, but are less conspicuous. These 'are .usu­ erosion. The quartz and mica are relatively insol­ Distribution. Passing diagonally through the steep, while the new minerals and schistose planes ally a little smaller than the ottrelite crystals, and, uble and the feldspathic material is not sufficient quadrangle are many narrow bands and outcrops cut abruptly across them at dips of 20° or less. The like them, show a tendency to develop in bands. in the more altered varieties to cause ready disin­ of this formation. It is named for its excellent semblance of bedding thus produced is very mis­ A third metamorphic mineral which is seen here tegration. The immense mass of the formation exposures in the Tusquitee Mountains. The syn­ leading. Results of the same kind are seen on and there is staurolite. This is found in crystals and the hardness of the rocks unite in producing clinal folds in which the formation appears deepen Tusquitee, Weatherman, and Teyahali balds. In from one-half to 2 inches in length and frequently a vast expanse of mountainous ground. More toward the southwest, and around the ends of the those localities the quartzites pass in a northwest- twinned. Its prisms are as a rule arranged at ran­ high ground is caused by this formation than by two principal synclines the outcrops group them­ southeast direction straight across the general trend dom in the schists, but they also show a tendency any other in the mountain region. The summits selves in a very much flattened S. of the formations. Through them the schistose to grow in definite bands, like the other secondary are usually broad and rounded, the domes of the Character. The formation consists almost en­ planes cut at high angles, entirely irrespective of minerals. Many of the ottrelite-schists, if the Great Smokies being characteristic. The slopes tirely of white quartzite and is remarkably uni­ the dip of the rocks. In Teyahali Bald the dips ottrelite and garnet were removed, would be prac­ are steep. (See fig. 1 on columnar section sheet.) form in appearance throughout all its areas. The are nearly vertical, and in the other places they are tically the same as the altered slates that lie lower There are few cliffs, but ledges are found at fre­ strata are composed of fine grains of rolled quartz in the vicinity of 30°, while the schistose planes dip in the formation. Every step of the process is quent intervals. Decay enters through the joints sand. Here and there these are coarse and on from 70° to 75° SE. Unless considerable care is clearly visible in this region, and the ottrelite- and schistose planes and the rock breaks up, weathered outcrops givp the appearance of sand­ taken it is difficult to determine the actual dip. schists are plainly derived from banded slates of leaving many bowlders and fragments in the soils. stone. North, west, and south of Marble there are The quartzites resist erosion to a marked degree. the type seen north of Brasstown. The amount Southeast of Valley River the soils are thin and a few seams of fine conglomerate in the quartzite. Only the feldspar grains are at all susceptible to of change from one type to another is not great sandy and in the most altered varieties are very On the headwaters of Cheoah River some quartz- solution, and they are generally of insufficient and is readily explained by slight differences in micaceous. In the Cheoah and Little Tennessee ites of medium grain contain slate pebbles of the amount to affect the rock greatly. Decay works pressure and amount of metamorphism. Thus the basins, however, the formation is less altered and same nature as the underlying Nantahala slate. its way down through the schistose planes and the variable amount of the lower slates and their micaceous and the soils are much stronger. A As a rule, however, the grain of the rock is very stratification and joint planes wherever they are absence in many places is readily understood. heavy growth of timber is found clear to the sum­ fine. In many places there are fine feldspar grains common. Frost is the chief agent in breaking up Under the influence of weather the rocks of the mits, and especially in the coves and hollows. intermingled with the quartz sand, but these do the layers into small blocks. These slide down formation vary considerably. The less altered not change the general aspect of the rock. The the steep slopes and are swept away by the streams slates are readily reduced and form low hilly NANTAHALA SLATE. individual beds of quartzite range from a few to great distances. ground. The rock breaks down into slabs and Distribution. Many areas of this formation are inches up to 2 or 3 feet in thickness. Interbedded flakes. The cover of soil is thin and outcrops are found in the same region as the Great Smoky con­ with the quartzites are a few seams and layers of BRASSTOWST SCHIST. frequent everywhere. The ottrelite-schists yield glomerate. They are largest and most numerous black slate and schist similar to those of the under­ Distribution. The strata of this formation are much more slowly. Decay is never deep, and the along Valley and Nantahala rivers, the fine lying Nantahala slate. These are seldom over a typically displayed on the waters of Brasstown rock masses crumble and scale off. Fragments of exposures along the latter giving the formation its foot in thickness and are noticeable only in the Creek in this quadrangle. The greater part of the rock are less numerous in soils than in the name. There are 1400 to 1800 feet of these strata stream sections where the strata are clear-cut. It the formation consists of banded ottrelite-schist, case of the slates. Rock ledges are always near shown in the quadrangle, measurements of this, as is probable that the slate layers are generally dis­ at the base of which is a variable thickness of the surface and outcrops are plentiful everywhere. of the other formations, varying widely. tributed, although they are seldom seen in the banded slate with little or no ottrelite. This lower In places these form rounded cliffs of considerable Character. The formation is composed in the weathered sections. Many stream sections, how­ member of the formation is most developed south size. Except near the largest streams the formation main of black and gray banded slates and of schists ever, show only continuous beds of quartzite. The of Valley River, and the relations of the two mem­ occupies high ground, as is seen in the ridges and distinguished by mica, garnet, staurolite, or ottrelite. formation is strikingly distinct from the adjoining bers to each other are well seen between Brasstown mountains east of Peachtree. When the rock is Most of the schists are near the base of the forma­ black Nantahala slate and the blue ottrelite-schist and Hayesville. In the area of the formation half decayed the micaceous portions remain fairly tion and strongly resemble the slate and schist beds of the Brasstown formation. It is of the greatest which appears a few miles north of Brasstown the firm. In these are set the crystals of ottrelite, in the Great Smoky conglomerate. The slates and assistance in working out the complicated folds of ottrelite-bearing rocks are much less conspicuous, weathered to a bright, brassy yellow. The soils ottrelite-schists are as a rule somewhat darker than the region, and affords an excellent key rock. and banded slates occupy a large area. The strata are yellow and brown clays of no great depth or the other beds, the color being due to very minute Thickness. The rocks of this formation vary are less folded there, and the smaller amount of fertility. In the hollows more soil collects and grains of iron oxide. The slates are banded light much in thickness, ranging from 50 to about 200 metamorphism is probably the reason of the rel­ there is a considerable growth of good timber. and dark gray and bluish gray, and these in par­ feet. South of Valley River it is thinner, as a rule, ative absence of ottrelite. On the north side of ticular can not be distinguished from the slates in than elsewhere, and ranges from 20 to 250 feet. Valley River basin practically all of the formation VALLEYTOWN FORMATION. other formations. In the northern half of the On Peachtree Knob and Fires Creek it appears contains ottrelite. Eastward toward Nantahala Character. In the vicinity of Valleytown the quadrangle slate makes up nearly all the forma­ to expand locally to 500 feet, perhaps on River, however, the ottrelite diminishes, and disap­ rocks of this formation are unusually well displayed. tion, but only the upper beds at the south. Many account of the close folding in that region. pears in the neighborhood of Nantahala. It consists in the main of mica-schist and fine- sandstone and conglomerate beds are interstratified Slightly greater thicknesses characterize the forma­ Character. All of the schists and slates of the banded gneiss. In the basin of Valley River with the slate near its base and form a transition tion north of Valley River. In Teyahali Bald formation are dark colored and vary from dark these rocks constitute practically all of the forma­ into the Great Smoky. These are most common there is a local expansion of the formation, of prob­ blue or bluish black to dark gray. They are tion. As it is followed northeastward to Nanta­ in the Cheoah basin and farther north. Unim­ ably the same nature as that on Peachtree Knob. nearly always marked by a fine banding of light- hala River the amount of metamorphism becomes portant layers of graywacke or conglomerate are On the Nantahala drainage the thicknesses vary gray and dark colors. The light-gray layers are less. Mica-schist gives way to mica-slate and also found higher up in the slate. from 50 to 400 feet, being generally greater than slightly siliceous and occasionally grade through argillaceous slate, and gneiss to graywacke and Alteration. Many of the slate layers are sprin­ in other localities. When the extreme meta­ sandy slate into seams of light-gray sandstone. feldspathic sandstone. The mica-schist passes kled with crystals of garnet and ottrelite, and with morphism of the rocks is seen, and the mash­ This is frequently to be seen along the north side downward into the Brasstown schist, and indi­ the increase of these and mica as a result of defor­ ing and complex folding of the beds are considered, of Valley River. In the same region there is a vidual layers of each formation can not be distin­ mation the beds become almost entirely schists. it is readily understood that measurements of the small amount of interbedding of the sandy slates guished from those of the other. In the same The effects of this alteration are clearly shown thickness of the formation are hard to obtain and with the Tusquitee quartzites. The slates north region numerous beds of coarse quartzite and gray­ along the lower part of Nantahala River, as is the of small value. of Brasstown and along Nantahala River have a wacke are to be seen. Near Hiwassee River the case with other formations. The crystals of ottrel­ Alteration. Since the deposit w'as indurated decided bluish-gray color, while those east of number and the thickness of the coarse beds are ite are arranged with their cleavage at right angles into a sandstone it has been still further changed Brasstown are much darker and frequently black considerably less, and the boundary separating this to the schistosity produced by the other micas, by metamorphism. The most noticeable result of in color. formation from the Brasstown schist is very diffi­ a relation characteristic of this mineral through­ this is the silicification of the rock into quartzite. Thickness. It is practically impossible to obtain cult to draw. At .the great bend of Nantahala out the region. The garnet crystals are usually In many cases this is so complete that it has measurements of the thickness of the formation. River the amount of coarse material in the forma­ grouped in bands following the stratification. become a massive glassy rock with scarcely any Like all of the rocks in this region, the strata have tion is very small and slates predominate. In This feature also characterizes the staurolite- indication of the original sand grains. Somewhat been excessively folded. In places their thickness each direction from that point the slates become garnet-schists which regularly form the base of different results appear locally where metamor­ has been increased and in other places they have less and less prominent. the formation near Valley River. A band of the phism has been extreme. One or two miles south­ been thinned. The same layer is repeated again Thickness. Measurements of the thickness of schist a few inches wide may be full of staurolite east of Valleytown, in the vicinity of the fault and again and only the top and bottom layers can the formation are very conflicting. South of Val­ and the adjoining band contain none. The gar­ plane, the quartzites have been intensely squeezed be distinguished. As nearly as can be estimated ley River there is an apparent thickness of over net and ottrelite crystals are seldom more than and the component minerals have been mashed from the areas, the dips, and the apparent folding, 3000 feet, but in that region the amount of meta­ one-tenth of an inch in diameter, while the stau­ and recrystallized. From the feldspar grains came the formation is not less than 1000 feet thick, while morphism makes these figures entirely without rolite crystals are 3 or 4 inches in length. There new feldspar, quartz, and mica, the crystals being it may be much more. value. In the. vicinity of Marble the formation appears to be no special arrangement of the axes arranged in parallel flakes. Many of the mica Alteration. The slates are argillaceous and seem appears to be less than 1000 feet thick, while a few of the staurolite crystals. flakes form sheets coating the more siliceous layers. to be least altered in the belt north of Brasstown. miles to the northeast it seems to expand greatly, The decay of the formation is very slow because Thus has been produced a quartz-schist. These On Nantahala River they are more micaceous and to more than twice that thickness. Along Nanta­ it has so few soluble constituents. The rocks grad­ phenomena can be traced for considerable distances approach mica-schist in character. East of Brass- hala River the measurements are most uniform ually crumble, however, and the disintegrated por­ northeast and southwest near the fault. town the slates are more altered and are frequently and appear most trustworthy. In that locality tions are not hard enough to withstand great wear. Somewhat similar phases are to be seen in the phyllite or mica-schist of very fine grain. Scat­ the apparent thickness is 1000 to 1200 feet, and Solid rock is seldom far from the surface, and many quartzites along "Nantahala River in contact with tered through the slates here and there are small these figures are probably nearly correct for the broad, rounded ledges characterize the formation. the same fault. Here, however, there was com­ crystals of ottrelite, which is very abundant in the formation in this area. Its soils are thin and sandy and full of mica and pression, not only in a southeast-northwest direc­ upper part of the formation. It is distributed very Alteration. On the south side of Valley River, slabs of schist or slate. It occupies lower ground tion, but to a less extent at right angles to that. generally throughout the rock, but usually is more where metamorphism is greatest near a fault plane, than the Great Smoky conglomerate and forms This expressed itself in many minor folds and common in the lighter gray bands. The ottrelite the mica-schist is strongly developed and many spurs and depressions between the mountains of wrinkles of the quartzite and a tendency of the new crystals are dull bluish or greenish gray, and are of the gneissoid beds