California State University, Northridge Suiting for Female Race Car Drivers

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

SUITING FOR FEMALE RACE CAR DRIVERS: A STUDY FOR APPAREL

DESIGNERS AND APPAREL MANUFACTURERS

A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Science in Family and Consumer Sciences

Africa De Broeck in collaboration with

Ann Huebner

May 2017

The graduate project of Africa De Broek is approved:

______Yoko Mimura, Ph.D. Date

______Hira Cho, Ph.D. Date

______Wei Cao, Ph.D., Chair Date

California State University, Northridge iii

DEDICATION

This graduate project is dedicated to my husband Michael De Broeck and my two daughters, Matilda and Athena De Broeck.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank God for the growing and learning experience I had during the completion of a Masters’ Degree. With His help my Faith has also strengthened.

I would like to express my gratitude to my committee members, Dr. Hira

Cho and Dr. Yoko Mimura, who supported my efforts in writing this graduate project.

A special appreciation to my Chair, Dr. Wei Cao, for all of her support while completing this thesis project.

I would like to thank my co-author Ann Huebner who has made this thesis project possible. Without her, I would probably had given up. Words cannot express how grateful I am, thank you Ann.

A sincere thank you to mother-in-law Rosa De Broeck, who selflessly cared for Matilda and Athena every step of the way. Thank you Grandma Rosa for all of your loving support.

And last but not least, a very special thank you to my mother Leticia, my sister Nataly, and my brother Armando for being my number one supporters.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SIGNATURE PAGE iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT v

LIST OF TABLES vii

ABSTRACT viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 10

CHAPTER III: METHODS 19

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS 24

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION 32

REFERENCES 41

APPENDIX A: Addendum 49

APPENDIX B: Participant Waiver 51

APPENDIX C: Survey 52

APPENDIX D: Instrument Item References 56

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1- Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level

of Functional Elements 26

Table 2- Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level

of Expression Elements 27

Table 3- Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level

of Aesthetics Elements 28

vii

ABSTRACT

SUITING FOR FEMALE RACECAR DRIVERS: A STUDY FOR APPAREL DESIGNERS AND APPAREL MANUFACTURERS

Africa De Broeck

Master of Science in Family and Consumer Sciences

More and more women are becoming professional motorsport athletes, but not finding professional racing suits in the marketplace. Most racing suits currently available are designed as unisex, but actually made to fit the male body.

Applying the Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model, this study involved 74 professional female motorsport athletes who participated in an online survey to measure their current satisfaction with racing suits in the marketplace. Results from the data collected showed that female motorsport athletes were more satisfied with the functional component than the expressive and aesthetic components. This study will assist apparel designers and manufacturers fulfill the apparel needs of this niche market.

Automobile racing, Corporate sponsorship, Fit, FEA model, Female Racecar Drivers

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The first professional motorsport race took place in 1895 on the country roads of

France. Dressed in regular street clothes, the two male competitors raced for two full days reaching an average speed of 15 miles per hour (mph). Just over a century later, the motorsport industry has exploded into a global phenomenon generating billions of dollars. Blockbuster movies such as “Talladega Nights” “Fast and Furious” and “Days of

Thunder” have reflected the popularity of motorsports in the American culture. The animated Pixar film “Cars” has been one of the most successful in the company’s history

Box Office History (1997-2017). It is estimated that the American motorsport organization, National Association for Stock Car Racing (NASCAR) brought in almost

$3 billion in sponsorship contracts in 2012. In contrast, the National Football League

(NFL) brought in only $1.5 billion (Odland, 2012). Although NASCAR may be the most recognized name in motorsports, many other motorsport organizations have been created on a global scale, and are thriving. Organizations such as NHRA, National Hot Rod

Association, Rally Racing, Rock Racing and Kart Sport Racing are growing large fan bases of their own with both men and women.

Athletes competing in motorsports face dangers that other professional athletes may not. It is estimated that race car drivers reach an average of 200 mph at the famous

Indy 500 (Marot, 2016). To minimize fire danger and death, professional motorsport organizations like NASCAR began to require both drivers and crew members wear professional fireproof racing suits by the 1960s. The industry approved racing suit was designed to minimize the inherent danger that all motorsport athletes encounter driving

1 at high speeds. As the success of the fireproof racing suits became apparent in the sport of car racing, many other motorsports adopted this requirement. Currently, both the

United States and European countries have non-profit organizations that regulate fire suit requirements for racers and crew members.

By the 1950s only a few women were racing professionally; however, women are now entering many motorsports in record numbers (LVmotorsport.com, 2015;

Benjamin, 2015). As more women enter the motorsport industry as professional drivers, they are experiencing frustration with the lack of industry approved driving suits in the marketplace. Professional female motorsport athletes are looking for racing suits that allow them to function at full capacity while expressing their personal tastes and aesthetic preferences.

The Popularity of Professional Motorsports

NASCAR is the most well- known motorsport league and is the number one spectator sport in the United States boasting 75 million fans (Odland, 2012). According to NASCAR vice president Jim O’Connell, NASCAR races were broadcast in over 150 countries and translated into over 30 languages (Rines, 2008). NASCAR now has a global reach, as it has expanded into Mexico and is partnering with other motorsport organizations such as Whelen Motors in England. These partnerships have broadened the NASCAR fan base in both South America and the European market (Odland, 2012).

NASCAR is not the only professional racing organization popular in England.

Formula One is the most recognized and lucrative car racing organizations in England, expanding every year. England is also the home of the highly- rated television show

Top Gear which focuses exclusively on motorsports. Like NASCAR, Formula One has

2 expanded into other markets, most notably the Asian market. In 2012 Formula One hosted their Grand Prix race in Singapore. Singapore hosted six out of their twenty

Asian races during 2012 (Spurgen, 2012). Both, China and Japan, also created their professional car racing organizations and eventually joined forces to form Asian

Touring Car Championship.

Motorsports is a Lucrative Business

Motorsports incorporates many types of racing organizations, which collectively are some of the most lucrative in the world (Gage, 2006; Knight & Torre, 2013). For example, the average value of a NASCAR racing team is approximate $143 million with each racing team generating approximately $100 million each year (Odland, 2012).

Professional race car drivers in NASCAR have attracted major global corporations as sponsors. Some of these sponsors include McDonald's, Target, Mobile Oil and

Budweiser (Odland, 2012). The infamous Daytona race track in Florida received a $400 million renovation in 2016 in anticipation of a prosperous future (Hembree, 2016). The overall economic influence of NASCAR has been noted in recent years because the league has added positive value too many communities, increasing local property values

(Coates & Gearheart, 2008). Other international racing organizations like Formula One car in England continues to increase the financial reward for winning a race. For example, the prize money for Formula One grew $20 million from 2014 to 2015 (Sylt,

2015).

Motorsports is Unique in the World of Professional Competitive Sports

Professional motorsports are unique in the world of sports. Unlike team sports like football and basketball, professional car racing is considered an individual

3 competitive sport that inspires fan loyalty both nationally and globally. It is also unique because male and female drivers compete against each other.

Individual Sports vs. Team Sports

There are two types of leagues in professional competitive sports, team leagues, and individual sports leagues. The National Football League (NFL) and the National

Basketball Association (NBA) are considered team sports leagues. The National

Association of Stock Car Racing (NASCAR) is considered an individual sports league.

