DOCSLIB.ORG

Alive Dead Media 2020: Tracker and Chip Music

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Alive Dead Media 2020: Tracker and Chip Music Alive Dead Media 2020: Tracker and Chip Music 1st day introduction, Markku Reunanen Pics gracefully provided by Wikimedia Commons Arrangements See MyCourses for more details, but for now: ● Whoami, who’s here? ● Schedule of this week: history, MilkyTracker with Yzi, LSDJ with Miranda Kastemaa, holiday, final concert ● 80% attendance, two tunes for the final concert and a little jingle today ● Questions about the practicalities? History of Home Computer and Game Console Audio ● This is a vast subject: hundreds of different devices and chips starting from the late 1970s ● In the 1990s starts to become increasingly standardized (or boring, if you may :) so we’ll focus on earlier technology ● Not just hardware: how did you compose music with contemporary tools? ● Let’s hear a lot of examples – not using Zoom audio The Home Computer Boom ● At its peak in the 1980s, but started somewhat earlier with Apple II (1977), TRS-80 (1977) and Commodore PET (1977) ● Affordable microprocessors, such as Zilog Z80, MOS 6502 and the Motorola 6800 series ● In the 1980s the market grew rapidly with Commodore VIC-20 (1980) and C-64 (1982), Sinclair ZX Spectrum (1982), MSX compatibles (1983) … and many more! ● From enthusiast gadgets to game machines Enter the 16-bits ● Improving processors: Motorola 68000 series, Intel 8088/8086/80286 ● More colors, more speed, more memory, from tapes to floppies, mouse(!) ● Atari ST (1984), Commodore Amiga (1985), Apple Macintosh (1984) ● IBM PC and compatibles (1981) popular in the US, improving game capability Not Just Computers ● The same technology powered game consoles of the time ● Notable early ones: Fairchild Channel F (1976), Atari VCS aka. 2600 (1977), Mattel Intellivision (1979) ● “Video Game Crash” of 1983 ● In the 1980s Nintendo NES (1983), Sega Master System (1985) and Mega Drive (1988) ● Connection to synthesizers and popular music of the time Basic Waveforms Noise ● Random noise is also a common waveform on sound chips, it’s just not regular unlike the previous examples ● Useful for percussion instruments, such as snares and hi-hat, sound effects Beyond the Beeps ● By playing the waveform at different frequencies we get notes. The larger the amplitude, the louder the sound. ● Modifying the frequency and amplitude (i.e. volume) on the fly gives character to the sound ● Turning a waveform simply on and off makes for mechanistic beeps, as real-world sounds aren’t like that ● So-called envelopes control how the volume behaves: fading in and out at different stages. ADSR is one of the simplest ones. Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release Experiment with Waves and ADSR ● https://www.keithmcmillen.com/blog/making-music-in-th e-browser-web-audio-midi-envelope-generator/ ● Let’s try in practice how different basic waveforms sound like and how applying ADSR changes them ● Might not work on Chrome, try Firefox or some other browser Real-World Sounds Example of speech from the Aalto University Wiki Let There Be Sound! ● Sound was not a priority on the earliest computers – some didn’t even have any sound capabilities ● Not necessarily for games, but for warning beeps ● Game consoles, obviously, were a different ballgame ● Rate generators – one or multiple channels of square wave audio ● Usually just one feature of a clock chip ● A capacitor filters the sound and rounds it ● Often just 8 bits (256 different values) for the frequency The PC Speaker ● For long the standard PC sound device ● One-channel square wave audio from the clock chip, no volume control, just the frequency ● Quite different implementations across machines ● Tricks: arpeggio, vibrato, even digitized audio using Pulse-Code Modulation (computationally expensive) ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JzfDOD4q0Kk ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izadA3nSPbk ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wivtSeGr_T8 At Times not Even That ● Sinclair ZX Spectrum – a popular British home computer (1982) ● Commonly used for games, but: no sound chip, not even a rate generator ● The processor can switch the output on or off: even continuous beeping is heavy. Small internal speaker. ● Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM), interleaving ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BgUzteADsRI ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2lacCH2h70w Programmable Sound Generators ● Separate sound chips with features like: multiple channels (3 typical), volume control, different waveforms, envelopes ● Still not possible to play digitized audio directly: processor-intensive ramping of volume up and down, amplitude modulation possible ● Used on most 8-bit home computers and game consoles ● Chip music usually refers to this era, either the real hardware or just the general style General Instrument AY-3-8910 ● Or simply just “PSG” ● A typical representative of its kind: three square-wave channels, volume, noise and envelopes ● MSX Compatibles, Sinclair ZX Spectrum 128k, Amstrad CPC, Intellivision, but also the 16-bit Atari ST ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TB3j8rlQrU ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ohxzj7rBTDg MOS Sound Interface Device (SID) ● Used on the Commodore 64 ● Two models: 6581 and 8580 ● More capable than most PSGs: selectable waveforms, ADSR envelopes, variable pulse width, programmable analog filter and more ● Plenty of famous tunes and composers (see HVSC) ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhQIotlAxW8 ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6xhfDLaVtU ● Couldn’t get a SID composer to teach this week, sorry :) Meanwhile in