have received a secondary the latter. The upper part of the Nantahala slate minerals to crystallize in lines instead of planes, so so set in the rock that their cleavage planes are schistosity./ Similar results are seen north and in connection with the Tusquitee quartzite forms that the quartzites are not schistose. They break at right-angles to the schistosity and cleavage of west of Andrews, along the border of the Murphy marble, where the folding has been excessive. lachian Mountains. In a general way it corres­ found at many places, but they too are lenticular of the original grains of sand forming the rock are The strata of the formation south of Valley Kiver ponds to the limestones and dolomites which overlie in shape and distinct from the .marble. The lenses not visible except under a microscope. By that are filled with small crystals of garnet, which are the Cambrian quartzites along the northwestern of talc are not confined to any one situation in the means the original nature of the grains and their much more prominent in the schists than in the front of the mountains. The sequence of the for­ marble, but appear at several distinct levels. In growth during metamorphism can be discerned. coarser beds. Farther southwest the garnets are mations underlying it is roughly the same, and association with the talc deposits are often seen In some of the weathered outcrops and fragments much less common. North of Valley River meta- the great change in the sediments deposited then beds of calcareous sandstone. These have no the original form of the grains is again brought morphism is less at many points and the mica- is quite comparable to the change which began definite relation to the talc, however, and are not out, when the secondary quartz has been dissolved schists reappear in the form of ottrelite- and garnet- with the deposition of the Murphy marble. Like always present. away. Besides the quartz a very small proportion schists. Along Nantahala River the progressive the other Cambrian formations, this can be traced Owing to the highly soluble nature of the of feldspathic material is usually present. Much alteration of the feldspathic sandstones into gray- southwestward well into Georgia. Its deposition Murphy marble its course is always marked by of this was replaced by secondary quartz and wacke and gneiss is admirably shown, most of the thus covers a period of considerable extent and valleys. Where the formation spreads out along muscovite during the alteration of the rock. These change taking place within 4 or 5 miles. importance. Its purity and freedom from argilla­ the upper part of Valley River it has caused the later minerals are now rudely parallel to the planes The metamorphism of these strata took place ceous and sandy materials, such as make up the series of broad valley bottoms which have given along which the motion in the rock took place. In chiefly by the growth of new mica and quartz. entire bulk of all the preceding formations, shows the river its name (see fig. 3). Outcrops of the this region these are coincident for the most part The amount of this was greatest in the original that the geographic conditions changed abruptly marble are scarce and are seldom found away from with the bedding planes. The schistose character slaty layers, whose fragments moved past one and entirely at that time. In various analyses of the sharp stream cuts or the steep slopes. In the thus introduced is strongest along the layers which another the most in yielding to pressure. Along the the marble its composition varies from 58 to 93 bottom lands near Andrews and those along Peach- were originally argillaceous or feldspathic. In planes of differential motion thus set up the new per cent of carbonate of calcium and from 36 to 3 tree Creek the marble may be found at almost any some places the mica flakes become coarse and the minerals were developed in parallel layers. Where per cent of carbonate of magnesium. Accordingly point by digging through the few feet of stream rock approaches a quartz-schist in appearance. As the rocks were of uniform composition the schis- the original strata included both limestone and gravels which form the surface. As a consequence a rule, however, the quartzite is very fine grained tosity bears no relation to the bedding planes. dolomite. of this solubility it has no soils of its own, and and glassy and is always white. Its thickness is Where, however, the fine beds alternate rapidly Thickness. Such measurements of the formation those which overlie its areas consist almost entirely not known because it lies in synclines and the with the coarse beds, the planes of motion were as can be obtained place the thickness at nearly of materials washed in from other formations. The upper part of the formation does not appear. largely controlled by the thick layers and the 500 feet. The best measurements are southwest rock itself when found is not affected to any depth Upward of 150 feet are found, however.. resultant schistosity is nearly parallel to the bed­ of Tomotla, where the formation stands nearly on by the weather. Weathering. Weathering proceeds very slowly ding. In many places the bands of secondary edge and so continues for a long distance toward in the quartzite on account of the slight solubility minerals, as well as the sedimentary layers, are the southwest. Between Marble and Valleytown ANDREWS SCHIST. of its minerals, and it forms a sharp ridge through­ closely folded and even faulted. Thus it would the marble spreads out over large areas. This is Distribution. This formation extends from the out its course. Outcrops are plentiful along the appear that a certain amount of schistosity was caused in part by the flattening of the dips and in vicinity of Andrews practically to Georgia along tops of the ridges and in all the many stream cuts produced first and the schistose planes were then part by the extreme crumpling and repetition of its principal line of outcrop. A small area also througho the course of the formation. On com- folded by some later movement. These phenomena the layers. Instances of both attitudes of the mar­ appears near Peachtree Creek. The town of plete decay the rock breaks down into a loose, are readily to be seen in the many stream cuts ble beds can be seen in various quarries and open­ Andrews is situated upon it, and in the vicinity sandy soil containing many fragments of quartzite. along the north side of Valley River, where the ings. Along Nantahala River the formation thins its exposures and topography are characteristically Its soils are valueless for any purpose except for strata are extremely folded and contorted. At down to about 150 feet. shown. It is absent along Nantahala River, where the small growth of timber which they contain. many places what appears to be a light dip to the Alteration. Originally the marble consisted the Nottely quartzite directly overlies the Murphy POST-CAMBEIAK. southeast is in reality made up of a series of closely mainly of massive layers of limestone and dolo­ marble. squeezed horizontal folds. The schistose planes mite, with the latter more frequent in the lower Character. The formation consists of a thin bed QUARTZ-DIORITE DIKES. cut across these and parallel to their axes, simulat­ portion of the formation. With its base were of calcareous schist. One of its most conspicuous Distribution. This rock is the latest of the for­ ing bedding in the most misleading fashion. interbedded argillaceous shales and with its top cal­ features is the large number of crystals of ottrelite mations which appear in this district. It occurs in The rocks of this formation are very resistant to careous shales. During the metamorphism of the which spangle the rock. These are so situated that the form of dikes of small dimensions and pene­ weathering action. They stand up in knobs and formations the carbonates of lime and magnesia were in nearly every case their flakes lie at right angles trates the youngest formations which appear here. ridges somewhat above the adjoining Brasstown recrystallized with no considerable change of form. to the dip of the bedding. Muscovite and biotite On account of the small size of these dikes it is schist and rise abruptly from the areas of Murphy The argillaceous materials were for the most part also occur in frequent crystals, especially in the impossible to represent them on the map. They marble (see fig. 3). The difference between the transformed into various micas and other silicates upper parts of the formation. The flakes of these are developed in two belts about parallel to each latter and this formation is so striking that the forming the schists. Still other silicates were minerals, however, lie parallel to the bedding and other. The southeastern belt has a width of 5 limits of the marble can be readily seen from the developed through the mass of the rock, such as in large measure cause the schistose planes. These miles southeast of Murphy. Along this belt the topography. Along Nantahala River, where recent tremolite and garnet; their formation involved various micas are embedded in a fine matrix of car­ diorites appear at frequent intervals on both sides erosion is most rapid, the Valleytown strata stand the addition of silica to the materials already in bonate of calcium, of about the same character as of the Valley River basin and pass down the val­ up in rugged crags and almost precipitous slopes. the rock. They are disseminated through the for­ the underlying Murphy marble. The feature ley of Nantahala River and across Little Tennessee On account of the siliceous nature of most of the mation rather sparingly and also are concentrated which makes this schist of particular importance and Tuckasegee rivers, being found for 60 miles formation decay is very slow. It works down the into definite beds of the marble. The tremolite is the development therein of deposits of brown northeast of the last-named stream. The north­ slaty layers and schistose partings and the coarse appears crystallized in radiating bunches, with no hematite, which are described under "Iron ore." western belt of diorite dikes passes through Graham beds break off and crumble down. Soils are in all apparent relation to the schistosity of the adjoining These occur in scores of places along the areas of County in a northeasterly direction, but can not places thin and full of fragments of rock and crys­ rocks. It seems probable, therefore, that it was of the formation and are a characteristic part of it. be traced northeastward beyond the Cheoah River tals. In the area lying just south of Valley River later formation than the other minerals. Tremolite Thickness and relations. Near Andrews the basin. These diorite dikes are from a few inches the soils are also filled with garnet and staurolite also appears crystallized in the same manner in the schist appears to be at its greatest thickness, about up to 3 or 4 feet in thickness, and usually are crystals. The siliceous and micaceous nature of talc bodies which are found in the marble. Garnet 350 feet. It thins toward the southwest to about parallel to the schistose partings. They are to be the soils renders them rather dry and sterile, and is of much less frequent occurrence than the tremo­ 200 feet. At its base it grades into the Murphy found in all of the Cambrian formations except they are of very little value. lite and is found in only a few places in the lower marble by: / interbeddingO and bv*J a diminution of the the Murphy marble, and they are very conspicu­ parts of the formation. The same layers which amount of ottrelite. Upward it passes into the ous in the ottrelite-schist above and below the MURPHY MARBLE. contain the garnet also carry pyrite in small grains. Nottely quartzite, as the sandy material increases marble. The reason for this, as well as for the Distribution. The localities in which this for­ This mineral is found in disseminated grains in both in separate layers and as grains in the body more general location of the dikes in the schistose mation is developed fall into two belts, each con­ other layers as well. of the schist. formations, is probably that the schists and slates sisting of two areas. One lies along Nantahala In the upper layers of the formation, where the Weathering. This formation, like the Murphy were more easily penetrated than the massive mar­ and Valley rivers, the other along Peachtree and marble passes into the Andrews schist, many crys­ marble, is very readily soluble and gives rise to bles and conglomerates. Little Brasstown creeks. Chief of these is the tals of ottrelite are scattered through the beds of similar topography. A small amount of micaceous Nature. The nature of the rock itself, which is area along Valley River. The town of Murphy is marble. This mineral is characteristic of the over­ material in the schist, however, prevents such entire a holocrystalline aggregate of quartz, feldspar, and located partly on one of its areas. lying schist. Besides the alternating beds of mar­ solution as in the case of the marble, and its areas hornblende, proclaims its igneous ,prigin. Vari­ Character. The formation consists entirely of ble and schist near the contact, there is present usually rise in small terraces from 10 to 30 feet in ous features of contact action between it and the marble, rather fine grained and wholly recrys- nearly every-gradation between the ottrelite-schist height above the marble areas (see fig. 3). No surrounding beds are to be seen, although of lim­ tallized from its original condition (see fig. 2 on and the pure marble. The ottrelite crystals are sharp lines exist between the fresh rock and the ited extent on account of the small size of the columnar section sheet). The predominant color arranged with their cleavage at right angles to the residual clay, but the rock is partly dissolved intrusive beds. The influence of the contact is is white. A large portion of the marble is of a general schistosity of the rock wherever that is through a considerable thickness, leaving its mica­ seen in the diorite in the marked diminution of dark-gray or blue color and many layers consist present. ceous skeleton behind. In this soft mass the ottrel­ the size of the crystals toward the contact. This of banded or mottled blue and white. Some of Other deposits occurring in the marble are layers ite crystals, weathered to bright brassy yellow, are is so pronounced in most cases that it is hard to the layers between Nantahala and Red Marble of talc, the hydrous silicate of magnesia, which are very conspicuous. Thg. soils over this formation tell where the fine diorite ends and the somewhat Gap have a beautiful rose-pink color. The mined throughout their course in this State and in are fairly deep and consist of yellow and brown altered schists begin. In fact, the average contact amount of this is limited, however. Except Georgia. These appear at frequent intervals near clays. In most areas, however, they are covered is a transition zone, the change taking place within these variations in color and small changes in Nantahala and Valley rivers. In the southern with materials washed from the neighboring harder the limit of 1 or 2 inches. Outside of this inter­ the coarseness of the grain, the formation is very areas of the formation, on Peachtree and Brass- formations. mediate zone the special characteristics of the schist uniform in this region. The base of the marble is town creeks, no talc deposits have thus far been and the diorite are distinct. In some places the almost always covered in this region, and the pre­ discovered. The principal development is in the NOTTELY QUARTZITE. beds of diorite cut across the lamination of the cise character of its contact with the underlying vicinity of Hewitts on Nantahala River. Near Distribution. Two small areas of this formation stratified rocks; in others they branch into layers rocks can be seen only near Nantahala River. Marble they also become prominent and appear appear along the lower part of Valley River, one or run out into thin edges and disappear. Garnets There it passes downward into the Valleytown at frequent intervals toward the southwest. The of which is the end of a considerable area that are frequently developed as contact minerals in formation by interbedding with the slates of the talc occurs in the form of lenticular bodies embed­ passes southwestward into Georgia. Its excellent the inclosing schists, which are also somewhat silic- latter. Upward it passes into the Andrews schist ded in the marble. They are from a few inches exposures along Nottely River give the formation ified. In no case as yet have inclosed fragments through several feet of interbedded marble and up to 6 or 8 feet in thickness and the largest are its name. Three other small areas opdur along been discovered. schist. This transition can best be seen at Marble over 100 feet long. Few attain that size, however. Nantahala River, directly overlying the Murphy Composition. The appearance of this diorite in Creek, at the western border of the quadrangle. They appear to be of a secondary nature and have marble. the hand specimen is very striking. Quartz and This formation is a decided exception in general been produced during the metamorphism of the Character and thickness. The formation consists feldspar predominate in its composition, so that the character to the Cambrian formations of the Appa- formations. Small bits and flakes of talc are entirely of white quartzite. As a rule the shapes rock has a distinct white appearance, and in this Nantahala. 