The NASCAR season lasts a full nine months. In contrast, professional football and basketball seasons last approximately four months, respectively. Professional stock racing draws more spectators than professional football or basketball games in The

United States (Newman & Giardina, 2010). The maximum seating in auditoriums that host professional football or basketball games is 60,000 to 80,000. However, one of

NASCAR’s racing events can attract as many as 180,000 fans (Odland, 2012). This number is exclusive of television, social media, radio and global fans (Newman &

Giardina, 2010).

Unlike team sports leagues such as NFL and NBA, individual sports league like

NASCAR facilitates the ability for the fans to get close to the athletes, which in turn allows the professional athletes to inspire loyalty, and experience the thrill of their fans’ enthusiasm. Many motorsport fans follow their favorite drivers or racing teams around the country and sometimes around the world, and these fans help bolster the local economies of the cities that host them (Odland, 2012).

Title IV History

In 1972 the federal government passed the Title IX Amendment prohibiting sex discrimination in all federally funded sports activities. Although this change in social policy initially affected high school and college programs, the repercussions have reached into professional sports (Department of Justice, 2015). Many professional female athletes competing in male-dominated team sports and male-dominated individual sports continue to reference the passing of Title IX as an important factor for their success as athletes (Olmstead, 2016; Women’s Sports Foundation, 2017). It is estimated Title IX triggered an increase of approximately 300,000 girls participating in sports in 1972 to over 3.2 million in 2011 (Ryan, 2013).

Although the benefits of Title IX were well documented, sexism and chauvinist views still exist in many professional sports. Unfortunately, motorsports have not been an exception, but now motorsport organizations are actively pursuing female fans as well as female drivers.

Women in Professional Motorsports

More and more women are entering all-female professional sports teams such as the Women’s National Basketball Association, (WNBA) and the Independent Women’s

Football League (IWFL). Although they are still not as popular as the National

Basketball League (NBA) or the National Football League (NFL), they have growing fan bases.

Women are also entering professional individual sports such as professional motorsports. This male-dominated field (Pflugfelder, 2009; Ross, Ridinger & Cuneen,

2009) is demographically changing to include female drivers and female fans. In 2008,

25% of Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) members were women. According to an article in Forbes, “NASCAR’S Back” by Steve Odland in 2012, 40 % of NASCAR fans are now female. The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) has also noted a 7% increase in female fans attending the races (Fabrizio, 2015). A locally sponsored racing event held at Long Beach California surveyed 41% of fans in attendance were women

(Zieke, 2017). Despite the perceived sexism of the motorsport industry, women like

Danica Patrick are paving the way for future female champions across the industry.

Professional car racing organizations like NASCAR, Indycar, and Formula One are making an effort to recruit more women into the industry. In 2016 the British car racing organization Formula One began Motor Sport Association (MSA), an initiative for women in motorsport. The goal of this initiative is to increase the awareness of females in motorsports and to encourage women to pursue a career in the industry

(Codriversolution.com, 2016). NASCAR also created a program called “Drive for

Diversity” designed to support minorities like women to excel in motorsports. Beth

Parreta, a former auto sales executive for SRT Motorsport just recently created the first all-female racing team called Grace Autosport with a goal of competing at the

Indianapolis 500 (Gohde, 2015). Grace Autosport was rooted on an educational foundation called STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math). The organization’s goal is to encourage girls and women to pursue careers in the motorsport industry as drivers and engineers. The effort to recruit more women into this sport does not stop at the professional level. Due to an increase in demand for women to learn how to drive a professional race car, the Pittsburgh International Race Complex is now

6 offering classes that teach women how to drive high-performance race cars (Abraham,

2016).

In conclusion, professional motorsports have experienced some changes in the last century. Two of these changes are the invention of the required racing suit and the introduction of women participating in the sport.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine female motorsport athletes’ satisfaction toward racing suits currently in the marketplace and provide valuable information to apparel designers and manufacturers.

The satisfaction professional female motorsport athletes have toward racing suits currently in the marketplace was measured in three areas; function, expression, and aesthetics. The Function Expression Aesthetic (FEA) Consumer Needs Model (Lamb &

Kallal, 1992) was utilized. This model analyzes the apparel need for a targeted consumer, professional female motorsport athletes.

Objectives

Information gathered from peer reviewed articles and an initial interview with a professional female motorsport athlete was used to create an online Google survey. The survey was then reviewed by a focus group. The objective of this study was to collect information from professional female motorsport athletes to understand their satisfaction with racing suits currently in the marketplace.

Scope and Limitations

The following scope and limitations were identified for this project:

1. Seventy-four female motorsport athletes from seven countries participated in the

online survey. These female motorsport athletes belonged to motorsport

organizations such as NASCAR and Formula One. The athletes answered questions

regarding the function, expression and aesthetic attributes of their current racing

suits.

2. This study almost exclusively focused on the racing suit. However, different

motorsport organizations require different types of racing apparel with varying

degrees of fire safety. For example, due to the high temperatures generated by hot

rod cars, the National Hot Rod Association, NHRA drivers are required to wear

fireproof underwear, but this is not a requirement for NASCAR and Formula One

drivers.

Definitions

 Racing Suits: An industry approved uniform for motorsport athletes that is fire-

proof. Racing suits are also known as race suiting, fire suits.

 Motorsports: A general term that is inclusive of all competitive and

noncompetitive motorized vehicle events.

 Motorsport Gear: A general term that is inclusive of all apparel and accessories

are worn by motorsport athletes.

 NASCAR: National Association of Stock Car Racing is a closed-circuit racing

competition. It is the most famous and recognized motorsport organization in the

world.

 FEA Consumer Needs Model: The Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer

Needs Model (Lamb & Kallal, 1992) stresses the importance of studying the

consumer’s functional, expressive and aesthetic needs to guide the apparel

design process.

 Functional Apparel Component: Addresses a customer’s utilitarian need. It

encompasses the elements fit, mobility, comfort, protection, donning, and

doffing.

 Expressive Apparel Component: Addresses a customer’s need to communicate

symbolically. It encompasses the elements values, roles, status, and self-esteem.

 Aesthetic Apparel Component: Addresses a consumer’s need for beauty. It

encompasses the elements art, design principals, and body/garment relationship.

 Off-the-rack: Apparel that is ready-made as opposed to made to order, usually

mass produced for a particular demographic group.

 Off -the-rack with alterations: Apparel that is ready-made as opposed to made

to order, usually mass produced for a particular demographic group, but altered

after purchasing for a better fit.

 Custom- made: Made to order apparel by taking body measurements and

constructing apparel for a particular person or authorized company.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In reviewing literature pertaining to professional female motorsport athletes’ satisfaction with the racing suits currently in the marketplace, aspects of the actual uniform were explored. Professional racing suits are unique in the world of professional sports, due to the excessive danger of heat and fire during the racing events. According to the literature, professional female motorsport athletes have not been able to find racing suits that satisfy their functional, expressive and aesthetic needs.

The Uniqueness of the Motorsport Uniform

Each professional sport has important elements that define it, such as the team uniform. A team uniform carries a “symbolic power” that transcends cities, nations, and countries (Adon, 2013). Athletes also differentiate themselves from a rival team by their team uniform. For example, American football players are recognized by the color and design of their team’s uniform just as motorsport athletes are recognized by the color and design of their racing suits. Both race car driving suits and American football uniforms are designed to satisfy the expressive and aesthetic needs of the athlete.

However, the functional need of the uniform is to keep the driver or the player safe and is arguably its most important purpose. Football players, like race car drivers, perform under the pressure of extreme temperature conditions. Football games are played outside in the cold and hot weather, therefore players are subject to both heat stress and hypothermia (Armstrong & Johnson et al., 2010). Both the NFL and NASCAR have uniform requirements that are designated by their respective sports organizations for this reason.