Japan... ● Well, not just Japan, but rather typically so :) ● Frequency modulation (FM) based chips by Yamaha ● A selection of (sine-based) waveforms whose frequency is modulated by another oscillator ● Complex devices with effects and ADSR envelopes ● Many Japanese arcades, Sega Mega Drive, but also Adlib and SoundBlaster sound cards for the PC computers ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B2aaSG3ICd0 Enter the Amiga ● Commodore’s 16-bit machine (1985), Amiga 500 (1987) very popular in Europe ● Extensive graphics and sound capabilities for the time ● Paula sound chip: no built-in waveforms, but 4 channels of 8-bit digital (PCM) audio with frequency and volume setting ● Stereo sound ● Real instruments from synthesizers, instruments and your favorite albums ● At times called wavetable synthesis Amiga (cont.) ● The tracker paradigm dominant on the Amiga, tightly reflects the hardware capabilities ● Used for professional music production too ● Digitized samples use much more memory than chip music, Amiga typically had one megabyte(!) ● Playing speech or other “real” sounds no more difficult but a standard feature ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLMhBE99byM ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hzx8imUo9kU And Then ● From 8 to 16-bit samples, CD quality ● Amiga-like wavetable cards enjoyed a momentary success in the mid-1990s: Gravis UltraSound (1992) and SoundBlaster AWE32 (1994) ● Quickly growing processing power made wavetable chips obsolete ● Now simple chips that can just play back digital samples ● Intel’s AC’97 standard (1997): surround sound and 48 kHz sampling rate Making Music ● What about tools? How did you compose music? ● Initially no particular tools, game music was commonly composed by programming in machine language in the mid-1980s ● https://www.1xn.org/text/C64/rob_hubbards_music.txt ● The musician was often an external person ● Some home computers let users do simple music using the built-in BASIC programming language (=main user interface of the machine) Back to 1983 ● We’re sitting at the living room with our shiny new MSX computer and trying to make it play music ● WebMSX emulator: https://webmsx.org/ ● Create music using the play command ● Use an external text editor (not Word or Google Docs) to edit the command and then copy it with alt-b to the emulator – or just use the text box directly ● When done, copy paste it to the Drive Music Macro Language ● Basic syntax: play"notes","notes","notes" (you can have up to 3 channels playing) ● Quotation marks must be like this: " ● Notes: cdefgab, # can be used for sharp notes ● Specify the length with a number: c4, 1=full note, 2=half note and so on ● Much more here, if needed: https://www.msx.org/wiki/PLAY Concert ● Let’s listen to what the others have composed ● Copy paste from the Google Doc and try to figure out how they did it Emerging Tools Soundmonitor (1986) by Chris Hülsbeck for the C-64 The Tracker Paradigm ● The roots of the tracker composing paradigm can be seen on Soundmonitor already ● Trackers evolved considerably on the Commodore Amiga and were the dominant way of making music, both in the hobbyist and professional circles ● Particularly characteristic software for the demoscene community ● Tomorrow you’ll get to try MilkyTracker yourself. ● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKvreHmHKds Tracker Basics The Ultimate Soundtracker (1987) by Karsten Obarski Another Tracker FastTracker II (1994) by Triton for the PC Trackers Now and Then ● Trackers are still alive, in particular when composing for retro computers ● Cross-development: using a powerful modern computer for composing for an old one ● Not that typical in professional audio ● Renoise represents the current top of the line, a full commercial digital audio workstation: https://www.renoise.com/ That’s it! This was pretty much it for the first day. Any questions with regard to… ● History of home computers or game consoles? ● Sound chips? ● Trackers? ● Further readings or links? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rIEijimuzr8 – chiptune scandal(!).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Introduction Chapter 2 — Windows Software
    UltraSound owners have a variety of sound needs. This is a guide to help you find the best way to use your new UltraSound for your own applications. Using your UltraSound with many games is as simple as selecting UltraSound from the list of sound cards in the game’s setup. You’ll hear extraordinary wavetable sound as soon as you begin the game. To use UltraSound with games that do not yet support the card directly, you may need some help getting started. UltraSound works with programs written for General MIDI, Sound Blaster, Ad Lib, Roland MT-32, and Roland SCC1. Read Chapter 6, “Game Sound Support,” for an explanation of the sound options available with UltraSound. Explore the file playing, recording, and mixing features of your UltraSound right away using the simple sound applets that come with Windows version 3.1 or later. Use Media Player to play sound files with your UltraSound. Or hook up a microphone and use Sound Recorder to record, mix, and play your own sounds. See the Windows manual or Sound Recorder’s on-line help for instructions. Open the UltraSound Mixer to enable inputs and outputs, set playback volume, and control CD and Microphone inputs. The settings you choose from the Mixer applet are only valid for the current Windows session until you save them. Once you have had a chance to explore your UltraSound’s features with these simple applications, try the great bonus software included in your UltraSound package. Advanced Gravis has included a number of terrific software applications for recording, playing, mixing, and composing sounds and music with your new UltraSound.