6 groundmass appear sharp and separate crystals of nearer together and smaller than the planes on 60°. This phase of alteration is somewhat devel­ probably more, periods of decided uplift. How hornblende. One usual feature in the disposition which the deformation of the stratified rocks pro­ oped in the Valley as slaty cleavage, but in the many minor uplifts or depressions have taken of this mineral is its location, for the most part in ceeded. In these more minute dislocations the Mountain region it becomes important and fre­ place can not be ascertained from this region. the central portions of the beds. The inch or two individual particles of the rocks were bent, broken, quently obscures all other structures. All rocks STRUCTURE OF NANTAHALA QUADRANGLE. of diorite next to the contact is usually made up and slipped past one another, or were recrystallized. were subjected to this process, and the final prod­ mainly of quartz and feldspar. The hornblende is Explanation of structure sections. The sections ucts of the metamorphism of very different rocks The rocks of this area have undergone many an original mineral and is not the result of metamor- on the structure-section sheet represent the strata as are often indistinguishable from one another. alterations in form and position since they were phism in any degree. A relatively common addition they would appear in the sides of a deep trench cut Throughout the southern part of the Appalachian formed and they have been bent, broken, and met­ to these main minerals of the diorite is garnet in across the country. Their position with reference province there is a great increase of metamorphism amorphosed to a high degree. The structures clear, distinct crystals. These do not appear to to the map is on the line at the upper edge of the toward the southeast, until the resultant schistosity which resulted from these changes extend in a have any particular association with the borders blank space. The vertical and horizontal scales becomes the most prominent of the Mountain struc­ general northeast direction. The structures in the of the -mass, and thus may be considered one of the are the same, so that the actual form and slope of tures. Formations there whose original condition sedimentary rocks can be deciphered by the close original minerals of the diorite. The quartz and the land and the actual dips of the layers are shown. is unchanged are extremely rare, and frequently tracing of the formations on the ground. In igne­ feldspar, while wholly crystalline, are seldom of These sections represent the structure as it is inferred the alteration has obliterated all the original char­ ous and crystalline rocks, however, while it is easy sufficient size to be distinguished separately by the from the position of the layers observed at the sur­ acters of the rock. Many beds that are scarcely to see that they have been greatly disturbed and eye. The hornblende crystals range in length from face. On the scale of the map they can not repre­ altered at the border of the Valley can be traced the details of the smaller structures are apparent, one-eighth to three-fourths of an inch, and are sent the minute details of structure, and they southeastward through greater and greater changes it is difficult to discover the larger features of their usually well-formed prisms. Little is added to are therefore somewhat generalized from the dips until every original feature is lost. deformation. One reason for this is that the orig­ these most conspicuous facts by study of thin sec­ observed in a belt a few miles in width along the In most of the sedimentary rocks the bedding inal shape of most of the formations is unknown tions; the original nature of all the minerals is line of the section. Faults are represented on the planes have been destroyed by metamorphic action, because they are intrusive and consequently irreg­ made clearer, and the holocrystalline nature of the map by a heavy solid or broken line, and in the sec­ and even where they are distinct they are usually ular. Another reason is that the masses of one rock can be traced further through the extremely tion by a line whose inclination shows the probable less prominent than the schistosity. In the igneous kind of rock are so great, and distinctive beds are fine varieties along the contact. dip of the fault plane, the arrows indicating the rocks planes of fracture and motion were developed, so rare, that structures of great size can not be Amount. Owing to the small bulk of the beds direction in which the strata have been moved. which, in a measure, made easier the deformation of detected. of the quartz-diorite, it exercises no influence upon the rocks. Along these planes or zones of localized Major features. In a broad way the structure the topography, and forms no distinctive soil. Its GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE APPALACHIAN motion the original texture of the rock was largely of the rocks of the Nantahala quadrangle is that of decay is extremely slow, because it is so siliceous, PROVINCE. destroyed by the fractures and by the growth of one general synclinal basin between two anticlinal and its fragments can often be found where all Types of structure. Three distinct kinds of the new minerals, and in many cases this alteration uplifts. The great synclinal basin consists of lesser traces of other rocks have been removed by weath­ structure occur in the Appalachian province, each extends through the entire mass of the rock. The troughs, each of which is complicated by many small ering. The amount of diorite may for this reason one prevailing in a separate area corresponding to extreme development of this process is seen in the folds. These troughs pass in a northeasterly direc­ be overestimated, especially upon the weathered one of the geographic divisions. In the Cumber­ mica-schists and mica-gneisses, the original textures tion, one through Tusquitee Mountains and another sections. In the clear-cut section along Little land Plateau and the region lying farther west the of which have been entirely replaced by the schis­ along Nantahala and Valley rivers. In their Tennessee River above Bushnell the amount of rocks are generally flat and retain their original tose structure and parallel flakes of new minerals. southwestern portions these contain the youngest the diorite is seen to be relatively small, even composition. In the Valley the rocks have been The planes of fracture and schistosity are inclined rocks of the region", but rise rapidly toward the where it is most strongly developed. In this sec­ steeply tilted, bent into folds, broken by faults, and toward the southeast through most of the Moun­ northeast and almost disappear. The general anti­ tion the general aspect is that of a series of slates to some extent altered into slates. In the Moun­ tains, although in certain belts, chiefly along the clinal area comprising the Cheoah and Little Ten­ and schists, with a small number of siliceous beds tain district faults and folds are important features southeastern and southern portions, northwesterly nessee basins is composed of a great many minor which might be passed over as sandstone unless of the structure, but cleavage and metamorphism dips prevail. The range of the southeasterly dips anticlines and synclines, which, however, involve the outcrops were carefully examined. are equally conspicuous. is from 10° to 90°; that of the northwesterly dips, only the lower two Cambrian formations. The General relations. The intrusion of these quartz- Folds. The folds and faults of the Valley region from 30° to 90°. chief region of uplift lies in the southeastern part diorites gives evidence of a period of igneous activ­ are about parallel to one another and to the north­ Earth movements. The structures above described of the quadrangle and brings to the surface the ity which has no representatives in other parts of western shore of the ancient continent, They are chiefly the result of compression which acted different metamorphic and igneous rocks. the State, so far as known. These belts can be extend from northeast to southwest, and single most effectively in a northwest-southeast direction, Synclinal basin. The structures displayed in traced southwestward into Georgia for long dis­ structures may be very long. Faults 300 miles at right angles to the general trend of the folds and the sedimentary rocks of the great synclinal basin tances, but northeastward they are limited, as has long are known, and folds of even greater length of the planes of schistosity. Compression was also differ somewhat from those in the igneous and been described. A feature of considerable interest occur. The crests of most folds continue at the exerted, but to a much less extent, in a direction metamorphic rocks. In the sediments all the kinds is the close association of these diorites with the same height for great distances, so that they pre­ about at right angles to that of the main force. To of structure seen elsewhere in the Appalachians Cambrian strata. In fact, they are scarcely found sent the same formations. Often adjacent folds are this are due the cross folds and faults that appear are to be observed, including folds, faults, and here outside of those strata. The precise meaning nearly equal in height, and the same beds appear here and there throughout the Appalachians. The metamorphism. Faults are comparatively rare, of this is not now understood. From the almost and reappear at the surface. Most of the beds dip earliest known period of compression and deforma­ the principal ones being situated on the southeast­ total absence of metamorphism in the diorite, it is at angles greater than 10°; frequently the sides of tion occurred during Archean time, and resulted in ern sides of the great synclinal folds. In other probable that its layers were injected at or after the the folds are compressed until they are parallel. much of the metamorphism of the present Carolina situations compression was relieved by close fold­ end of the metamorphic period. This absence of Generally the folds are smallest, most numerous, gneiss. It is possible that later movements took ing and metamorphism. The pressure and the metamorphism may, however, be due to the hard­ and most closely squeezed in thin-bedded rocks, place in Archean time, producing a portion of the load to which the rocks were subjected were far ness and siliceous nature of the rock. In any such as shale and shaly limestone. Perhaps the metamorphism that appears in the other Archean too great for their strength and they were crum­ event, these rocks mark the activity of igneous most striking feature of the folding is the prevalence rocks. In the course of time, early in the Paleozoic pled and bent in the most extreme fashion. So forces in the southern Appalachians at a* period of southeastward dips. In some sections across era, compression became effective again, and a series pronounced was this result that in most of the when there was entire quiescence elsewhere, so far the southern portion of the Appalachian Valley of movements took place that culminated soon after folds the strata on each side of the axis were bent as has been observed. They thus occupy a unique scarcely a bed can be found which dips toward the the close of the Carboniferous period. The latest until nearly closed and parallel. Thus for miles position among the Appalachian rocks. How northwest. of this series was probably the greatest, and to it is across the strike in the northern and northwestern much younger they are than the sediments there Faults. Faults appear on the northwestern sides chiefly due the well-known Appalachian folding part of the quadrangle only vertical dips are encoun­ is no means of telling. The latter were upheaved of anticlines, varying in extent and frequency with and metamorphism. This force was exerted at two tered. The same is true in many areas between and metamorphosed, and the quartz-diorites were the changes in the strata. Almost every fault distinct periods, the first deformation producing Hayesville and Andrews, where for miles across the injected into them, but only in this portion of the plane dips toward the southeast and is approxi­ great overthrust faults and some metamorphism, strike all of the rocks are nearly vertical, although Appalachians. mately parallel to the beds of the upthrust mass. the second extending farther northwestward and there are many minor folds. This region may be The fractures extend across beds many thousand feet deforming previous structures as well as the fitly characterized as one of vertical dips. By no TERRACE DEPOSITS. thick, and sometimes the upper strata are pushed unfolded rocks. The various deformations com­ means all of the rocks are vertical, but a large por­ Along Hiwassee, Valley, Cheoah, and other rivers over the lower as far as 10 or 15 miles. There is bined have greatly changed the aspects of the tion of them are, and dips less than 45° are very in the quadrangle gravel terraces and alluvial a progressive change from northeast to southwest rocks so much so, in fact, that the original nature rare. Tn a few situations the latter are found, deposits occur at many points. In part, at least, in the results of deformation, and different types pre­ of some of the oldest formations can be at present usually on the different cross folds which traverse these are auriferous, and they are therefore described vail in different places. In southern New York only surmised. the regular system. Most of the dips are from 60° in connection with the gold deposits. , folds and faults are' rare and small. Through In addition to the force that acted in a hori­ to 90° and are toward the southeast. Thus it is Pennsylvania toward Virginia folds become more zontal direction, this region has been affected by seen that the sedimentary rocks are practically on STRUCTURE. numerous and steeper. In Virginia they are more forces that acted vertically and repeatedly raised edge over the entire area. The amount of shorten­ INTRODUCTION. and more closely compressed and often closed, or depressed the surface. The compressive forces ing of the earth's crust