The NFL is responsible for providing team management with the required guidelines for all apparel and safety gear worn for practice and games. For example, the

NFL prohibits the use of mesh jerseys due to the possibility of snagging with other players during this high contact sport. It is also required by the NFL that all jerseys must completely cover the player’s shoulder pads. Also, the fabric content of jerseys worn during practice and games must be approved by the NFL and must be constructed by professional apparel manufacturers (Official NFL playing rules 27). In the past, football players usually chose cotton over polyester because of comfort. However, the durability and comfort of football uniforms made with polyester have increased in recent years due to the invention of wicking properties which can be incorporated into the polyester fabric. Currently, football uniforms are constructed with a heavyweight and stretchable polyester, so the fabric care is simple. Presoaking in cold water is common to remove dirt and grass stains; the uniform can then be machine washed in warm water with heavy duty detergent and baking soda (Leverette, 2015).

In contrast, car racing suits are made to protect the motorsport driver from not only extreme heat but actual fire. Motorsport athletes compete against each other in combustible machines at very high speeds. Car racing suits are usually made of

Nomex™, a fire- proof fabric (Ozgen, 2013) that protects the driver from not only fire but also extreme heat as the cockpit of cars during a racing event can reach up to 150 degrees Fahrenheit (Armstrong , Johnson , Casa , Ganio & McDermott, 2010). Some racing suits are now also made of Provatex® which is a cotton fabric treated with fire- retardant chemicals. Although race suits made of Provatex® have a lighter weight than suits made of Nomex®, the TTP rating is not as high as suits made exclusively with

Nomex® (Difference Between Proban, 2014). Care of the suits made of Nomex® and

Provatex® are similar.

Most car racing suits are durable and can last for years with proper care.

Garments made of Nomex® can be dry cleaned, washed at home, or by a commercial laundry company. It is important to avoid antistatic or fabric softeners because they can interfere with the wicking properties of the fabric. Nomex® should not be bleached or left in sunlight to dry. Velcro and zippers should be fastened with a safety pin to keep the integrity of the suits fit (Hinchmanracewear.com, 2016).

Although the expressive and aesthetic aspect of the racing suit is important, the most important aspect is the safety function of the suit. In the United States, SEMA

Foundation Incorporated (SFI) is the non-profit organization which sets the safety standard for car racing suits and a European organization Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA) sets the standard for international racing organizations which is categorized as FIA 8856-2000. The approved mass-produced race suiting is usually always unisex. However, it is actually made with the male anatomy in mind. The unisex race suiting offers the drivers a choice of a 1- piece suit or a 2 -piece suit.

The thermal protective performance (TPP) is measured by testing the fibers of a fire-proof fabric, usually done in a laboratory. The TPP test is done by holding a piece of fabric over a flame to measure how much time elapses before the fabric burns. The

TPP is rated by the following levels for professional racing suits:

Level 1 (1 layer suit) = 3 seconds of direct flame exposure beforethe skin is affected.

Level 5 = 10 seconds of direct flame exposure before the skin is affected

Level 15 = 30 seconds of direct flame exposure before the skin is affected

Level 20 = 40 seconds of direct flame exposure before the skin is affected (Faye, 2013).

Most American motorsport organizations, including NASCAR, require a minimum of SFI 3.2A/5 or level 5. The FIA 8856-2000 level is equivalent to the

American SFI 3.2A/5 requirement (SFI Foundation.com).

The driver can choose to buy suiting off-the rack (mass- produced), off-the-rack and have alterations or have the suit custom-made. According to research, custom- made suits are considerably more expensive than off-the-rack suits. Off-the-rack suits can cost as low as $200, and custom-made suits can cost as much as $3,500.00

(Schrader, 2014). The SFI Foundation has specifications for the manufacturing of professional racing suits. Therefore, professional drivers who choose to have alterations done on their suits after purchasing them risk the possibility of lessening the safety of the suit (SFI Foundation.com).

Female Drivers’ Special Racing Suit Needs

In the world of motorsports, car racing suits are made as a unisex garment. Most of the mass-produced suiting does not fit the female body with a safe and snug fit even with alterations (Jakovich, 2015; Horsepowerandheels.com, 2014). The only other option is an expensive one, having a racing suit custom-made. However, a good fit is not always guaranteed with a custom-made suit. In fact, when famous female race car driver Pippa Mann found that a mail order custom-made suit did not fit her properly, she hired Nancy Sullivan Chumbley, owner of Hinchman Racing Uniforms to design and make a racing suit for her, which satisfied her need for a properly fitted racing suit.

Hinchman Racing Uniforms is a small company based in Indianapolis, Indiana focusing on designing and producing custom-made racing suits for both men and

13 women. However, Hinchman’s company is limited to a small portion of local female motorsport athletes (Hinchmanracewear.com, 2016). The few companies that sell custom-made racing suits usually require the customer to take detailed body measurements and send them directly to the company. Nonetheless, studies have shown that even apparel design students have difficulty taking accurate measurements for properly designed apparel (Workman & Ahn, 2011). Measurements should be taken by someone who understands and thoroughly considers the physical demands of race car driving.

Female drivers need more room in the upper torso for their bust allowance as well as ease in the shoulder area that gives them the room to repetitively turn the steering wheel (Danica Patrick Talks at Google, 2014). In general, there is a challenge designing a garment that protects the driver from fire and heat but still allows for ease of movement (Watkins, 1995; Watkins & Dunne, 2015). Biomechanical and ergonomic requirements of a race car driver should be examined by focusing on the importance of ease of movement (Danica Patrick talks at Google, 2014; Das Neves, Brigatto &

Paschoarelli, 2015; Gupta, 2011). The ease of movement in the upper and lower body in both sitting and standing was important to the drivers (Horsepowerandheels.com, 2014;

Jakovich, 2015).

In 2014, the popular female car racing blog called Horsepower and Heels published a story about a professional female race car driver’s hunt for a new suit

(2014). The author experienced difficulty in finding a suit that fit her properly and consequently asked other female drivers about their experiences looking for a suit. The author found that even custom-made suits that required personal measurements did not

14 always fit well. Some of the problems noted were: oversized shoulders, oversized crotch, overly snug chest and hip area. Another female racer, Sunny Hobbs found standing up was not a problem, but the suit was too tight when she was seated in the car.

Female motorsport athletes also have difficulty finding FIA approved fire-proof undergarments (Johnson, 2015; Schrader, 2014). Fire-proof bras are required for

National Hot Rod Association, NHRA drivers due to the extreme heat emitted by the engines, but recommended for other motorsports, such as NASCAR. Most fire-proof bras are not custom-made, and the driver has to rely on pre-made or ready-to-wear, which does not always fit properly (Jakovich, 2015). The few custom- made bras that are available follow the standard mail order procedure of asking the customer to send in her measurements. Overall, research shows female motorsport athletes have difficulty finding required professional suiting (Jakovich, 2015).

Furthermore, many mass-produced unisex racing suits have limited color and design options. The value of symbolism for the female racing suit is both connotative and denotative, relying on art and language (Fiore, Kimle & Moreno, 1996).

