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The Gulf War Aesthetic? Certain Tendencies in Image, Sound and the Construction of Space in Green Zone and the Hurt Locker

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The Gulf War Aesthetic? Certain Tendencies in Image, Sound and the Construction of Space in Green Zone and The Hurt Locker Kingsley Marshall Submitted to the University of East Anglia as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Film. University of East Anglia School of Art, Media & American Studies January 2018 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. Word Count: 84983 Abstract This thesis argues that the perception of realism and ‘truth’ within narrative feature films set within the Gulf War (1990-1991) and Iraq War (2003-2011) is bound up in other transmedia representations of these conflicts. I identify and define what I describe as the Gulf War Aesthetic, and argue that an understanding of the ‘real life’ of the war film genre through its telling in news reportage, documentary and combatant-originated footage serves as a gateway through which the genre of fictional feature films representing the conflicts and their aftermath is constructed. I argue that the complexity of the Iraq War, coupled with technological shifts in the acquisition and distribution of video and audio through online video-sharing platforms including YouTube, further advanced the Gulf War Aesthetic. I identify The Hurt Locker (Bigelow, 2009) and Green Zone (Greengrass, 2010) as helpful case studies to evidence these changes, and subject both to detailed analysis. I draw an alignment of the creative practice of film practitioners involved in the case studies with a detailed, intrasoundtrack analysis of the scenes they discuss. In The Hurt Locker, I demonstrate that this presents itself in an unusual unification of film sound with image, where sound recording and design, in addition to the deployment of music, operate to communicate the components of a narrative specific to the story of bomb disposal. I contrast this with Green Zone, where I argue that the Gulf War Aesthetic is limited by the deployment of more conventional characteristics of the war film genre. This analysis reveals that transmedia contexts of production are operating and how new aesthetics are being reified and codified in cinema. I evaluate the subsequent impact of this outside the specific genre of the war film, particularly in terms of a shift in the way in which spectacle is presented. Page 2 List of Contents Abstract 2 List of Contents 3 List of Illustrations 5 Acknowledgements 7 Introduction Sound Design in the Post-digital Landscape: 8 Investigating the Intrasoundtrack Technological Shifts and the Transmedia War Genre 14 Hollywood’s Response to the Gulf War and the 19 Emergence of the Gulf War Aesthetic Representing 21st Century Wars in Fiction 27 A Brief History of Film Sound and Sound Theory 30 Methodology: Analysing Sound in Film 39 Case Studies 56 Summary of Structure 60 Chapter One Sound and Spectacle in Representations of 64 Conflict: The Development of the Gulf War Aesthetic The Purpose of the War Film 67 The Emergence of the Embedded Reporter 70 The Gulf War (1990-1991) 76 Cinema, Iconography and Myth 82 Fictionalising the Reality of the Gulf War 85 The Iraq War (2003-2011) 92 Space and Place 102 Conclusions 105 Page 3 Chapter Two Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Green Zone as 108 Production Study Methodology 120 “Authenticity was the Mandate” 123 Where the Factual Voice Meets Dramatisation 131 The Unnarratability of the Iraq War 136 Inside Green Zone: An Intrasoundtrack Analysis 139 Intrasoundtrack Analysis 1: Search for WMD 148 Intrasoundtrack Analysis 2: Bad Intel 162 Conclusions 166 Chapter Three The Man in The Bomb Suit: The Hurt Locker as 170 Production Study Methodology 173 Kathryn Bigelow: Sonic Transgressor 175 Striving for Authenticity 178 The Spectacle of Authenticity 186 Completing the Image with Sound 194 Intrasoundtrack Analysis 3: A Beautiful 198 Neighbourhood Intrasoundtrack Analysis 4: No Place for a Picnic 216 Conclusions 240 Conclusion 243 Definitions 253 Glossary of Terms 253 Bibliography 257 Appendix One Example Interview: Paul Greengrass 290 Appendix Two Example Participant Release Form 295 Appendix Three Example Diagram of an Intrasoundtrack Analysis 298 Page 4 List of Illustrations Figure 1 Graphical representation of Intrasoundtrack analysis 43 (McGill, 2008: 150) Figure 2 Graphical representation of Intrasoundtrack analysis 45 (Marshall, 2016) Figure 3 Soldier’s own digital camera (Green Zone, 17:08) 117 Figure 4 The recording of enhanced interrogation techniques 118 (Green Zone, 48:35) Figure 5 CCTV recording of enhanced interrogation 118 techniques (Green