thus produced is ^enormous while occasional faults appear. ^Through Virginia were tremendous, but were limited in effect to a and probably greater than in any other equal area The rocks of this quadrangle that were deposited into Tennessee the folds are more broken by faults. relatively narrow zone. Less intense at any point, of the Appalachians. upon the sea bottom must originally have extended In the central part of the Valley of East Tennessee but broader in their results, the vertical movements Archean uplift. Structures in the Archean in nearly horizontal layers. At present, however, folds are generally so obscured by faults that the extended throughout this and other provinces. uplift in the southeastern part of the quadran­ the strata are seldom horizontal, but are inclined at strata form a series of narrow overlapping blocks of It is likely that these two kinds of movement were gle do not differ radically from those in the sedi­ various angles, their edges appearing at the surface. beds dipping southeastward. Thence the structure combined during the same epochs of deformation. ments. The predominant structures are folding Folds and faults of great magnitude occur in the remains nearly the same southward into Alabama; In most cases the movements have resulted in a and metamorphism, which are everywhere obvious. Appalachian region, their dimensions being meas­ the faults become fewer in number, however, and warping of the surface as well as in uplift. One By far the greater part of the deformation has ured by miles, but they also occur on a very small, their horizontal displacement is much greater, while result of this appears in overlaps and unconformi­ taken place through metamorphism. The smaller even a microscopic, scale. Many typical Appala­ the remaining folds are somewhat more open. ties of the sedimentary formations. folds and the wrinkling of the beds are easily seen chian folds are to be seen in the region. In the Metamorphism. In the Appalachian Mountains As was stated under the heading "General geo­ in all localities, but it is difficult to discover the folds the rocks have changed their forms mainly the southeastward dips, close folds, and faults that logic record" (p. 2), depressions of this kind took larger folds. Both northeastward and southwest- by adjustment and motion on planes of bedding characterize the Great Valley are repeated. The place at the beginning of Paleozoic time, with ward from this quadrangle, however, the major and schistosity. There are also countless planes strata are also traversed by the minute breaks of several repetitions later in the same era. They synclines are defined by inclosed bodies of sedi­ of dislocation independent of the original layers of cleavage and are metamorphosed by the growth of alternated with uplifts of varying importance, the mentary rocks. It is possible also that faults the rocks. These are best developed in rocks of an new minerals. The cleavage planes dip eastward last of which closed Paleozoic deposition. Since occur, but for lack of distinctive or regular beds originally massive structure and are usually much at angles ranging from 20° to 90°, usually about Paleozoic time there have been at least four, and they can not be determined. In the gneisses of rr

this quadrangle there are no particular folds which direction to another, and there is seldom an abrupt nearly continuous with the marble belt of that effect of the thickening has been to~increase the predominate over others. change. State. Through most of its extent the marble is marble available for quarrying. Northeast of Val­ Faults. Like the folds from which they are The dips of the schistose planes are usually tilted up at a considerable angle and its outcrop leytown the marble is bounded for the most part developed, the faults have a northeast-southwest steep and, with the exception of the zone of fan forms only a narrow band. On Peachtree Creek, by fault planes; thus it varies much in thickness, trend in this quadrangle. Two exceptions to this structure, are inclined toward the southeast. Since however, and on Valley River between Marble and and in places is entirely absent. Along Nantahala occur, one being the faulted anticline on Tusquitee a large portion of the strata are vertical the schis­ Valleytown the dips are less and the marble spreads River the entire marble bed is present in many Bald noted under "Cross folds" (p. 7), the other tose planes as a rule dip at lower angles. There out over considerable areas. places, but appears to have been somewhat squeezed being immediately south of Andrews. The fault at is less variation, however, in the amount of their Color and grain. The marble has two principal and thinned during the process of folding. Good the latter locality was apparently somewhat folded dip than in that of the stratification. In a few colors white and blue. Both of these are seen measurements of its thickness in the vicinity of after its formation and now makes a Z-shaped exceptional cases for instance, in the quartzites throughout the range of the formation, but the blue Hewitts give scarcely more than 150 feet. Below outcrop. The close connection of this fault with a few miles west and southwest of Almond the and bluish colors predominate toward the northeast. Hewitts the bed is soon cut off by a fault and does the anticline lying to the southeast is clear at its schistose planes are nearly horizontal. This, how­ Very little of the blue stone has a uniform color; not appear toward the northeast. In the quarry termination west of Almond. In the Tusquitee ever, was a local effect. Usually the dips are 50° usually it is more or less banded or mottled with on Marble Creek, where the marble passes into the anticline, also, the beginning of the fault in an or more. In describing the Tusquitee quartzite white. Where the marble beds are on edge or have Murphy quadrangle on the west, the following unbroken anticline is clear on the north side of mention was made of the peculiar effects of the a high dip the banding of color is more regular section is exposed: At the bottom are several feet Valley River Mountains. In the same way the schistosity on that formation and its resemblance than in other places. There is, also, a banding of white marble with tremolite crystals; above this fault which outlines the sediments on the south to the bedding. There is much less change in the due to lines of foreign minerals. This is best seen are 50 feet of pure white marble, 40 feet of blue begins in a steep anticlinal fold east of Nantahala direction of the schistosity than might be expected in the quarry a mile northeast of Andrews and is marble, and 30 feet of white marble. After a River and grows progressively greater toward the from the contortions of the strata. The strength caused by lines of mica flakes. An exceptional small interval in which there are no exposures the southwest. of the latter was so far overcome by the force color, and one of great beauty, is the rose pink ottrelite-bearing Andrews schist outcrops. Thus The dip of these faults is toward the southeast in applied that the pressure was transmitted more or which is seen just northeast of Red Marble Gap. only a small part of the normal total thickness is all cases except the fault along the Tusquitee anti­ less independently of the separate layers. Where This merges into white beds, and the amount of exposed. cline, the fault south of Andrews, a small one the differences in rigidity were greatest, as between the pink stone is limited. The distribution of the Joints. The marble when pure is very resist­ southeast of Teyahali Bald, and one just west of the slate and the conglomerate layers of the Great colors of the marble can not be given in detail, on ant to weathering agencies. In course of time Almond. The first forms practically half a basin; Smoky conglomerate, local changes in direction of account of the few natural exposures and the few its upper parts have been dissolved away, but the the last two have a steep dip toward the northwest. schistosity took place from layer to layer. The gen­ quarries which have been started. What is prob­ remaining rock is perfectly fresh and hard. This The dip of the different fault planes varies from eral attitude persists, however, throughout the ably the largest body of white marble is in the bot­ general condition is affected somewhat by the lines 20° to vertical. The average dip is from 45° to region. The schistosity cuts squarely across the tom lands of Valley River below Andrews. of micaceous minerals near the top and bottom of 60°. The throw of the faults varies from a few beds in Teyahali Bald and Tusquitee Bald, where The grain of the marble is in all cases uniform the formation, down which weathering has pene­ inches up to perhaps a mile. The fault passing the formations run at right angles to the usual trend. and fine. It does not appear to be changed by the trated to considerable depths. It is also seriously south of Andrews may have a slightly greater Fan structure. Two structural features of excep­ transition from one color band to another. Prob­ affected by joint planes and other planes along throw than that. The one which passes just tional nature are seen in this region. Chief of ably the grain of the rock is a little coarser toward which slight movements have taken place. These northwest of Hayesville displaces formations whose these is the zone of fan structure which passes the southwest, but the difference is very slight. are particularly conspicuous in some of the sections total thickness is about a mile, and it is probable through this and adjoining quadrangles. Here it is Where the rock is composed of pure carbonates along Nantahala River, and the action of weather that the throw of the fault is somewhat greater well defined in a belt from 4 to 6 miles wide pass­ there is practically no tendency to part along the has broken up the marbles and adjoining quartz­ still. No estimate can be made of its maximum ing northeastward near Robbinsville, and its influ­ original sedimentary layers. Thin layers of mica­ ites into blocks of varying size. These were not throw. ence is manifested over twice as great a width. In ceous minerals cause a slight schistosity where caused during the formation of the fault, but seem Metamorphism. Metamorphism of the rocks this zone, while the axes of the fold have very they are developed. This is not sufficient to affect to be due to later disturbances along the same lines was extreme, as well as the folding. In the steep dips and do not differ materially from the the strength or the quarrying of the rock. Some of weakness. Somewhat similar phenomena are description of the individual formations its detailed other axes of the region, both the axes and the of the upper layers next to the Andrews schist seen where the marble belt contracts again toward effects on the rocks were described. In general it schistose planes formed by the metamorphic min­ have more of the secondary minerals where the the southwest. In that situation too there is a consisted of a mashing of the rocks under the over­ erals dip mostly toward the northwest. These transition takes place between the two formations. fault plane within a short distance toward the whelming pressure and a production of planes of northwestward dips, in contrast with the southeast­ This does not affect the marble as a whole. North­ southeast. The exposures of the marble are very fracture and motion through the body of the rock as ward dips in the parallel structural belts, and with east of Red Marble Gap similar transitions are seen poor in that area, but the quartzites are consider­ well as along the sedimentary planes. Along these a somewhat radial or divergent arrangement, con­ at the base of the marble, and there is consider­ ably jointed, and probably the marbles are affected planes of fracture and to a less extent in other parts stitute the fan structure. Farther southwest, in the able development of micaceous minerals. This in the same way. These joints do not appear of the rock new minerals were developed, lying adjoining Murphy quadrangle, this structure has a causes a decided schistosity, which, however, is lim­ when the fresh rock is taken out of the quarries, about parallel to planes of motion. To this greater width and is more pronounced. ited to the few feet of interbedded marbles and but are developed by exposure to weather. No arrangement is due the schistosity of the rocks. Cross folds. The second exceptional feature lies slates. With these exceptions the marble is a noticeable amount of motion has taken place along For the most part the new minerals were quartz in a belt of abnormal structures which passes in a uniform and massive rock, and blocks which have these planes and they represent merely a tendency and muscovite developed from the recrystallization northwest direction through Standing Indian, Tus­ been sawed across the bedding planes show no to separate. Of slightly different character are of the old quartzose, feldspathic, and argillaceous quitee Bald, and Teyahali Bald. Along this line indications of parting in those planes. various seams along which motion has taken material. These results are such as characterize almost all of the folds show a decided pitch toward Composition. The chief variations in the com­ place. These are usually accompanied by a metamorphisin throughout the Appalachian Moun­ the southwest, thus constituting a marked cross position of the marble are in the proportions of the slight development of the silicates in thin, films tains. In this region there is also seen an enor­ fold, complicating the usual system. The anti­ carbonates of lime and magnesia. These have no which are frequently striated in the direction of mous development of secondary garnet and ottrelite cline with accompanying fault passing around Tus­ particular bearing upon the value of the rock, as the motion. In places these seams disconnect the during metamorphisrn. Similar metamorphic quitee Bald describes a complete (J. Its sides are they do not affect its strength, durability, or portions of the marble, even in the solid rock, and products are found in tracing these structures compressed and nearly vertical, while the top at density. The lime varies from 53 to 32 per cent cause it to break up after short exposure. They south westward into Georgia. Northeastward the Tusquitee Bald is overturned toward the north­ and the magnesia from 2 to 20 per cent. Other are not present in all the marble, by any means, garnet-ottrelite phases extend for only 40 or 50 east and faulted. Thus is shown most clearly a variations are due to the varying amount of the and the amount of good material seems to be very miles, while the other products continue throughout distinct shortening of the crust of the earth from included minerals. These are talc, muscovite, bio- large. Where the rock has been extensively quar­ the Appalachians. southwest to northeast, as well as in the usual tite, tremolite, ottrelite, garnet, pyrite, and quartz. ried in regions farther southwest the character of The processes of metamorphism were along the northwest-southeast direction. Other instances of The amount of quartz varies. From 1 to 2 per cent the stone is not greatly different and the geologic same lines in both sediments and crystallines. The this are to be seen in this region, as, for example, is present in practically all the beds. The micas surroundings are substantially the same. It is mineral particles were changed in position and near Peachtree Knob and west of Almond. are practically confined to the uppermost and low­ therefore probable that good material will be broken during the folding of the rock. In folding, est layers of the formation. The tremolite and abundant in this region. the differential motion in the sedimentary strata ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. talc are concentrated into lenticular deposits and Accessibility. While the marble does not often do not affect the working of the marble as a whole. outcrop in this region, there are numberless quarry was to a large extent along bedding planes. As MINERAL RESOURCES. deformation became extreme, however, other planes Certain other layers contain tremolite crystals, as sites available. The surface of the marble is cov­ of motion were formed through the separate layers, The rocks and minerals of this region are of use seen in the quarry on Marble Creek at the border ered by 6 or 8 feet of soil and gravel along the just as in the case of the massive igneous rocks. in the natural state, as marble, talc, kaolin, soap- of the quadrangle. The pyrite and garnet are flood plains of the different streams (see fig. 1 on In rocks which were already gneissoid or schistose, stone, mica, corundum, building stone, ornamental found at a number of places in the lower layers of columnar section sheet), and in other positions as the result of previous metamorphism, the exist­ stone, and road material, or in the materials devel­ the formation, but are comparatively rare. In by a slightly greater amount of wash from the ent schistose planes served to facilitate flexure, as oped from them, such as iron, gold, lime, and clay. short, the minerals which would injure the work­ various formations. This is true not only of the did the bedding planes of the sediments. In the The soils they form produce timber and crops, and ing and appearance of the stone are very slight entire Valley River basin, but also of the Peach- massive igneous rocks there were no planes already the stream grades they cause furnish abundant in amount and easily avoided. tree and Brasstown areas. In the latter situations, formed, but they were developed by fracture and water power. During the metamorphism of the marble the as well as in the bottom lands for large areas mashing, and the change of form expressed in folds carbonate crystals were formed interlocking with below Andrews, the presence of the marble has was less than in the laminated rocks. The schis- j MARBLE. one another. This has produced a rock of great been proved in scores of places, although it scarcely tose partings are in a general way parallel to one One of the most important rocks having com­ density and closeness of texture. Tests of marble outcrops at all. Northeast of Red Marble Gap another for long distances and over large areas. I mercial value in this district is marble. It covers from Hewitts, on Nantahala River, show that it is even this thin covering is much lessened and nat­ They sometimes diverge considerably for short many square miles, as represented on the geo­ not liable to be acted upon by frost or solution. ural outcrops of the marble are frequent. The distances around harder portions of the rock, logic map, and it outcrops along two principal Four samples of rock from this locality gave an Murphy branch of the Southern Railway follows which have yielded less under compression, but lines. The main one begins on Nantahala River average crushing strength of about 11,000 pounds closely along the principal marble belt. In fact, the influence of these portions is only local. Near below Hewitts and extends south westward to and per square inch. the low ground which the railroad follows is, with the boundaries of formations, also, they are usually down Valley River a distance of over 25 miles. Thickness. The total thickness of the marble the exception of 4 or 5 miles, caused directly by about parallel to the general contact of the forma­ A shorter and parallel band extends from the head beds is about 500 feet. The only obtainable meas­ the presence of the marble. Thus delivery of the tions, the yielding to pressure having been directed of Peachtree Creek nearly 10 miles south west ward urements are in the southwestern end of the main quarried material to the transportation lines is by the differences in strength between the forma­ and up little Brasstown Creek. The latter of these marble belt. In the broader areas underlain by exceptionally easy. Southwest of Marble the for­ tions. Thus while the strike of the different for­ two belts terminates a few miles west of this quad­ the formation the different layers have been mation has an average dip of 50° to 60°, so that mations may vary considerable in adjoining areas, rangle, but the principal belt extends through Cher- repeated by folding. Since the beds do not long-continued quarrying would entail deep cut­ yet the schistose planes swing gradually from one okee County and many miles into Georgia, being part along the original sedimentary planes the ting and hoisting. In the same degree the dis- Nantahala. 8 posal of water would be a question to be considered. different lenses and sheets. By far the greater marble belt, on Nantahala River. Tunnels and decomposed to kaolin and such deposits can be The surface of the marble in those localities is part of it is dull white. Of this color are all of shafts have been sunk in several adjoining prop­ profitably mined. The kaolin is separated from seldom more than 60 feet above Valley River, and the weathered or semiweathered portions which are erties, extending about a quarter of a mile along the hard particles of quartz and undecomposed much less above the minor creeks. Considerable near the surface. In the talc which is secured by the river, and a body of talc has been proved for a feldspar by washing and settling. pumping would therefore be necessary in quarries mining from the solid rock light colors prevail, vertical extent of about 150 feet. The dip of the As has been stated in the discussion of the of any depth. Northeast of Marble the situation varying from bluish and greenish white to a dull strata and the included talc sheets is about 45° SE., topography, large areas bordering the main streams is much the same, except that the rock is seldom blue and a pale green. The freshest mineral is which carries them under the bed of the river. were reduced to nearly level plains. These have more than a few feet above drainage level. In all translucent. This character has been lost by all The talc has been found in a shaft sunk consider­ been since cut into by the rivers and stand from these areas, therefore, drainage and disposal of of the weathered talc, which is perfectly opaque. ably below the level of the river and is now being 100 to 300 feet above the present streams and the waste material are of importance. Between Much of the weathered material is also stained mined. In the past most of the talc has been slightly over 2000 feet above the sea. On these Marble and Valleytowii the dips vary much, but with iron oxide from the ferruginous minerals in taken out from the smaller and more irregular old surfaces the rocks were deeply decayed, espe­ on the average are small. Consequently openings the schists which border the marble formation. lenses encountered here and there in the marble cially those which contained much feldspar. In on the marble could readily be extended over This rust coats and stains the surface of the frag­ at points up to 100 feet above the river. From this quadrangle only a small area of this deeply the surface and the stone taken out more easily. ments and penetrates into their interior by cracks various tunnels of the Hewitt mine at this point a decayed surface is occupied by the rocks contain­ Northeast of Red Marble Gap the topography is and seams. It is a serious detriment to the quality considerable amount of marble has been taken out ing pegmatite. They are practically limited to very rugged and presents great natural advantages of the talc, since it is mixed throughout the latter in following up the talc. The slope of the hillside a narrow belt 3 or 4 miles wide along Little so far as drainage and disposal of waste are con­ when it is ground. follows very nearly down the dip of the marble and Tennessee and Tuckasegee rivers above Bushnell, cerned. As can be readily understood from the dimen­ has been stripped over a large area in the search within which numerous small deposits of kaolin for talc. All the talc deposits of the Murphy mar­ TALC. sions of the talc lenses, the quantity of the talc have been found. In the adjoining Cowee quad­ varies greatly. It is only by actually working out ble are readily accessible, for a branch of the South­ rangle there has been considerable development of One of the chief sources of talc in the United each body or by thoroughly testing by diamond ern Railway runs within a few rods of the marble these deposits, and some of the best kaolin of the States is the series of deposits in the Murphy mar­ drill that any idea of the amount can be obtained. belt throughout its extent in North Carolina. State has been taken from them. ble in this quadrangle. Talc is a hydrous silicate A lens whose edge only can be seen is as likely to be Talc in graywacke. Talc is also found in a very Within the Nantahala quadrangle kaolin is of magnesia, and is notable for its infusibility, its large as small. It is equally impossible to predict unusual association 1^- miles southwest of Wayside known to occur in quantity at seven localities, softness, and its smooth, greasy feel. On account where a mass of talc will or will not be found. and near Little Tennessee River. The deposit at all within 4 miles southerly or easterly from of these characteristics its various uses have been Many of the miners say that the talc is always this point occurs in the graywacke and mica-schist Almond. At the Hewitt mine, 2|- miles south­ developed. Its infusibility fits it for gas tips and overlain by a white sandstone called the "cap that form part of the Great Smoky conglomerate. east of Almond and near Little Tennessee River, vessels which have to stand extreme heat. When rock." This is often the case, but is not the rule, A shaft and tunnel have developed the talc for kaolin is now being mined. The pegmatite is scratched or rubbed against any ordinary surface for the talc is frequently found where there is no a depth of 100 feet. It lies in the form of a found replacing the graywacke and schist of the the talc gives a white streak. The massive varie­ associated sandstone. The talc lenses are not con­ vertical vein which is parallel to the inclosing Great Smoky conglomerate, which is an unusual ties are manufactured into pencils and articles for fined to one horizon in the marble, but may appear schists. At this point the width of the vein varies situation. The pegmatite occurs as small round marking. Little of the North Carolina talc is suit­ between several distinct layers. Variations in the from 14 to 28 feet, being greatest in the tunnel at masses and nodules in the graywacke, and its able for cutting into pencils, practically all of that quality of the talc are considerable, also, even in the lowest point seen. At the border of the vein minerals are not deformed like those of the inclos­ character coming from the mine at Hewitts. It is the same body of marble. For instance, at the mica-schist is impregnated for a few inches ing rocks. Similar masses are to be seen in the easily cut or sawed, or ground into powder. On Hewitt's mine on Nantahala River both the mass­ with talc, forming a talcose schist. It is probable conglomerates along Little Tennessee River toward account of its unctuous nature the powder is used ive and the fibrous varieties are found, as well as from this that the talc deposit is a replacement of the northeast. to diminish friction. the blue, green, and white colors. One quality the original mica-schist, but in the body of the The kaolin is mined near the top and on the The talc occurs as a series of lenticular masses and one color usually predominate in a single lens vein none of the schist now remains. southern slope of a small ridge. Test pits and a and sheets in the blue and white Cambrian marbles or sheet. The talc is thinly foliated and slightly schistose short tunnel have proved its extent for about 150 along Nantahala, Valley, and Nottely rivers. It is The texture and grain of the talc are very vari­ and has a dead-white color. The many partings yards on the north slope of the same ridge. The also found in the Great Smoky conglomerate, of able, even in the same group of lenses, as was just in it render it unfit for cutting into pencils, but it deposit runs nearly north and south, as do also the Cambrian age, and in the Archean dunite and soap- stated in reference to the Hewitt mine. The talc works up into excellent powder. Associated with adjoining schist and graywacke. The kaolinized stone formation. scattered through the mass of the marble is usually the talc in places are separate knots and groups of pegmatite is removed from an open cut, the hard Talc in, marble. The Cambrian marbles as in the shape of foliated scales. The same is true to white tremolite crystals. These would cause a loss fragments are roughly picked out by hand, and the described above have a length of outcrop of about a greater or less degree of the thin edges of the vari­ of some of the talc in the manufacture. At present remainder is carried in a flume to Little Tennessee 40 miles in North Carolina, and are continued ous lenses. Some of the thicker lenses are com­ the deposit is not being worked at this point, owing River. It is there washed, settled, and dried, and in Georgia for a much greater distance. Talc is posed almost entirely of massive talc. This has to its remote position. This vein has been traced the product taken to the railroad by wagons. known to occur in more than twenty-five places no cleavage or tendency to part in one direction by surface indications and test pits for consider­ Some of the expense of this operation could be along the marble belt of North Carolina, but is less rather than another, and is sawed into pencils and ably more than a mile with a northeasterly course. lessened by a tram or other railroad, and many common in Georgia. It occurs in the shape of sheets. Most of the talc has a tendency to break Since the talc itself does not outcrop it is likely other deposits in the vicinity might thus be profit­ lenticular bodies inclosed in the marble and vary­ into long, thin fragments, flakes, and fibers. that other beds now covered will be found, for the ably worked. ing in size from mere scales up to masses 50 feet Inasmuch as the methods of manufacture of the causes which produced it were probably of a general About a mile farther north and apparently on thick and 200 feet long. Owing to its soft nature talc depend upon its softness, any impurities nature. the same lead is another deposit of kaolin. About the talc does not withstand weathering, but readily which affect that quality are a detriment. Other Talc in soapstone. Another class of talc deposits one-fourth mile westward kaolin is found in a crumbles down. It does not outcrop, therefore, impurities, such as stains by iron rust and soil, can is connected with the bodies of dunite and soap- different body. Judging from surface indications, and its position is indicated merely by weathered be removed in part. The principal impediments stone in the Archean rocks. Around these forma­ there is in the vicinity a large amount of kaolin- fragments on the surface. Thus it is impossible to to the working up of the talc are the associated tions there is usually a border of talc or very pure bearing pegmatite which is undeveloped. Still determine the full extent of the talc bodies except minerals, mostly silicates. These are inclosed in soapstone. Besides these, seams of talc intersect the other deposits have been opened up by test pits where they have been exposed by mining. For the mass of talc in crystals arranged at a great dunite masses in various directions. These seams 2 miles southwest and If- miles northeast of the the