Professional female motorsport athletes have been highly sexualized in the past (Sloop,

2005), having to choose between embracing their femininity and losing their creditability. However, as more women become engaged in motorsports, both as fans and drivers (Fabrizio, 2016; Gohde, 2015) expressing femininity and professionalism simultaneously is becoming more acceptable. The high expense of driving in a professional racing event and maintaining equipment is usually offset by corporate sponsors. These sponsors are recognized by both trademarks and brand names which are strategically placed on drivers’ racing suits. For this reason, many female

15 motorsport athletes want suits that are both expressive and aesthetically pleasing as well as functional (Horsepowerandheels.com, 2014; Jakovich, 2015).

Uniform Problem

As the demographics for motorsport industries continue to change and the industry becomes more accepting of female athletes, the apparel needs to change also.

Female motorsport athletes are looking for racing suits that fulfill their special apparel needs. Female motorsport athletes need off-the-rack racing suits that fulfill their need for function, expression and are aesthetically acceptable. To design a professional racing suit specifically for the female motorsport athlete that addresses the functional, expressive and aesthetic needs of this consumer the Function Expression Aesthetic

(FEA) Consumer Needs Model was chosen.

Function Expression Aesthetics Consumer Model

This study utilized the Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model

(Lamb & Kallal, 1992). This theoretical model was developed to design garments for consumers with special needs. However, the model has been utilized by many to design apparel for specific niche apparel consumers. Lamb and Kallal (1992) assume the cultural environment of the intended user yields a considerable amount of influence on their apparel needs and desires. The needs and desires of the intended user are measured by garment functionality, expressive value and aesthetic value.

The first section or middle of the model is the targeted consumer (intended user).

According to Lamb and Kallal, information gathered about the intended user, including

“demographics, psychographics, physical characteristics, activities and preferences”

(p.42) is used to recognize the unique apparel needs of the intended user.

The second section or layer of the model addresses the cultural influence. Lamb and Kallal believe that “culture acts as mediator or filter between the intended users of the apparel and their requirements or desires in their apparel items” (p.43). Emerich

(2011) determined that female snowboarders were culturally influenced to choose functional apparel components over expressive and aesthetic apparel components in new uniform designs. Bye & Hakala (2005) resolved that female sailboat athletes’ aesthetic choices were influenced by the sport’s cultural traditions. The culture influences design options and design possibilities as well as solving problems that help the intended user cope with problems and even overcome them.

The outer layer of the model encompasses the measurable components of function, expression, and aesthetics. The components have been described individually, but are interrelated. For example, an aesthetic component of the garment may need to change in order for a functional component to be incorporated for use by the intended user.

When a designer utilizes the Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model to create a garment, the functional, expressive and aesthetic components must all be addressed in the production process. Typically, studies show female athletes want apparel that fulfills functional needs and desires, as well as apparel that is expressively and aesthetically pleasing (Bye & Hakala 2005; Emerich, 2011).

Function. This aspect incorporates the actual utility of the garment. Function incorporates the elements of fit, mobility, thermal comfort, protection as well as donning and doffing (Lamb & Kallal, 1994).

Expression. This aspect refers to the symbolic meaning of the suiting, how and what the suiting communicates about the wearer. Expression incorporates values, roles status and self-esteem (Lamb & Kallal, 1994).

Aesthetics. The aesthetic value refers to the desire for beauty and can be accomplished by being attentive to the specific design in regard to line, form, and color as well as a fabric choice. Aesthetics incorporates art elements, design principles and body/garment relationships (Lamb & Kallal, 1994).

Summary

In conclusion, the literature shows women are entering the once male-dominated motorsport industry as professional drivers (Pflugfelder, 2009; Ross, Ridinger &

Cuneen, 2009). Federal law, such as the Title IX Amendment has encouraged women to pursue careers as professional drivers, commanding the same respect as their male colleagues (Codriversolution.com, 2016; Gohde, 2015). However, the racing suits currently available in the marketplace have not reflected this demographic change. To ensure professional female motorsport athletes’ success, they require racing suits that satisfy their function, expressive and aesthetic needs. The current “unisex” racing suit and the limited female options available in the market for female racing suits may put female athletes at a disadvantage. The research studies and model reviewed in this chapter have enough evidence to support the current demand for female racing suits.

This study contributed to the existing literature by measuring the level of satisfaction of current racing suit from female motorsport athletes.

CHAPTER III

METHODS

This study used a non-experimental cross-sectional survey design utilizing the

Function, Expression, Aesthetic, and Consumer Needs Model as a theoretical framework. A survey was created as a measurement instrument by carefully observing similar studies and building on the credibility of published research. Female motorsport athletes were contacted via social media from different organizations to participate in a short online self-administered survey. Qualitative and quantitative data allowed assessment of the satisfaction level of female motorsport athletes in relationship to the race suit available in the marketplace. The objective of this study was to measure the satisfaction level that professional female motorsport athletes have for race suits available in the current marketplace.

The online survey consisted of four parts; experience with their current racing suit, the level of satisfaction with their current racing suit, overall satisfaction of their current racing suit, and participant demographic information. Data were collected through an online Google survey application and was analyzed using Excel and SPSS.

Setting

After approval from California State University, Northridge’s Human Subjects

Research Committee, female motorsport racers were recruited through social media websites, Facebook and LinkedIn. For two months, female motorsport athletes were contacted via Facebook and LinkedIn from all over the world with an invitation to participate in the online survey.

Participants

The sampling procedure used was a non-random sample. The motorsport athletes were restricted to those who were members of a Facebook Motorsport club or the LinkedIn Motorsport Professional Group. There was a total of 86 motorsport athletes who volunteered to take the online survey. Two answered male and thus had to be disqualified, and 74 completed the survey, representing eight countries. The demographic information showed all 74 female motorsport athletes were currently active in a professional motorsport. The average age of female motorsport athletes who completed the survey was 33 years old.

Survey and Variables

An online self-administered survey was created by using questions from previously published studies that investigated apparel design projects (See Appendix

D). A focus group consisting of two graduate student apparel designers reviewed and critiqued the initial survey questionnaire. For this study, a five point Likert scale was used to measure the level of satisfaction of the currently owned racing suits of female motorsport participants. The survey incorporated visual aids such as video and measurement guides.

The beginning of the survey explained the purpose of the study and the approximate time, 20 minutes. The survey consisted of four parts with a total of 49 items. The first part, questions one through nine, addressed the female motorsport athletes’ experiences with their current race suiting in regard to purchasing option, price, durability, and evaluation of racing suit while standing up and sitting down. Part two, questions 10-38, focused on the female motorsport athletes’ satisfaction with their

20 current racing suit in functional, expressive, aesthetic aspect, and overall satisfaction level. The survey items were statements using a five point Likert scale asking if they 0

= completely agree to 4= completely disagree. The third part was an open-ended question asking for suggestions for ideas on how to improve the functional, expressive or aesthetic aspects of the racing suit. The fourth part consisted of demographic information from the race car drivers.