    [Show full text]
  • Linux Sound Subsystem Documentation Release 4.13.0-Rc4+
    Linux Sound Subsystem Documentation Release 4.13.0-rc4+ The kernel development community Sep 05, 2017 CONTENTS 1 ALSA Kernel API Documentation 1 1.1 The ALSA Driver API ............................................ 1 1.2 Writing an ALSA Driver ........................................... 89 2 Designs and Implementations 145 2.1 Standard ALSA Control Names ...................................... 145 2.2 ALSA PCM channel-mapping API ..................................... 147 2.3 ALSA Compress-Offload API ........................................ 149 2.4 ALSA PCM Timestamping ......................................... 152 2.5 ALSA Jack Controls ............................................. 155 2.6 Tracepoints in ALSA ............................................ 156 2.7 Proc Files of ALSA Drivers ......................................... 158 2.8 Notes on Power-Saving Mode ....................................... 161 2.9 Notes on Kernel OSS-Emulation ..................................... 161 2.10 OSS Sequencer Emulation on ALSA ................................... 165 3 ALSA SoC Layer 171 3.1 ALSA SoC Layer Overview ......................................... 171 3.2 ASoC Codec Class Driver ......................................... 172 3.3 ASoC Digital Audio Interface (DAI) .................................... 174 3.4 Dynamic Audio Power Management for Portable Devices ...................... 175 3.5 ASoC Platform Driver ............................................ 180 3.6 ASoC Machine Driver ............................................ 181 3.7 Audio Pops
    [Show full text]
  • When High-Tech Was Low-Tech : a Retrospective Look at Forward-Thinking Technologies [Multiple Exhibits]
    University of South Florida Scholar Commons Library and Community-based Exhibits Library Outreach 9-1-2003 When High-Tech was Low-Tech : A Retrospective Look at Forward-Thinking Technologies [Multiple exhibits] James Anthony Schnur, Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/npml_outreach_exhibits Scholar Commons Citation Schnur,, James Anthony, "When High-Tech was Low-Tech : A Retrospective Look at Forward-Thinking Technologies [Multiple exhibits]" (2003). Library and Community-based Exhibits. 43. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/npml_outreach_exhibits/43 This Presentation is brought to you for free and open access by the Library Outreach at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Library and Community-based Exhibits by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. When High-Tech was Low-Tech A Retrospective Look at Forward-Thinking Technologies Nelson Poynter Memorial Library University of South Florida St. Petersburg When High-Tech was Low-Tech When High-Tech was Low-Tech When High-Tech was Low-Tech The development of transistors after By the late 1970s, early “personal Before the widespread use of “floppy” World War II allowed manufacturers to computers” and game systems began to disks (in both 5¼ and 8 inch formats), build smaller, more sophisticated, and appear in homes. One of the most many early personal computers used less expensive devices. No longer did popular games of this period came from tape drives. “Personal computer consumers have to worry about Atari. This Ultra-Pong console, cassettes” usually held about 64,000 purchasing expensive tubes for heavy, released by Atari in 1977, included bytes of data and could take up to 30 bulky radios and televisions.