same reason it is probable that many bodies variety of angles. The silicates consist chiefly of are usually only a few inches thick and may be Hewitt mine. These pits, however, demonstrate of talc have thus far escaped observation. Some of hornblende, tremolite, actinolite, and chlorite, all mere films, but the bordering beds vary from a foot only the presence of the kaolin and not its amount. the bodies are so extensive that they resemble sheets containing a large percentage of magnesia. There or two up to 10 feet in thickness and contain large The locality northeast of the Hewitt mine is at the of sedimentary material. This is especially the are also found occasional grains of pyrite and mag­ quantities of talc. Instances of this variety are top of a ridge 200 feet above the river. At least case where the talc sheets grade into the adjoining netite. In localities where the sandstone "cap seen a mile south of Shooting Creel£ post-office two separate veins of the kaolin are exposed in the sandstone beds. They are termed "veins" by the rock" is found there is sometimes a mixture of and at the extreme head of Shooting Creek. The pits, and the kaolin extends vertically for at least miners, but have none of the characteristics of true the sand grains and the talc, as if the talc were quality of this material is rather uncertain, how­ 50 feet. On the lower slopes of the hill and near veins. a sedimentary deposit. The crystals of the sili­ ever, and the value of the talc is liable to be much the river the pegmatite is not altered to kaolin, but It is not probable that the talc was deposited as cates vary in size from mere needles up to prisms lessened by the presence of the other silicates, such outcrops as solid rock. a sediment in its present form. The rocks of the with diameters of half an inch and a length of 2 as tremolite, actinolite, hornblende, and chlorite. entire region have been greatly folded and com­ or 3 inches. These may be developed singly or These are practically the same minerals which SOAPSTONE. pressed, and most of the original sedimentary mate­ arranged in radiating bunches and groups. The occur as impurities in the talc of the Murphy In three places on the headwaters of Shooting rials have been recrystallized. No sedimentary greatest development of these silicates is seen marble. It is impossible to say in advance of Creek soapstone is found in sufficient purity and deposits of talc are known in the Appalachians; 5 miles northeast of Murphy, where the largest working where the quality is thus depreciated. body for commercial use. In most cases the it is therefore probable that the constituents of the talc body of the region is rendered worthless by The talc is almost entirely white, sometimes trans­ hydrous silicates of magnesia forming the soap- talc existed in the adjacent sedimentary rocks in them for the present. They are intergrown with lucent, but usually opaque. It is probable that if stone are too much mixed with other silicates, some other form. Some of the beds of the marble the talc in such numbers that it is not practicable work were pushed into the solid rock the trans­ especially of the hornblende family, to be avail­ formation now contain a considerable percentage to separate and work up the talc. The same min­ lucent material would predominate. Thus far able. The special uses of soapstone demand a of magnesia in the form of the carbonate. It is erals are to be seen crystallized in the marble in a mining has been confined to pits in the clay rock which is readily cut and sawed and which probable that the magnesium carbonates and the number of localities where there is no talc. and decomposed rock. Stains of earth and iron contains no mineral that is affected by fire. Some hydrous silicates have the same source, both being The methods employed in extracting the talc oxide are common in this material. This variety of the hornblendic minerals fuse readily, but derived from the materials of an original sedimen­ lenses from the marble are very simple. For the of talc varies from massive to fibrous and is fit only others which fuse less easily are hard and injure tary dolomite. The development of the talc in most part the talc is obtained from pits and shal­ for grinding into powder. Although the amount the texture and working of the stone. In the the scales which are disseminated through the mass low shafts in the soil and decomposed rock. The of talc of this class is considerable, none has been metamorphism of the original rocks those com­ of the marble is thus easily accounted for. The pockets of talc thus encountered are usually very mined in this region. posed of feldspar and pyroxene are altered to soap- concentration of the talc into lenses and sheets is, much weathered, and accordingly are of less value. KAOLIN. stone composed mainly of talc and chlorite with however, difficult to understand. Some of the In the large mass of talc exposed 5 miles northeast tremolite and enstatite crystals in variable amounts. lenses are barely twice as long and broad as they of Murphy an open cut 50 feet square has been The same series of pegmatites from which the The changes are chiefly of form and not of chem­ are thick, while others are very much attenuated made, and the amount of talc in sight is large. mica is derived also contains valuable deposits of ical composition of the rock as a whole. Inasmuch and form thin sheets, as already stated. The As above stated, however, the silicate impurities kaolin. The pegmatites vary widely in the pro­ as igneous rocks of this nature vary greatly in lenses appear to be somewhat drawn out, and there render the talc less desirable and less easy portions of quartz, feldspar, and mica, and in composition, the beds of soapstone also vary much pass into the marble with very thin edges. to work. The chief developments in talc mining places the feldspar forms much the largest part of in quality, and a change from good to worthless or The color of the talc varies considerably in the are confined to the extreme end of the Murphy the mass. In certain situations the feldspar is from poor to valuable rock may be found at any 9 place. The localities indicated on the economic dunite formation. At two other localities on proportion of the garnet in the gneiss, however, is actinolite. The corundum is tough and forms map would furnish material in large amounts and Shooting Creek, and also near the head of Tallu- considerably greater than on Tallulah River and an excellent abrasive. The dunite is much fairly free from the injurious minerals. Owing to lah River, in the extreme southeastern part of the would cause trouble in the separation of high-grade altered to chlorite, asbestos, actinolite, and ser­ the remoteness of the beds, however, there is no quadrangle, the corundum is found embedded in corundum. pentine along cracks and veins. Corundum is demand for the stone except locally for use in fire­ the Carolina gneiss. While the corundum crystals occupy a fairly found at several neighboring points, but has not places, and only surface bowlders have been used. Corundum in mica-gneiss. Corundum differing definite position in the mica-gneiss as a whole, they been developed. entirely from the usual deposits of corundum in the are scattered apparently at random and at vari­ The origin of the corundum is a matter of con­ MICA. region is found in crystals disseminated through ous angles through the individual layers of gneiss. siderable doubt. Its close connection with the In the pegmatites of the Archean rocks mica the mica-gneiss beds of the Carolina gneiss. These They interrupt the parallel arrangement or foli­ borders of the dunite and the inclosing formations occurs in crystals large enough to be of commer­ beds are composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, ation of the mica-gneiss abruptly, and plainly rep­ indicates that its deposition was determined by the cial value. Pegmatites are found in the Roan and muscovite, and a little biotite. Many of the layers resent a replacement of small parts of the gneiss. contact. The associated chlorite and hornblendic Carolina gneisses throughout a large portion of are also garnetiferous. Differences in the propor­ It is thus seen to be a secondary mineral and much minerals are all silicates of magnesia, much the their areas of outcrop, but mica of workable size tion of the mica and Feldspar in different layers later than the bulk of the gneiss. The other min­ same in composition as the minerals of the dunite lias been mined chiefly in a belt passing northeast give a bedded aspect to the gneiss in addition to erals composing the gneiss, as has been stated, have and of allied masses where there is no corundum. and southwest near Wayah Bald. On the north the minor separation of the minerals into thin a definite parallel arrangement, due to deformation Except the corundum there is little or no alumina end of Standing Indian, also, mica of good size is sheets. Along certain of these major layers corun­ of the rock. The entire absence of this in the in the dunite. In the adjoining formations, how­ found. Elsewhere the crystals either were crushed dum is found in association with garnet. It is not, corundum, although the length of its crystals and ever, it is present in great quantities in the form of and distorted during the deformation of the rock strictly speaking, in a vein, nor is it a sedimentary their prominent cleavage would facilitate it, is silicates, and chemical reactions between the two or were not originally of sufficient size. deposit, though it resembles both. strong evidence that the corundum was formed masses may have led to its deposition near the The mica is muscovite and is crystallized with The deposit at the head of Tallulah River has later than the period of deformation. contacts. In the formation of the hornblendic quartz and feldspar, forming the pegmatite. From been traced southwestward through the adjoining There is little or no evidence as to the cause of minerals, which was the chief change from the a texture only a little coarser than granite the peg­ Dahloiiega quadrangle for a distance of 3 or 4 its formation. The garnet with which it is asso­ original olivine of the dunite, there was a large matite varies until the mica crystals attain a diam­ miles, and its extent may be much greater, for the ciated is a secondary mineral and is due to and addition of silica. This necessarily came from eter as great as 20 inches. Crystals of this size are accompanying conditions extend for many miles. accompanies the contacts of Roan hornblende the adjoining more siliceous formations. It is very rare and the average diameter is from 3 to 6 Its dip varies with the gneiss and is 20° to 30° in gneiss with the Carolina gneiss. On Shooting possible, therefore, that the alumina was set free inches. In this region the pegmatites are of len­ this area. The thickness of the beds containing Creek the garnets are very coarse, being fre­ by the absorption of the silica into the dunite and ticular shape and lie in general parallel to the corundum varies from 6 to 14 feet in this region. quently 2 inches in diameter. However, although crystallized as the oxide in the zone where the inclosing gneisses. They may be traceable for The corundum forms hexagonal crystals, usually the garnets were secondary, they preceded the reactions took place. The veinlike form of the long distances or may be quickly terminated. well shaped and tapering toward each end. They rock deformation, for they are in many cases deposits is in favor of this view and strongly The distribution of the crystals or "blocks" of attain diameters as great as three-fourths of an inch crushed and distorted. Thus the corundum can against an origin of the corundum earlier than good mica in the vein is very irregular and can and lengths of 3 inches. The corundum has a not be attributed directly to the contact action of the deformation of the rocks. not be predicted. In places the mica apparently dull-gray color and is semitranslucent; in no case the hornblende-gneiss. From its prevalence in a The rocks which inclose the corundum are follows rather irregular planes, which are termed is it suitable for gems. The basal cleavage is fairly few thin layers it would seem either that the orig­ extremely old, and during their metamorphism, as the "vein." They can not be traced far with any prominent and divides the crystals into a number inal nature of the layers was conducive to the for­ already described, were formed in large part the definite position. Consequently the success of any of sections, which, however, are not separated from mation of the corundum or that they were the minerals which now compose them. The minerals mica mine is uncertain. Good mica may be found one another in position. The corundum itself is easiest channels for the passage of solutions form­ lie with their major axes in definite positions, at once, or barren rock may continue throughout. very dense and tough. The crystals are coated ing the corundum. The deposition of corundum usually about parallel to one another. The Coarse mica at one point may become smaller in with a film or very thin layer of mica. The scales may have been in that respect controlled by differ­ various magnesian silicates which accompany the a few feet, or the crystals may be deformed and of this are extremely fine, but it appears to be of ences in the rock caused by the original contact of corundum chlorite and hornblende in particular crushed. Generally, however, one class of mica the muscovite variety. the hornblende-gneiss. most obviously lack this arrangement, although prevails for considerable distances. Many of the The corundum on Eagle Fork of Shooting Creek Corundum in dunite. The corundum of the the same minerals in other parts of the dunite and crystals do not furnish sheets across their entire has a similar general position in the mica-gneiss, Buck Creek and some of the Shooting Creek adjoining formations are strongly marked in that diameter, for seams and cuts or "rulings" divide and the layers inclosing it are full of garnets areas is, as has been said, associated with the way. Hence it is clear that where these minerals them into strips and angular pieces. These, near the contact of the hornblende-gneiss. The dunite formation. At the Cullakeenee mine on occur with the corundum they are of secondary however, are suitable for ground mica. Impuri­ corundum crystals themselves have a slightly dif­ Buck Creek, the North Carolina Company's mine origin. Therefore two classes of secondary min­ ties in the form of dendrite figures, stains, and ferent arrangement, however, from those on Tallu­ on Little Buck Creek, and the Isbel mine at the erals must be recognized- those formed by meta­ spots render much of the mica worthless for any lah River. Most of it is associated with biotite and head of Shooting Creek the corundum is found morphism under pressure, and those of veinlike purpose, and clay penetrates between the sheets muscovite in lenticular veins or segregations in the with plagioclase feldspar and a little hornblende in origin, including chlorite, hornblende, and feld­ where the rock is decayed near the surface. The mica-gneiss. These are plainly secondary replace­ veinlike or lenticular deposits in dunite. At the spar. From the close association of the corundum clay can be, for the most part, taken out by careful ments of the gneiss and lack its foliation. Only Behr mine, near Elk, on Shooting Creek, corun­ with the latter class it is probable that the corun­ washing, but the spots of dendrite can not be wholly small grains of corundum, of the size of wheat, are dum occurs in tabular pink crystals and grains in dum also is secondary. Moreover, there is in the removed, existing as they do between the thinnest found in this relation. There are also a few corun­ the amphibolite, as