The purpose of the use of the Function Expression Aesthetics Consumer Needs

Model was to measure the components, elements, and culture of the motorsport racing suit to determine the level of satisfaction from the female motorsport athletes. Due to the nature of the requirements placed on the racing suit by the sport sanctioning bodies, the functional elements were very important. The safety of the driver translates to not only the use of fire-proof fibers but also incorporates how the suit assisted the driver in accomplishing the primary goal of every motorsport athlete, winning. Some of the sample items in the function component are the items pertaining to each element: Items

7 refers to fit and asked the participants willingness to have a 3-D body scan (Cao, H.,

Chang, R., Kallal, J., Manalo, G., McCord, J., et al., 2014). Items 8 and 9 address how well the race suit fits while sitting and standing in certain areas of the body (Cao, H.,

Chang, R., Kallal, J., Manalo, G., McCord, J., et al., 2014). Items 10, 11, 15 addressed the satisfaction the participant had in the area of mobility (Cao, H., Chang, R., Kallal, J.,

Manalo, G., McCord, J., et al., 2014; Dickson, M., & Pollack, A. 2000). Survey item number 10 was “Range of motion in my upper body.” Items 14, 16, and 17 addressed the female motorsport athletes’ comfort (Dickson & Pollack, 2000; Fourt & Hollies,

1970; Huck & Kim, 1997), where the sample item number 14 was “Thermal comfort

21 while driving.” Survey items 20 and 21 addressed the ease of donning and doffing race suits, pertaining to the function component (Cao, H., Chang, R., Kallal, J., Manalo, G.,

McCord, J. , et al., 2014) “Ease of getting out of the race suit.”

The elements of the expression component addressed the kind of impression the driver is making her unique cultural environment. All of the elements were explored to measure how the racing suits available in the marketplace rated as expressive, symbolic instruments. Survey item 22 addressed the satisfaction of the female motorsport athletes’ ability to communicate a professional image in regards to the expression component (Dickson & Pollack, 2000). Survey items 24 and 25 addressed the satisfaction of the female motorsport athletes’ ability to express femininity and sex appeal (Dickson, M & Pollack, 2000). Survey item number 24 was “My race suit expresses my femininity.” Survey item 26 addressed willingness of the female motorsport athletes to accept uniqueness of racing suit (Dickson, M., & Pollack, A.,

2000) “The uniqueness of sponsorship placements on my race suit attracts the attention

I desire.” Survey item 27 addressed the satisfaction of female motorsport athletes have for the attractiveness of driving suits (Dickson, M., & Pollack, A., 2000). Sample item number 27 was “I feel attractive when I wear my race suit.”

The elements of the aesthetic component addressed the possibility of visually pleasing race suiting for female motorsport athletes. Race suiting that invokes positive emotions from spectators is an integral part of the business side of professional motorsports. Survey questions 28 through 34 addressed the female motorsport athletes’ satisfaction with the artistic foundations of racing suits (Dickson, M., & Pollack, A.,

2000; Cao, H., Chang, R., Kallal, J. , Manalo, G. , McCord, J. , et al., 2014). Survey

22 item number 28 was “The style of my race suit is attractive.” Survey item addressed the female motorsport athletes’ satisfaction with a pocket placement (Emerich, 2011). “The placement of my outer pockets place in an aesthetically pleasing area.” Survey item 33 addressed the participants’ satisfaction with the body/garment relationship (Newcomb

& Istook, 2011) “I consider my race suit fashionable.”

The open-ended question asked about suggestions for a better fit (Bye & Hakala,

2005). The last nine survey items pertained to demographic information, including what the name of the Motorsport organization participants belonged to and number of races per year. (See Appendix D)

Procedures

Data were collected using online Google Survey consisting of 49 items. For two months individual and group invitations went out three times a week on Facebook and

LinkedIn targeting female professional motorsport groups. The invitation included a link for participants click and be able to take the survey. Clicking on the link directed them to the motorsport athletes’ waiver and instructions on how to take the survey. Some of the group contacted were: Motorsports Professional Group, Female

Racing News, and Grace Autosport, Women in Motorsport New Zealand, National Hot

Rod Association, and Speed Sisters. Female motorsport athletes were able to take the survey online using their own computer, smartphone, or other mobile device of their choice. It took participants an estimated 20 minutes to complete the online survey.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

This chapter reports results in four areas with the current race suit; satisfaction levels of function, expression, and aesthetics; summary of suggestions; and demographic information. A Cronbach’s alphs was calculated to test the reliability of the variables and resulted values ranged from .87 to .94. Out of 86 surveys submitted,

74 were complete and usable. The first part addressed the female motorsport athletes’ experience with their race suit and included questions about the participants’ buying choices and durability. The second, addressed the satisfaction of the female motorsport athletes’ current race suit including function, expressive and aesthetic garment elements; and measured the overall satisfaction of the current racing suit. Part three, asked female motorsport athletes to add suggestions and gain additional insights. The fourth part related to demographics, including age, number of annual competitions, and name of racing organization.

Experience with Current Race Suit

Female motorsport athletes identified their purchase choice when selecting their racing suit. The distribution of purchase choice among the 74 female motorsport athletes were 25 chose custom- made, six chose off-the-rack-with alterations, and 43 chose off-the-rack-without alterations. Those who chose custom-made, indicated that the average purchase price they paid for the race suit was $1,335.00, with the minimum stated at zero dollars and the maximum stated at $2,700.00. Those who chose off-the- rack with alterations reported paying an average price of $658.33 with a minimum of

$200.00 and a maximum of $1,200.00. Those who chose of-the-rack without alterations

24 reported an average purchase price of $547.55 with a minimum purchase price of zero dollars and a maximum of $1,844.60 dollars. The reasons respondents who stated a purchase price of zero dollars were the following included “My sponsor paid for it” or

“Free, traded for time.”

Function, Expression, and Aesthetics

The satisfaction level that professional female motorsport athletes have for racing suits available in the current marketplace with regard to function, expression, and aesthetic components. The mean and standard deviation was calculated from seven survey measuring the functional elements of the race suit guided by the FEA model.

Results indicated that the functional component had an overall (M =2.5, SD =1.13).

Table 1 shows the results from the summary statistics of the variables that assessed satisfaction level of the function elements; getting out of the car, care for suit, thermal comfort, fit when standing, fit when sitting, donning, and doffing. The fit while sitting down variable had the lowest mean (M=2.28, SD= 1.13). In contrast, getting out of car variable had the highest mean of (M=3.03, SD= 1.13).

Table 1

Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level of Functional Elements

Variable n M SD

Getting out of the car 74 3.03 1.13

Care 74 2.72 1.20

Thermal comfort 74 2.45 1.05

Fit while standing 74 2.39 1.16

Fit while sitting 74 2.28 1.13

Donning 74 2.61 1.09

Doffing 74 2.55 1.07

Performing activity 74 2.76 0.97

Note. 0 = Very Unsatisfactory; 1 = Unsatisfactory; 2 = Neutral, 3 = Satisfactory, 4 = Very Satisfactory. Adapted from the five point Likert scale. Table 2 shows the results from the summary statistics of the variables that assessed satisfaction level of expression; image, fashionable, femininity, sex appeal, attracts attention, and attractive feel. Sex appeal had the lowest mean (M=1.18,

SD=1.27). The second lowest was attractive feel (M=1.60, SD=1.32).

Table 2

Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level of Expression Elements

Variable n M SD

Image 74 2.78 1.32

Fashionable 74 2.04 1.54

Femininity 74 1.44 1.49

Sex Appeal 74 1.18 1.27

Attracts Attention 74 2.26 1.31

Attractive Feel 74 1.6 1.32

Note. 0 = Very Unsatisfactory; 1 = Unsatisfactory; 2 = Neutral, 3 = Satisfactory, 4 = Very Satisfactory. Adapted from the five point Likert scale. Table 3 shows the results of the summary statistics of the aesthetic variables; level of satisfaction; style, attractive colors, attractive fabric, overall design, outer pockets, fashionable, and body shape. Analysis of data showed an unsatisfactory result

(M=1.42, SD=1.49) the body shape variable. The second lowest mean was for the overall design variable with unsatisfactory result (M=1.52, SD=1.35). In summary, the quantitative part of the survey measured the satisfaction levels of the racing suit components; functional, expressive, and aesthetic from zero to four; one being very unsatisfied, four being very satisfied.