    [Show full text]
  • Text of the German Application of Art of Coding
    This is the Text of the German application of Art of Coding (www.http://demoscene-the-art-of-coding.net) with the purpose of bringing the demoscene onto the ​ ​ list of UNESCO intangible cultural heritage of humanity. The application was submitted in Oct 2019 and has been written in an collaborative community effort led by Tobias Kopka supported by Andre Kudra, Stephan Maienhöfer, Gleb Albert, Christian Brandt, Andreas Lange and many more who gave their hands at Digitale Kultur und Tastatur und Maus e.V. The structure depends on the form, which is given by the German UNESCO. In spite the structure differs from forms used in other countries text modules can be used for application in other countries. The texts in square brackets are part of the German form. Also every kind of feedback is welcome, which could be taken into account for future use. Use ‘team (at) demoscene-the-art-of-coding.net’ 1. Type of Immaterial Cultural Heritage [Please tick the applicable sections and elaborate in keywords (multi-selection possible, but not mandatory)] Section A) verbally passed on traditions and expressions [keywords]: own technical vocabulary, own idiom with specialized terminology, English is lingua franca Section B) performing arts (music, theatre, dance) [keywords]: composition, performant, live, public presentation, animation Section C) social tradition, (seasonal) celebration and ritual [keywords]: demoparties, competitions, visitor voting, price ceremonies Section D) Knowledge and customs, related to nature or the universe [keywords]: digitalized living environment, cyberspace, virtual reality Section E) traditional craftsmanship [keywords]: coding, composition, animation, adoption, do-it-yourself Section F) other 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Sound-HOWTO.Pdf
    The Linux Sound HOWTO Jeff Tranter [email protected] v1.22, 16 July 2001 Revision History Revision 1.22 2001−07−16 Revised by: jjt Relicensed under the GFDL. Revision 1.21 2001−05−11 Revised by: jjt This document describes sound support for Linux. It lists the supported sound hardware, describes how to configure the kernel drivers, and answers frequently asked questions. The intent is to bring new users up to speed more quickly and reduce the amount of traffic in the Usenet news groups and mailing lists. The Linux Sound HOWTO Table of Contents 1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1 1.1. Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................1 1.2. New versions of this document.........................................................................................................1 1.3. Feedback...........................................................................................................................................2 1.4. Distribution Policy............................................................................................................................2 2. Sound Card Technology.................................................................................................................................3 3. Supported Hardware......................................................................................................................................4
    [Show full text]
  • Foundations for Music-Based Games
    Die approbierte Originalversion dieser Diplom-/Masterarbeit ist an der Hauptbibliothek der Technischen Universität Wien aufgestellt (http://www.ub.tuwien.ac.at). The approved original version of this diploma or master thesis is available at the main library of the Vienna University of Technology (http://www.ub.tuwien.ac.at/englweb/). MASTERARBEIT Foundations for Music-Based Games Ausgeführt am Institut für Gestaltungs- und Wirkungsforschung der Technischen Universität Wien unter der Anleitung von Ao.Univ.Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. Peter Purgathofer und Univ.Ass. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. Martin Pichlmair durch Marc-Oliver Marschner Arndtstrasse 60/5a, A-1120 WIEN 01.02.2008 Abstract The goal of this document is to establish a foundation for the creation of music-based computer and video games. The first part is intended to give an overview of sound in video and computer games. It starts with a summary of the history of game sound, beginning with the arguably first documented game, Tennis for Two, and leading up to current developments in the field. Next I present a short introduction to audio, including descriptions of the basic properties of sound waves, as well as of the special characteristics of digital audio. I continue with a presentation of the possibilities of storing digital audio and a summary of the methods used to play back sound with an emphasis on the recreation of realistic environments and the positioning of sound sources in three dimensional space. The chapter is concluded with an overview of possible categorizations of game audio including a method to differentiate between music-based games.
    [Show full text]
  • The Demoscene Demo-Scene Related Events
    Barmer Straße 26 50679 Köln fon 0221 - 46 96 220 fax 0221 - 510756143 [email protected] Digitale Kultur was founded in 2003 as a friendly society in Cologne, Germany. The association presents the computer as a means of expressing artistic creativity and aims to support the communica- tion between creative people. To achieve this, the association orga- nizes demoparties and other The Demoscene demo-scene related events. Computers new realm http://www.digitalekultur.org http://www.demoscene.info In cooperation with http://www.scene.org Whoever mistakes computers for Parties: Fun and Competion being boring or non-creative will be The groups and their members meet at the legen- proven wrong by the demoscene. Here dary demoscene-parties. They meet, they party programmers, graphicians and musici- and vote for the best new releases. New techni- ans show off their real skills. ques are exchanged, new friends and contacts They direct music videos without dancers, set made. Some sceners travel thousands of kilo- and camera. Their special effects do not need any meters to attend. A party can last 3 or 4 days and stunt-coordinators or fog machines. What they need no one is gettting much sleep. The competitors is just a computer and their creativity. All directing show their skills in a dozen different categories, and effects, all shades and the whole soundtrack from the best 4 kb intro, the best music to thro- are created on the machine. wing a harddisk the farthest. And in addition to the recognition for being the producer of an asto- nishing demo the winners can also receive valu- able prices.