well as in feldspathic veins. corundum itself no evidence of metamorphism by sheets. dum crystals of larger size distributed through the Most of the dunite corundum is light gray or pressure, although it is so prominent in the inclosing Pits and shallow openings have been made in mica-gneiss. These have muscovite and a little whitish, but many pink crystals are found, and rocks. It shows no rearrangement of the cleavage this region during many years, but they have biotite surrounding them. In places the corun­ some are streaked with the clear blue of sapphire. planes or major axes in one general direction, as is usually been sunk in the decayed rock and soon dum appears to have been replaced by the micas. They seldom form well-shaped crystals, but usually the case in most minerals acted upon in that exhausted. Later work in the solid rock is diffi­ Between these typical formations of the corundum are in irregular lumps an inch or less in diameter. way; yet the corundum could not have escaped the cult on account of the hardness of the quartz and there are numerous transition varieties. The two Larger bunches are frequently found, and at Little deforming influences if it had been present in the feldspar. The mine upon the eastern slope of occurrences of this nature are in close proximity Buck Creek a mass was taken out 30 inches long rock. Nor is there any change of the crystalline Wayah Bald has furnished the largest mica known to the intrusive hornblende-gneisses and have the and weighing 1800 pounds. The corundum is form of the corundum, although such would have in this region, but it has been idle for a long time. same general relations as the corundum of Tallulah very dense and tough, but shows well developed been made easy by its prominent cleavage. For In all the mica of this area the pegmatite cuts River. Two miles northeast of these localities cleavage. Numerous more or less rare accessory these reasons it is highly probable that the corun­ across the mica-gneiss at angles of 10° to 60°. corundum, spinel, and cyanite are found in rudely minerals are found. dum associated with the dunite was not an original Where the two have similar directions the contacts spherical segregations in the Carolina gneiss. The The country rock inclosing the veins in nearly part of the rock. are irregular or step shaped. gneiss at this point is garnetiferous near the con­ all these localities is amphibolite, chiefly composed IRON ORE. The only mine worked in late years is on Burn- tact of the hornblende-gneiss, and the general of feldspar with chlorite and bright-green horn­ ingtown Creek. Mining was carried on by the relations are the same as in the preceding local­ blende. The latter mineral has a distinct foliation Iron ore is found in many situations in this Flint Mica Company from 1903 to 1906, on the ities. and" was produced from the original minerals of quadrangle. The ore is in all cases brown hematite site of old workings. Electric power derived from The only workings in the Carolina gneiss corun­ the rock during deformation. The veins are in and for the most part occurs as deposits t in the the neighboring creek was used at first, but was later dum are on the east side of Tallulah River. At most cases found close to the contacts of the residual clays. Here and there iron ore outcrops given up. The pegmatite, or " vein," was from 6 to this point, high up on the east side of a peak called amphibolite or dunite with the hornblende-gneiss, in the areas of the Great Smoky conglomerate, 12 feet thick, striking about N. 10° E. and dipping Scaly Mountain, several open cuts have been pushed but in some instances they appear well within the forming gossans over the bodies of iron and copper 55° SE. Thus the vein cuts the mica-gneiss, which into a precipitous slope along the dip of the vein, dunite. Their dip and strike vary roughly with pyrite. In only one place near this quadrangle do runs east-west with a high northerly dip. The which varies from 20° to 30° W. Some rock has those of the inclosing rocks, and the dip is usually these bodies attain any size on Hazel Creek, just mica is confined to the outer parts of the vein, its been crushed and the corundum cleaned, but not very steep. On Buck Creek the veins have been across the northern border, where deposits of this center being composed of quartz layers 3 or 4 feet shipped. The difficulties of transportation are traced for considerable distances along the contacts character have been developed considerably. in total thickness. A crosscut runs in southeast to very great. The average proportion of corundum and have been opened at eight^ or nine points. At The chief source of iron ore in this region is the the vein 40 feet below the outcrop where it crosses in the rock is estimated at about 5 per cent, and the eastern one a shaft has been sunk on the vein, Andrews schist. The ore is brown hematite, and a small spur. Practically all of the vein was its total amount is very great, since the vein can which is 3 feet or less in width. it occurs both as layers interbedded in the par­ stoped out above the level of the tunnel, and the be traced for several miles. The proportion of Corundum is now being mined only at Corun­ tially weathered strata and as lumps and masses stope extended below it for 45 feet. No work is corundum to garnet appears to be greater near the dum, on Little Buck Creek, and is cleaned and in the residual clays. The iron ores are encoun­ now being done there. Mining has been done at surface. In crushing, the quartz, feldspar, and graded in a mill at that point. The corundum is tered in practically all the areas of the schist. other points only in open cuts. mica of the gneiss are pulverized much more easily mined from a group of veins which pass into the They can be traced connectedly for considerable than the corundum and thus are readily separated. body of the dunite from the contact of the horn­ distances and are best' developed in the upper CORUNDUM. More or less difficulty is encountered in cleaning blende-gneiss. The veins vary greatly in direction portion of the formation. They are found almost Corundum is an oxide of aluminum and is found the garnet from the corundum. Water is plentiful and dip and range from a few inches up to 8 feet altogether above the stream levels, but in one case in association with the Archean rocks. Eight local­ for all purposes. in thickness. Several veins have been followed in they have been followed to a depth of 80 feet ities where it occurs are known within this area. On Shooting Creek only a few test pits have open cuts and tunnels more than 50 feet into the below the surface. Many outcrops are 200 feet There are two distinct kinds of occurrence. On been sunk and the amount of corundum-bearing dunite. The corundum is white or grayish with or more above the streams. Apparently they fol­ Buck Creek, Little Buck Creek, Burningtown Creek, rock is uncertain. The separation of the corundum many blue streaks, and forms rudely crystalline low and replace definite beds, and are due to the and at two localities on Shooting Creek the rocks from the gneiss would be easily effected on account units and masses associated with albite, margarite, concentration of the ore into certain beds by a accompanying the corundum are varieties of the of the greater toughness of the corundum. The chlorite, diaspore, hypersthene, tourmaline, and replacement of the calcareous by ferruginous mate- Nantahala. 10 rial. Thus, southwest from Tomotla, where the gold-bearing galena which occur in the Murphy gold are those along Valley River below Andrews. cases. The rocks which are known to contain gold formations are tilted at high angles, the beds of marble at various points, and the iron ores of the The terrace gravels are nearly continuous from the in the basins of Valley and Hiwassee rivers pass hematite are similarly tilted. Between Andrews Andrews schist, which contain a small percentage vicinity of Valleytown for about 8 miles to and into the Nantahala and Cheoah basins without and Marble, at points where the schist has a of gold. below the mouth of Vengeance Creek. On the change of character. They also contain veins of slight dip, the iron-ore beds are also nearly flat Quartz deposits. Auriferous quartz is found in north side of Valley River, between the same auriferous pyrite and quartz. The gravel deposits and cover broad areas. In these latter situations two forms veins from a few inches to 8 or 10 feet points, the gravel deposits at the mouths of the were formed with substantially the same grades, they sometimes attain much greater thickness, as in thickness and cutting the Cambrian and Archean different tributary creeks have been washed for although at different altitudes, and under the same well as breadth. rocks, and small lenses and stringers distributed gold. These are but slightly above the flood plain physical conditions. Since, therefore, they were through considerable masses of Cambrian schists and of the river and grade into it. Below Marble the produced in the same way and from the same series The bodies of ore usually*/ rangeCJ from 1 to 6 feet in thickness; those that lie flat attain thicknesses slates. The quartz veins occur in greatest size west gravels are found chiefly on the north side of the of rocks, it is highly probable that they will be as great as 50 feet. Just southeast of Marble is the and northwest of Peachtree Knob in a belt parallel river and only where they have been protected from found to contain gold. largest body proved; this has a length of 175 feet, to the course of Valley River. No development removal by the ridges of Nottely quartzite. The In all of these areas hydraulic mining is easily a depth of 40 feet or more, and a width of over 15 work has thus far been done upon these large great size of the gravel deposits in all these local­ carried on. The region is one of the best watered feet. Many shallow shafts have been sunk and veins. Similar deposits have been opened and ities is due to the presence of the Murphy marble. in the United States. The streams are fed from pits or cuts made in the ore throughout its entire tested on Partridge and Wesser creeks, which flow The surface of this formation was easily reduced, countless springs and the rainfall is considerable. range. Many years ago this ore was reduced in into Nantahala River. The ore consists of aurif­ and the streams attained grades so low that they Freshets are largely checked by heavy forest growth the old forge north of Murphy, on Hanging Dog erous pyrite in quartz. The veins run in a general were unable to transport the coarse waste from the and periods of drought are extremely rare. The Creek, and furnished excellent iron. Since that northeasterly direction through the country rock, surrounding mountains and were forced to deposit grades of the streams are considerable, especially in time practically no use has been made of the which consists mainly of graywacke with beds of it. The gravels, therefore, form a curved surface the smaller tributaries from which water would be deposits. Thirty samples of this ore averaged slate and schist. Assays show wide variations in between the steep slopes of the small streams and secured. It is always possible, therefore, to get a a little over 50 per cent of metallic iron, less the content of gold, and the work done in devel­ the lesser slopes of the larger ones. Thus the good head of water and a plentiful supply without than 9 per cent of silica, and just over 1 per oping is not enough to determine the value of the gravels as now seen in the terraces vary somewhat unreasonably long ditches. Those built to work cent of phosphorus. This brings it up to the deposits. in height according to the part of the original the Valley River deposits run from 5 to 7 miles. standard of the first-class brown ores. Its posi­ While these veins are most common in the sedi­ surface which they formerly occupied. Around The gravels of Peachtree, Tusquitee, and Shooting tion within a mile of the railroad is very advan­ mentary rocks, they are found also in the Archean Valleytown there is a fine exhibition of these creeks could be reached by ditches of similar tageous. gneisses. Six miles southwest of Hayesville and curving deposits in both the terraces and the flood length, as could also those of Cheoah and Nanta­ A second group of brown hematites is developed close to the Georgia-North Carolina boundary, at plains. hala rivers. in the vicinity of fault lines. These are best the Warren mine, a shaft was sunk and mining Gold has been obtained from these gravels at LIME. exhibited from 2 to 4 miles southwest of Valley- operations were carried on before 1895. The many times and various places. Mining has been town. Along the same line near Peach tree Creek country rock is the Carolina gneiss. The vein carried on at three localities on a considerable scale Material for the production of lime is common and Hiwassee River, and also northeastward from dips steeply to the southeast and runs northeast within the last five years. The gravels worked throughout the extent of the Murphy marble. As Valleytown, similar ores appear from place to place. with the inclosing mica-gneiss. The thickness of were the terrace deposits both below and above the already stated, some of the layers contain as high The ores are found in the various slates and schists the vein could not be measured. In the vicinity mouth of Vengeance Creek, the flood-plain gravels as 93 per cent of carbonate of calcium, and layers and near the fault plane, and consist of brown are many quartz veins up to 3 or 4 feet in thick­ on the opposite side of the river, and the terrace of sufficient purity are plentiful. Except along hematite rather irregularly distributed through ness and visible for hundreds of feet. The same gravels on Marble Creek at the edge of this quad­ the areas of that formation there are no calcareous clay and decomposed rock. In places the ore con­ rocks continue northeast into the Nantahala quad­ rangle. Water was brought by ditches to points strata. Within this quadrangle no use whatever tains so much manganese oxide as to become an rangle and contain many quartz veins, which prob­ near and above the gravel deposits and taken down has been made of the marble in this way. Although ore of that metal. The ore bodies follow the strike ably will be found to carry gold. in pipes to the workings. Hydraulic giants were the marble does not outcrop over most of its area, and dip of the rocks closely, and occasionally, as at The small stringers and lenticular deposits of used to excavate the gravel and considerable areas it is seldom far below the surface and can usually Red Marble Gap, the ore can be seen to lie between quartz a few inches thick, which carry a little were stripped. The gold was for the most part be reached by clearing away a few feet of gravel or the layers of the half-decayed slate. These ores are pyrite and sometimes free gold, have not been coarse, the best paying gravels being near the bed clay. Along Nantahala River there are abundant not present in as great degree and bulk as the ores tested at any point. Their average course is north­ rock. Fine gold was found in several layers at natural outcrops. In the latter locality the situ­ of the Andrews schist. They do not exceed 5 feet easterly, and they lie in general parallel to the some distance from the bottom. The terrace grav­ ation of the material and its composition are very in thickness and usually are about 1 foot thick. schistose planes of the inclosing rocks. They are els are all limited in amount and have been practi­ well adapted for the burning of lime. In nearly Beds of this ore can be traced for considerable dis­ extensively distributed over the entire basin of cally worked out. The profit was good for the all of the areas of the marble, however, it