Table 3

Mean and Standard Deviation of Satisfaction Level of Aesthetic Elements

Variable n M SD

Style 74 1.88 1.35

Attractive Colors 74 2.51 1.30

Attractive Fabric 74 2.30 1.34

Overall Design 74 1.52 1.35

Outer Pockets 74 2.04 1.29

Fashionable 74 1.68 1.41

Body Shape 74 1.42 1.49

Note. 0 = Very Unsatisfactory; 1 = Unsatisfactory; 2 = Neutral, 3 = Satisfactory, 4 = Very Satisfactory. Adapted from the five point Likert scale. Summary of Suggestions

The responses to open-ended question “In your own words, please provide any suggestions that would improve the functional, expressive and/or aesthetic aspect of your suit” were comparatively analyzed for similar answers and patterns in responses.

The qualitative data was gathered using an ethnographic approach which confirmed with the literature review (Bodine 2003).

Function Component

The actual function of the race suit was overwhelmingly the most noted. Some of the functional elements discussed were: protection, fit, doffing for restroom use, and thermal comfort. The female motorsport racecar drivers commented on the functional aspect of the suit was more than any other component in the function, expression, and aesthetic model.

The topic most noted by the female motorsport racecar drivers was the fire protection of the suit. Many esteemed protection from fire and heat more than expressive or aesthetic value. It was clear that most wanted the best physical protection from excessive heat and possible fire injury. Although many named fire protection as the most important as aspect of their racing suiting, many still wanted racing suits that were expressive, aesthetically pleasing, and safe or fire-proof.

The fit of the race suit is also noted at length. While in general most female motorsport racecar drivers who purchased a custom-made suit are happier with the fit, they still had fit issues. The majority who reported fit problems had purchased off-the- rack suits. Many noted fitting issues in the chest area that were too tight, the crotch was too large, and the hip area was too small. One noted, “Off the rack suits are not made for females, and so the crotch, hip, and waist area are all wrong.” Overwhelmingly, female motorsport racecar drivers had issues with fit. Some commented on their willingness to be measured by a 3-D scanning machine if it meant they would have a better fitting racing suit. According to the female motorsports athletes who completed the survey, the length of time it takes to get out of the suit to use the restroom is unacceptable. A two-piece suit takes less time; however, the fit is usually worse than a one piece suit. One participant calls a two-piece suit “ugly and makes any woman look like the Stay-Puff Marshmallow Man.”

The majority of the female motorsport athletes who participated in the survey agreed that the ability for motorsport athletes to have a good range of motion is important to the success of the athlete. Some participants suggested “more flexible/stretchy material.” Some mentioned that a suit may give them mobility while

29 standing up, but sitting in their vehicle can hinder mobility. According to this study, the comfort of the suit was closely associated with mobility and the need to have a light weight suit for thermal comfort and flexible fabric for movement ease.

Expression Component

Although most female motorsport athletes were mainly concerned with the functionality of their race suits some expressive elements were also noted by the female motorsport athletes. Race suiting can be used as symbolic non-verbal communication as the suit can represent the league team and their sponsors. Some noted that they did not want their suiting to give the impression of a “girly girl” while others wanted more feminine choices. It is clear from the data many participants wanted more choices that expressed their own individuality while still being accepted on the “team.”

Interestingly, a number of female motorsport athletes did not want racing suits that were considered “sexy” because that was not the “message” they wished to convey to the public nor to other drivers.

Aesthetic Component

The qualitative data showed that many desired having a “beautiful” fire suit although almost all noted that the safety the suit provided for them was more important than any aesthetic component. The female motorsport athletes were divided on the importance of the art elements of their suiting. Some wanted to see suiting available in the marketplace with more color and design options, while a few did not care about aesthetics. Some female motorsport athletes would have preferred to purchase a more colorful race suiting, but the financial cost would have been too high. Many had strong opinions about designing a female race suit and expressed how unhappy they were with

30 the suits that are currently available to them. Some suggested to design a suit that would camouflage larger hips and use more flexible fabrics.

Demographic Background

The average annual competitions reported were 12 and ranged from two competitions up to 32 competitions per year. Altogether, the female motorsport athletes belonged to 32 professional racing organizations. The most popular racing organizations were: Motorsport New Zealand, National Hot Rod Association, Rally

America, Sports Car Club of America and National Auto Sport Association. The participants competed in 17 types of motorsports. The most popular were: rally racing, drag racing, circuit racing and kart racing. The athletes of this study represented diverse ethnic backgrounds. Forty-four percent of the participants’ home country were from the

USA, 33% percent were from New Zealand, 10% were from Australia, 5% were from

Canada, 1% were from South Africa, .05% from Malaysia, and .01% from Federated

States of Micronesia.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

The motorsport industry operates on a global scale, and the number of women in the industry is growing, women athletes in particular. Part of the Motorsports’ athlete’s success is wearing properly fitted uniform and this study adds to the idea that there is a need for better fitted female racing suits. The current unisex racing suits available in the market have limitations to the female body which allow for possible opportunity for apparel designers and apparel manufacturers to invest resources in this niche market.

Based on the survey results, this study may also benefit women interested in joining this industry to be aware of the unlimited opportunities. According to the quantitative data the participants overall function response was neutral. However, the qualitative data showed the participants were unsatisfied with some elements of the functional component. For example, many participants experienced poor fit issues, especially if they purchased off-the-rack unisex race suiting. How well the race suit fits the female driver can directly determine the success of the driver (Adams & Keyserling,

1995; Choi & Ashdown, 2002; Park, Trejo, Miles, Bauer, Kim, & Stull, 2014).

Previous research such as written interviews given by current professional female drivers cited many fitting concerns they had when purchasing their suits

(Horsepowerandheels.com, 2014; Jakovich, 2015). Also previous research by Neves et al., discovered that fitting concerns were more widely experienced by other female motorsport athletes currently in the racing industry (2015; Horsepowerandheels.com,

2014; Jakovich, 2015; Bye, LaBat & DeLong, 2006). As expected, the functional element of fit was an important factor for female motorsport athletes. The survey

32 included a video of a three-dimensional scan from a computer-aided design apparel manufacturing company (Bye, LaBat & DeLong, 2006; Watkins & Dunne, 2015). The option was suggested to the athletes as an answer to a better fitting suit and 90% of participants were willing to have a 3-Dimensional body scan to attain a better fit.

According to the quantitative data the female motorsport athletes’ overall expression response was unsatisfied. The qualitative data also showed the athletes were unsatisfied with some elements of the expressive component. The elements with the lowest level of satisfaction were expression of sex appeal and femininity. Some participants were not concerned with sex appeal and suggested the questions should not have been on the survey. However, previous research also showed there is a delicate balance between expressing femininity and being respected in a male-dominated sport

(Sloop, 2005; Ross, Ridinger, & Cuneen, 2009). The perception of how the expressive design of the suit affects the probability of securing more or better sponsorships for their driving teams was important to this targeted consumer. As with many industries, professional car racing has a ranking system, and professional female drivers strive to compete with the best drivers in the highest rated car racing events. Race suiting played a key role in expressing social status within the racing environment. It also played an important part in the impression that they perceive is being made to those around them

(Pflugfelder, 2009; Choudhary, Munjal & Ratore, 2013; Hallnas, 2011; Kawamura,

2005). Currently, female motorsport athletes have a need to be accepted by male- dominated colleagues, fans, and potential sponsors.