Zone, 49:04) Figure 6 Mirroring reality, press conference 127 (Green Zone, 76:29) Figure 7 Green Zone (2:27) (left), CNN, 19 March 2003 (right) 147 Figure 8 Extreme close-up (ECU) of intel report 149 (Green Zone, 4:27) Figure 9 Green Zone, Intrasoundtrack Analysis 1 (2:46-3:40) 151 Figure 10 Wounded US soldier, from Miller’s point of view 154 (Green Zone, 3:44) Figure 11 Medium close-up (MCU) with Asira to left of frame, 155 Miller centred (Green Zone, 3:58) Figure 12 Medium close-up (MCU) with Miller in centre of 159 frame (Green Zone, 4:27) Figure 13 Green Zone, Intrasoundtrack Analysis (3:40-5:40) 159 Figure 14 Medium close-up (MCU) with Miller in centre of 160 frame (Green Zone, 5:20) Figure 15 Green Zone, Intrasoundtrack Analysis (7:04-9:14) 166 Figure 16 The Hurt Locker, Intrasoundtrack Analysis 200 (0:00-2:16) Figure 17 The Hurt Locker, Intrasoundtrack Analysis 208 (2:45-4:45) Figure 18 Extreme long shot (ELS) showing Thompson’s 212 isolation within the frame (The Hurt Locker, 6:25) Page 5 Figure 19 Long shot (LS) of Thompson, trailer and IED 213 (The Hurt Locker, 6:54) Figure 20 Extreme long shot (ELS) of Thompson and IED 213 (The Hurt Locker, 7:02) Figure 21 Extreme long shot (ELS) of Eldridge and Sanborn 213 (The Hurt Locker, 7:25) Figure 22 Close-up (CU) of Eldridge (The Hurt Locker, 7:27) 213 Figure 23 Close-up (CU) of Contractor Team Leader, together 219 With James and Eldridge (The Hurt Locker, 51:25) Figure 24 Extreme close-up (ECU) of Contractor 219 (The Hurt Locker, 51:28) Figure 25 The Hurt Locker, Intrasoundtrack Analysis 223 (50:43-55:43) Figure 26 Contractor Chris exposed in the Humvee turret 224 (The Hurt Locker, 53:39) Figure 27 The Hurt Locker, Intrasoundtrack Analysis 231 (58:43-63:53) Figure 28 An enemy combatant takes aim from the viaduct 234 (The Hurt Locker, 64:11) Page 6 Acknowledgments Firstly, I owe a debt of gratitude to Christine Cornea and Rayna Denison whose work in helping shape this thesis has been invaluable. Their guidance in the development of the project and their unfailing enthusiasm, honesty and kindness have been a constant source of reassurance. I would like to thank Falmouth University, particularly Karl Phillips for opening the door to my research interests in film sound, and to Geoff Smith, Jo Cooper and Rob Holmes for their unwavering support of the development of their staff and the not inconsiderable logistics of a PhD candidate with supervisors some distance from my own institution. The project has been shaped by the encouragement of so many people, and served as a reminder of the kindness of my family, friends and colleagues. Thank you to all those who have leant me their own experiences as motivation – particularly Neil Fox, whose own PhD completion kept my scholarly fires burning. Thanks also to Beth Michael whose generous advice helped so much in the closing stages. I am extremely fortunate to count Angela Annesley as one of my closest friends. Her patience with countless drafts over so many years, coupled with her faith in my work have proven invaluable. Finally, thanks to my wife Liz, who has known this thesis as long as she has known the author – her ceaseless support, tireless encouragement, patience and unerring belief in me are an inspiration. Page 7 Introduction Sound Design in the Post-digital Landscape: Investigating the Intrasoundtrack For what is not within the film frame cannot be seen by us, even if it is immediately beside the things that are. Light or shadow can be thrown into the picture from outside and the outline of a shadow can betray to the spectator what is outside the frame but still in the same sector of space, although the picture will show only a shadow. In sound things are different. An acoustic environment inevitably encroaches on the close-up shot and what we hear in this case is not a shadow or a beam of light, but the sounds themselves, which can always be heard throughout the whole space of the picture, however small a section of that space is included in the close-up. Sounds cannot be blocked out. (Balázs, 1970: 211) As Béla Balázs argues, unlike the visual component of cinema, a film’s sound design is unencumbered by the frame and the pace of visual editing, with the power to underline or undermine narrative, place, space and character. This thesis examines the production culture of two case studies – the independently financed feature film The Hurt Locker (Bigelow, 2009) and the studio-financed Green Zone (Greengrass, 2010). Both are war films where the narrative is centred on the operation of small, specialist US military units operating in Iraq following the invasion of the country in 2003 by a US-led military coalition, the Multi-National Force-Iraq (MNF-I).
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