would tances, but are interrupted by sections showing no Valley River and extend thence in a northeasterly amount of material handled. From the coarseness be possible to establish kilns with the practical cer­ trace of the ore, so that the bodies must be inter­ direction. In the lower part of this basin the of the gold it is evident that its source is near. tainty of finding good materials for lime. mittent or lenticular in shape. On that account lenses and fragments of quartz derived from them The tributary streams are from 2 to 4 miles long the quantity of the ore is rendered more uncertain. are to be seen in greatest abundance. and the rocks which they drain are mainly schists BRICK CLAYS. The development of these ore bodies has been slight The wide occurrence of the gold-bearing rocks is and slates. The latest washings in the gravels All of the formations in this region, with the and they do not approach the importance of the made clear not only by the outcrops and waste a little over a mile northeast of Tomotla are now exception of the white quartzites, form clays on ore in the Andrews schist. The quality is excel­ material, but also by auriferous gravels. The lat­ abandoned. decomposition. These are of various kinds argil­ lent, being low in sulphur, phosphorus, and silica. ter are derived by concentration from the veins Gold-bearing gravels are probably not limited to laceous, sandy, and micaceous. The residual clays The iron-bearing minerals, staurolite, garnet, and and are to be found in the lower portions of prac­ Valley River. Erosion was at work in the other left from the rock decomposed in place extend over pyrite, are greatly developed in the vicinity of the tically every stream draining the area mentioned. river basins at the same time and produced gravel nearly the whole quadrangle. On the slopes of fault planes and seem to have a connection with From this it is necessary to infer a wide distribu­ deposits of corresponding extent. These are con­ the mountains and ridges and the steep borders of these ores, and may possibly be their source. tion for the veins themselves. spicuous along the tributaries of Hiwassee River, the stream canyons the amount of clay is very A third group of brown hematites appears near Gravel deposits. The principal sources of gold particularly Tusquitee, Peachtree, Brasstown, and small. Over the plateau areas and the lower slopes the contact of the Murphy marble and the Valley- in the quadrangle are the gravel deposits near the Shooting creeks. The deposits, however, are far of the ridges, where they grade into the plateaus town formation. These ores occur here and there stream courses. These are a conspicuous feature from being limited to the larger streams, but are and terraces, the cover of clay and decayed material throughout the entire marble belt, being most prom­ of the surface of this region and closely follow the found along every little branch where the recent is thick. In places on the plateaus it is as much inent near the western border of the quadrangle. present streams. The deposits consist of gravel, stream cutting has not extended back from the as 30 feet in depth. Like the preceding ores, these are situated in the loam, and clay, the coarser beds predominating at river. These deposits have precisely the same rela­ There are two types of occurrence of the best red clays and overplaced soils. There is no vis­ the base. The fragments consist mainly of quartz, tion to one another and to the draining streams as clays in the flood plains and terraces of the larger ible association with the bedding of the marble, on quartzite, and conglomerate, with lesser amounts do those of Valley River. On the main creeks rivers and creeks, and in the small valleys and hol­ account of the complete decay of the latter where of the various slates and schist. Mos,t of them are there is the same double system of flood plains lows which have not been reached by the later cut­ the ores appear, nor do the ore bodies seem to have angular or partly rounded; only near the larger and of terraces 10 to 30 feet higher, which curve ting of the streams. The flood plains and terraces any definite dip, but they consist of irregular masses stream courses are they well worn and rounded. upward into the hill slopes and toward the heads are small as compared with the area of the quadran­ and lumps in the clay. None of these ores have The deposits follow the grades of the streams very of the streams. gle, and their situation has already been described been developed to any extent. The quality of the closely and have a perceptible slope, with the excep­ In the upper part of Cheoah River basin gravel under "Gold." The clays deposited by Valley ore is good, but the quantity is uncertain on account tion of those bordering the largest streams. The deposits are found. Near Robbinsville they con­ River are the finest and most extensive. On that of the nature of its occurrence and the small amount grade of those along Valley River can be deter­ sist of a series of flood plains and terraces identical stream the light grades the lightest stream grades of present developments. It is possible that this mined only by instruments, while on some of the in appearance with those of the other rivers and of the region permit the fine material to be depos­ hematite was derived from the decomposition of smaller creeks it is as great as 5°. about 400 feet higher above sea. Above Robbins­ ited. Somewhat similar conditions prevail on the pyrite which occurs in the lower portions of the The deposits form two classes those which ville the difference between the terraces and the Hiwassee, though to a less extent. On all of the marble. To this would be added the hematite occupy the bottom lands and flood plains of the flood plains is very slight. They rise in curves with other principal streams the grades are so high that derived from the weathering of the adjoining streams, and older deposits of the same kind appear­ the grade of the streams and are rather sharply most of the fine clayey material has been carried schists, which carry large quantities of dissemi­ ing in the shape of terraces (see fig. 2 on columnar marked from the hill slopes. Along Nantahala downstream. On the flood plains and terraces nated iron-bearing minerals. Concentration from section sheet). Both series are conspicuous in the River deposits of gravel are much rarer than on of Valley and Hiwassee rivers there is usually a this group of minerals at many points distant basins of Hiwassee and Valley rivers and to a less the other streams. The channel of the river was cover of 2 to 4 feet of clay, underlain by sandy from the marble has resulted in unimportant extent near Cheoah River. Along Nantahala and not reduced to as low grades, and only locally were and gravelly beds. A small amount of this deposits of hematite. Little Tennessee rivers deposits of this kind are gravels deposited. Such are now to be seen on clay has been burned into bricks in the vicinity uncommon. The gravels which occupy the ter­ GOLD. Jarrett and Choga creeks near Aquone, at White- of Andrews, but no other use has been made of races were at one time on the flood plains of the oak Flats, and on the upper parts of Partridge and the material. For many years this region has been the scene streams. By renewed elevation of the land the Briertown creeks. These deposits have a general The chief deposits of clay are in the small hollows of mining for gold. Its chief forms of occurrence streams have been enabled to cut their courses lower, altitude of 3000 to 3100 feet. In other portions near the heads of the streams on the old plateau are the veins and stringers of gold-bearing quartz removing most of the earlier bottom lands and pro­ of the river basin the deposits which may have and terrace surfaces. Into these the finest portions in the Cambrian slates and schists and the Archean ducing new and lower ones. The terraces descend existed have been swept away by the later stream of the decomposed rock washed and formed excel­ gneisses, and the gravel deposits derived from the with the fall of the streams and stand from 20 to action. lent clay deposits. There are a great many of same veins and occupying the neighboring stream 120 feet above the adjacent water level, with an While none of these gravels have been tested for these within the quadrangle and the total amount bottoms. Other occurrences of gold, of less impor­ average, however, of less than 30 feet. the presence of gold, so far as known, the proba­ of material of that kind is very great. These clays tance and practically untested, are the deposits of The only deposits which have been worked for bility is strong that they are gold bearing in most are from 1 to 6 feet deep, being thickest in the 11 bottoms of the hollows and thinner upon the hill is amphibolite, which on the map is grouped with WATER POWER ness and massive character of the Great Smoky con­ slopes. Thus far no use whatever has been made the soapstone and dunite. Six miles southeast of The resources of this quadrangle in the form of glomerate through which the river passes. Cheoah of this class of clay deposits. Hayesville, on Shooting Creek, this outcrops in water power are very great. The streams, both- River, passing through the same rocks below Rob- considerable quantities. It has a bright grass- great and small, fall rapidly throughout the whole bins ville, falls about 700 feet in the 10 miles before BUILDING STONE. green color and a uniform texture. It is fine area. Their flow is very steady from season to j oining the Little Tennessee. Through that distance There is a great variety of building stone* grained and the schistosity is not pronounced. season, since they are fed by multitudes of springs its principal tributaries have combined to make it although not at present developed, among the The Cambrian quartzites furnish uniformly and drain heavily forested areas. Where the a considerable stream, with about the same amount rocks of this quadrangle. The most productive white material of great durability. , Their layers streams are of nearly the same altitude as the of water as Nantahala River. formation in this respect is the Great Smoky con­ are seldom over 2 feet thick, and they are consid­ various plateaus their grades are considerably less By far the greatest amount of power can be glomerate of the Cheoah and Little Tennessee river erably affected in places by joints and schistosity. than in other places. Part of the steeper grades developed along the Nantahala. From Jarrett valleys. The same formation farther southeast is The Tusquitee quartzite usually occupies high and are due to the later cutting of the streams into the down to its mouth its lowest grades are found, finer grained and more schistose and contains inaccessible ground. In many places along Hiwas- plateau surfaces, and part of them were never and even those are much steeper than the grades many slate and schist beds. Toward the north­ see River this is not the case and the rocks cross reduced to low angles. of Little Tennessee River in the same vicinity. western part of the quadrangle, however, it becomes the streams with vertical dips. In the only places The only plateaus extensively developed in this In the 9 miles above the great bend of the river coarser, more massive, and uniform. The beds where the quartzites occur near the line of railroad region are connected with the drainage of Hiwassee at Jarrett there is a descent of a little over 800 range from 1 to 8 feet in thickness. They have a and could be profitably quarried they are near fault River. On this and its tributary streams grades feet, the lower part being much the steepest. In very regular grain and can readily be worked into planes and are considerably jointed. are less than in the rest of the region, especially in the vicinity of Aquone the grade of the river any shape. In general manner of working and The body of granite which occurs immediately the case of Valley River. On the latter stream lessens for a few miles, but above that point also in its great hardness it resembles granite. southeast of Hayesville contains little useful build­ there is practically no opportunity to utilize the clear to its head it is a nearly continuous The latter quality is well displayed in the numer­ ing stone. It is schistose and varies considerably fall of the stream except above Valleytown. Near rapid. No other stream of its size in the moun­ ous narrows and falls in the rivers. At any in grain and color. The Carolina gneiss contains that point the stream is divided into several large tain area has as great and continuous a fall as point along Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, or lower many beds which will be useful for rough building creeks, each of which has a considerable fall but this. Although its basin is comparatively nar­ Cheoah rivers may be found a great abundance stone, but none of great value. Few of its beds no great body of water. Along Hiwassee River row, its upper half is above 3000 feet and the of this material and excellent quarry sites. This are as much as 2 feet in thickness, and in order to the descent takes place over numerous rapids, at rainfall is very heavy; thus its flow is great in is especially the case along the railroad above work those a considerable amount of the thin lay­ which points power could be readily developed. proportion to the size of its drainage basin, and it Bushnell. With the completion of the projected ers of schist must be handled. Some of the layers Little Tennessee and Tuckasegee rivers above their is less subject to drought than most other streams railroad down the Little Tennessee below Bushnell have the character of fine granite, but most of them junction at Bushnell have about the same character of the region. In this respect it is nearly equaled there will be even greater opportunities for quarry­ are micaceous and schistose. It is well adapted for as Hiwassee River. Below Bushnell to the narrows by Cheoah River, which also has a very high and ing and a readier outlet. such purposes as retaining walls and foundations at the State boundary, a distance of about 25 miles, heavily timbered basin. The Murphy marble is an excellent building by its partings into moderate-sized blocks. Its the river falls nearly 500 feet, an average of 20 feet stone, but has even more value for ornamental strength is ample, especially at right angles to the per mile. The grade becomes progressively heavier purposes. Another rock of value for these uses planes of schistosity. downstream; this increase is due to the greater hard­ April, 1904. Nantaliala.

Table of formation names.

ARTHUR KEITH : KNOXVILLE J. M. SAFFORD : GEOLOGY OF POLIO, U. S. GEOLOGICAL, NAMES AND SYMBOLS USED IN THIS FOLIO. ARTHUR KEITH : ASHEVILLE FOLIO, U. S. W. C. KERR : GEOLOGY OF TENNESSEE. 1869. SURVEY, 1895. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 1904. NORTH CAROLINA, 1875.

Nottely quartzite. Cny 1 Andrews schist. Cad Murphy marble. Cmp Shady limestone. Hesse sandstone. Valleytown formation. vt Hesse quartzite. Chilhowee sandstone. Murray shale. Brasstown schist. Cbt Murray slate. Nebo sandstone. Tusquitee quartzite. tq Nebo quartzite. Nichols shale. Nantahala slate. Cnt Nichols slate. Nantahala slate. Siliceous, chloritic, clay and conglomerate Cochran conglomerate. slates. Clingman conglomerate. Hazel slate. Great Smoky conglom­ Cochran Great Smoky gs erate. conglomerate. conglomerate. Thunderhead conglom­ Ocoee group. erate. Cades conglomerate. Pigeon slate. Hiwassee slate. hi Hiwassee slate. I Wilhite slate. Granite. /Rg Cranberry granite. granite.

Soapstone, dunite, and >Rs Soapstone, dunite, and serpen­ Altered rocks, gneiss, serpentine. tine. and mica slate. Gneiss, hornblende Roan gneiss. /Rr Roan gneiss. slates, etc. Carolina gneiss. /Re Carolina gneiss.