According to the quantitative data the participants overall aesthetic response was very unsatisfied. The qualitative data confirmed the qualitative data resulting in the athletes being unsatisfied with the aesthetics or beauty of the suit. For one of the athletes, the price of the suits was a factor. She wanted to buy a female racing suit in more attractive colors, but the price of that suit was too high, and she settled for an all- black suit at a lower price point. Understanding the culture of race car driving was important when researching the artistic elements for a female racing suit. A professional racing event is dynamic, complex and both literally and figuratively. All of this overstimulation for the senses may have a negative effect on female racers that choose extremely colorful and complicated designs (Fiore, Kimle & Moreno, 1996; De Klerk &

Lubbe, 2006). According to the quantitative data, the athletes’ overall satisfaction response was neutral. The qualitative data showed many participants were unsatisfied with racing suits.

Professional female motorsport athletes were ultimately responsible for “selling” their brand and needed to project a professional image as well as self-confidence (Ross,

Ridinger & Cuneen, 2009). Women who felt more confident in their apparel projected higher self-esteem (das Neves, Brigatto & Paschoarelli, 2015; Bowar, 1977; Kawamura,

2005). The design of a female race suit should present the driver in an attractive manner by utilizing line, form, color, texture and pattern (Lamb & Kallal, 1992; Bleck,

Joseph & Wamhoff, 1984) satisfying the driver, fans and sponsors. Overall design concepts that are perceived as acceptable to female drivers in the areas of function, expression, and aesthetics will be successful.

Significance

Previous research has examined apparel for female athletes, but this study examined the specialized group of female motorsport athletes. This study also utilized a theoretical model to guide the researchers. This project will be beneficial for apparel manufacturers who are looking to capitalize on a niche apparel market. This study showed the greatest opportunity for an apparel manufacturer is in the off-the-rack market without alterations, with 66% of the participants purchasing racing suits in this category. Female motorsport athletes will also benefit from this project if apparel manufacturers produce racing suits designed with the female anatomy in mind.

Implications

This study gathered data from professional motorsport athletes around the world about their satisfaction with racing suits currently in the marketplace. More and more women are competing in professional sports and need clothing that will satisfy their functional, expressive and aesthetic needs. If there are governing bodies and high standards to produce high standard racing suits, this study may add value and voice to the need not being addressed by current manufacturing companies in the Motorsport apparel industry.

Future Research

There are many possibilities for future research on this topic. First, a designer may want to use the data collected by this study to create prototypes that can be tested by the women who participated in this study. Second, this study mainly focused exclusively on the racing suit; however, many motorsport athletes require other racing

35 gear, like some of our participants who required fire-proof bras. Future research could focus on undergarments for these athletes.

Future researchers could also focus their study on specific regions or countries where female motorsport athletes compete. The participants in this study represented eight countries with most of them residing in New Zealand. Future research may utilize the function, expression, and aesthetic consumer needs model to evaluate apparel for specific demographic markets.

When athletes responded about willingness to have a 3-D Body scan to attain more accurate body measurements, 91.8% responded yes. Based on these results the majority of female motorsport athletes were willing to have a 3-D body scan as a measuring tool supports the idea that women need a better fitting racing suit. Athletes were asked what part of the body was the most problematic while wearing the race suit when sitting and standing up; 44% percent reported their waist is a problem when standing up and 40% reported their hip area was a problem when sitting down.

Conclusion

This study was created to support apparel designers and manufacturers that are investigating possible business opportunities in the sports apparel industry. The results from a needs assessment study for female motorsport suiting was reported to benefit from this niche market. Although women are entering motorsports in record numbers, most of the industry required motorsport suiting is made for the male anatomy. When female race car drivers buy a motorsport suit, they have three options: mass produced, mass produced with alterations, or custom-made.

The authors of this study created an online needs assessment survey utilizing the

Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model for this study (Lamb and Kallal,

1992). The foundational aspect of this research model was to first recognize the intended user or target consumer of the apparel product and the intended users’ cultural environment before beginning the apparel designing process, in this case for female motorsport athletes. Seventy-four professional female motorsport athletes participated in this survey representing eight countries. Figure 1 shows the Function, Expression, and Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model that was used to uncover the female racing suit needs.

Figure 1

Figure 1. The Function Expression Aesthetic Consumer Needs Model. Source: Lamb and Kallal (1992, p. 42). Monument, CO. International Textile and Apparel

Industry standards

In the United States Foundation Incorporated (SFI) is the non-profit organization who sets the safety standard for car racing suits. The European organization Fédération

Internationale Del' Automobile (FIA) sets the standard for international racing organizations. As a potential manufacturer of Driving suits, the benefits of joining as an

SFI member, you are able to use the resources SFI provides to help you meet their standards. For example, the Laboratory facilities help you meet the SFI specs by being able to use their facilities when testing a product. The SFI lab is equipped with a

Thermal Protective Performance machine that measures the heat and flame resistance of a racing suit. When submitting a sample driving suit to the SFI, there are specific instructions and requirements and tests that the sample must meet in order for the sanctioning body to approve production to a manufacturer. The following table contains the specifications:

Figure 2

Figure 2. SFI standards for motorsport racing suit.. http://www.onallcylinders.com/2015/02/20/how-to-choose-the-right-racing-suit/

Although there are many factors involved in completing a driving suit model for production, the SFI does not consider the function of size or color. Researchers found that the racing suit has been largely produced as “unisex” to fit both male and female. However, based on the survey results from this study, size and fit correlate to performance for the female driver. According to the SFI standards, any alterations to

38 the suit must be from the original manufacturer and female drivers who buy their suit and alter them may be at risk of having a malfunctioning driving suit.

Different manufacturers have different sizing charts, for example, American sizing varies from European sizing. The sizing chart used to make driving suit is different depending on the manufacturer. Manufacturers also use a “made to measure” form to tailor make a racing suit. Out of the 63 manufacturer registered with SFI, not one single company specializes in female driving suits. The untapped niche market for female drier suit is an opportunity for interested parties.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Unisex Suit sizing chart. http://www.onallcylinders.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Size-Chart.jpg

Diving suit Purchase Behavior

Figure 4 below shows the average cost of a racing suit was $822.63. The minimum price for some of the female motorsport athletes chose zero due to some of the sponsors absorbing the cost of the racing suit, and the maximum price was

$2,700. The graph below depicts the majority of athletes paid anywhere from zero to

$541.00 dollars.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Results from survey describing athletes’ purchase price of current racing suit.

Racing Suit Purchasing Behavior

Figure 5 shows the survey results for purchasing behavior showed that 58.1% of the athletes prefer buying off-the-rack without alterations, compared to 33.8% custom made, and only 8.1% buy off-the-rack without alterations. The results indicate a case for convenience, athletes want to have a ready-made suit available to purchase without alterations.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Professional female athletes purchasing behavior from survey results.

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APPENDIX A Addendum

Suiting for Female Race Car Drivers: A Study for Apparel Designers and Apparel

Manufacturers is a joint graduate project between Ann Huebner and Africa De

Broeck. This document will explain the division of responsibilities between the two parties.

Ann Huebner is responsible for the following task/document and specific

responsibilities:

 Partial Literature review, Methodology, selection of research model, defining

aesthetics, overall Satisfaction, and creation of survey questioner

 Results Qualitative Data cleaning, and Qualitative Data Analysis.

 Discussion, Summary of Findings, Limitations, and Research questions response

to Aesthetics and Overall Satisfaction.

 Guidebook; Outline and design of guidebook

Africa De Broeck is responsible for the following task/document and specific

responsibilities:

 Partial Literature review, Methodology and description of research model

 Creating recruitment material (IRB forms), recruitment of participants and follow

up.

 Results, Data cleaning, coding, and use of Excel and SPSS to complete

quantitative descriptive statistics, data analysis, and tables.

 Research questions, Fit, Expression, and design of guidebook.

Both parties shared responsibilities for the following tasks/documents sections:

 Data collection and review

 Post survey follow-ups

 Format and writing guide

 Presenting at oral defense

______Ann Huebner Date Africa De Broeck Date

______Wei Cao, Ph.D, Committee Chair Date Hira Cho, Ph.D, Committee Member Date

______Dr. Mimura, Committee Member Date

______Tom Cai, Ph.D, Dept. Chair Date Elizabeth J. Sussman, PhD, RD Date

APPENDIX B

Dear Race Car Drivers, You are invited to participate in a research study entitled, “Suiting for Female Race Car Drivers: A Guidebook for Apparel Designers and Apparel Manufacturers” by completing a 15-20-minute survey. The purpose of the survey is to determine what apparel is missing for female race car drivers and provide apparel designers and apparel manufacturers and establish a framework needed for this niche market. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Iowa State University (IRB ID: 1516-149). You may participate in this research only if you over 18 years old, and have experience as a race car driver, able and willing to provide your perspective. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete an online survey regarding your perspective on female race car suits. There are no foreseeable risks from participating in this study. Your participation is voluntarily, and you may choose to withdraw at any time. Your survey responses will be anonymous, confidential and will NOT be linked to your name and email if you decide to participate. The benefits to the female race car industry, designers and manufacturers would be needs being addressed in academia which may then be applied to the female race car industry. If you have any questions, concerns, or questions regarding the conduct of this research, please contact the research team at Dr. Wei Cao at [email protected]@csun.edu or [email protected] and or [email protected]. If you have concerns or complaints about the Research and Sponsored Projects, 18111 Nordhoff Street, California State University, Northridge, Northridge CA 91330-8232, or phone 818-677-2901. By clicking the survey link below, you agree to participate in this research study: https://docs.google.com/a/my.csun.edu/forms/d/1AnG_2xO7_4sfN5YRCUuwzfQkiRoF mdfh0mhEJ6eb_Bg/edit?usp=drive_web Your efforts in participating in this research project are deeply appreciate it. Sincerely, Africa De Broeck and Ann Huebner, M.S. Candidates Apparel, Design, and Merchandise Program College of Health and Human Development 18111 Nordhoff Street, California State University, Northridge, Northridge CA 91330.

APPENDIX C

Survey for Female Racers

How many years have you been involved in motor sports? ______

Gender

Male or Female

Age______

My racing organization is______ie NASCAR- NHRA-INDYCAR ect.

What is the name of your motor sport? ______

The following questions focus on the functional aspect of your racing suit. This aspect examines fit and ease of movement, thermal protection/comfort and putting on and taking off your racing suit. 1= completely agree 5= completely disagree

1. I bought my racing suit (if you did not answer custom-made, a. Off-the rack with alterations. please skip to question 5) b. Off-the-rack without alterations c. Custom-made 2. How much did your suit cost?

3. How long do your suits generally last? (durability) 4. If your suit was custom-made, how did you have your body measured? 5. If you purchased a custom-made racing suit, did the person who took your measurements have tailoring or seamstress experience? 6. Why did you choose to purchase a custom-made racing suit? 7. Would you be willing to have a 3-D body scan if it would achieve a better fitting racing suit? (Video) 8. Please select the fit of your racing 1 2 3 4 5 suit for each of the following physical areas when SITTING DOWN in your vehicle: a. Shoulders

b. Arm Length c. Chest d. Waist e. Hips f. Crotch g. Neckline h. Torso i. Upper Arm Circumference j. Wrist

9.Please select the fit of your racing suit for each of the following physical areas when STANDING UP: a. Shoulders 1 2 3 4 5 b. Upper Arms 1 2 3 4 5 c. Chest 1 2 3 4 5 d. Waist 1 2 3 4 5 e. Hips 1 2 3 4 5 f. Crotch 1 2 3 4 5 g. Neckline h. Torso i. Upper Arm Circumference j. Wrist

10. Please rate satisfaction of Range of motion in upper body.

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

11. Please rate satisfaction of range of 1 2 3 4 5 motion in lower body. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

12. Ease of movement to perform the activity.

13. The inner pockets on my suit are Yes or No placed in a convenient functional place? 14. I am comfortable in my suit (no skin 1 2 3 4 5 irritation) 15. When wearing my racing suit I can 1 2 3 4 5 easily get out of my car. 16. Ease of care and cleaning. 1 2 3 4 5

17. Thermal comfort while driving. 1 2 3 4 5

18. Fit of racing suit when standing up. 1 2 3 4 5

19. Fit of racing suit while sitting in my 1 2 3 4 5 vehicle. 20. Ease of getting into my racing suit. 1 2 3 4 5

21. Ease of getting out of my racing suit. 1 2 3 4 5

22. My racing suit communicates a professional image. 1 2 3 4 5

23. I consider my racing suit 1 2 3 4 5 fashionable. 24. My racing suit expresses my 1 2 3 4 5 femininity. 25. My racing suit expresses my sex 1 2 3 4 5 appeal.

26. The uniqueness of sponsorship 1 2 3 4 5 placements on my racing suit attracts the attention I desire. 27. I feel attractive when I wear my 1 2 3 4 5 racing suit. 28. The style of my racing suit is 1 2 3 4 5 attractive.

29. The colors(s) of my racing suit is 1 2 3 4 5 attractive.

30. The fabric used to make my racing 1 2 3 4 5 suit is attractive.

31. The overall design of my racing suit 1 2 3 4 5 fulfills my need for beauty.

32. The placement of outer pockets is in 1 2 3 4 5 an aesthetically pleasing area on my racing suit. 33. I consider my racing suit 1 2 3 4 5 fashionable.

34. The aesthetic appearance of my 1 2 3 4 5 racing suit compliments my body shape.

35. My racing suit is durable. 1 2 3 4 5

37. I am pleased with my racing suit. 1 2 3 4 5

38. Overall, I am pleased with my racing 1 2 3 4 5 suit.

Suggestions 39. Please provide any suggestions that would improve the functional, expressive and/or aesthetic aspects of your racing suit. 40. Are you currently involved in motorsport/ race car driving? 41. How many competitions do you compete in annually? 42. My racing organization is 43. What is the name of your motorsport? 44. What is your gender 45. What is your age? 46. What is your ethnicity? 47. What city so you currently reside in? 48. What city do you practice in? 49. What is your home country?

APPENDIX D Table reference for instrument items

Newcomb, E. & Istook,(2011) C. Newcomb, & E.

Dickson, M., & Pollack, & A.(2000) Dickson,M.,

Romeo, L., & Lee, Y. (2014) ; Emerich, P.Emerich,(2011) ; (2014) Lee, Y. & Romeo, L.,

Cao, H. , Chang, R. , Kallal, J. , Manalo, G. , McCord, J. , etal.,J.(2014); McCord, , Kallal,,G. R. Chang, ,Manalo, ,J. H. Cao,

Ulrich, P.V.,Ulrich, Anderson-Connell, (2003). W. Wu, & L.,