    [Show full text]
  • January 2010
    SPECIAL FEATURE: 2009 FRONT LINE AWARDS VOL17NO1JANUARY2010 THE LEADING GAME INDUSTRY MAGAZINE 1001gd_cover_vIjf.indd 1 12/17/09 9:18:09 PM CONTENTS.0110 VOLUME 17 NUMBER 1 POSTMORTEM DEPARTMENTS 20 NCSOFT'S AION 2 GAME PLAN By Brandon Sheffield [EDITORIAL] AION is NCsoft's next big subscription MMORPG, originating from Going Through the Motions the company's home base in South Korea. In our first-ever Korean postmortem, the team discusses how AION survived worker 4 HEADS UP DISPLAY [NEWS] fatigue, stock drops, and real money traders, providing budget and Open Source Space Games, new NES music engine, and demographics information along the way. Gamma IV contest announcement. By NCsoft South Korean team 34 TOOL BOX By Chris DeLeon [REVIEW] FEATURES Unity Technologies' Unity 2.6 7 2009 FRONT LINE AWARDS 38 THE INNER PRODUCT By Jake Cannell [PROGRAMMING] We're happy to present our 12th annual tools awards, representing Brick by Brick the best in game industry software, across engines, middleware, production tools, audio tools, and beyond, as voted by the Game 42 PIXEL PUSHER By Steve Theodore [ART] Developer audience. Tilin'? Stylin'! By Eric Arnold, Alex Bethke, Rachel Cordone, Sjoerd De Jong, Richard Jacques, Rodrigue Pralier, and Brian Thomas. 46 DESIGN OF THE TIMES By Damion Schubert [DESIGN] Get Real 15 RETHINKING USER INTERFACE Thinking of making a game for multitouch-based platforms? This 48 AURAL FIXATION By Jesse Harlin [SOUND] article offers a look at the UI considerations when moving to this sort of Dethroned interface, including specific advice for touch offset, and more. By Brian Robbins 50 GOOD JOB! [CAREER] Konami sound team mass exodus, Kim Swift interview, 27 CENTER OF MASS and who went where.
    [Show full text]
  • Computer Demos—What Makes Them Tick?
    AALTO UNIVERSITY School of Science and Technology Faculty of Information and Natural Sciences Department of Media Technology Markku Reunanen Computer Demos—What Makes Them Tick? Licentiate Thesis Helsinki, April 23, 2010 Supervisor: Professor Tapio Takala AALTO UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT OF LICENTIATE THESIS School of Science and Technology Faculty of Information and Natural Sciences Department of Media Technology Author Date Markku Reunanen April 23, 2010 Pages 134 Title of thesis Computer Demos—What Makes Them Tick? Professorship Professorship code Contents Production T013Z Supervisor Professor Tapio Takala Instructor - This licentiate thesis deals with a worldwide community of hobbyists called the demoscene. The activities of the community in question revolve around real-time multimedia demonstrations known as demos. The historical frame of the study spans from the late 1970s, and the advent of affordable home computers, up to 2009. So far little academic research has been conducted on the topic and the number of other publications is almost equally low. The work done by other researchers is discussed and additional connections are made to other related fields of study such as computer history and media research. The material of the study consists principally of demos, contemporary disk magazines and online sources such as community websites and archives. A general overview of the demoscene and its practices is provided to the reader as a foundation for understanding the more in-depth topics. One chapter is dedicated to the analysis of the artifacts produced by the community and another to the discussion of the computer hardware in relation to the creative aspirations of the community members.
    [Show full text]
  • Retromagazine 01 Eng.Pdf
    Spring 2020: there’s a scent of change in the air SUMMARY <HIDDE N> Despite the frankly somewhat dark times we live in, this late spring brings many changes in our lives. Perhaps even finally a return to life as we know ◊ MISTER FPGA, one year later… Page 3 it, after the CoViD-19 nightmare. Even within our editorial initiative there ◊ Interview with Francesco Sblendorio Page 7 are no shortage of changes on the horizon. Indeed, many have already started or will soon be under way. ◊ FAST BASIC – a Locomotive Basic Page 14 compiler in CP/M Let's start with the name of your (hopefully) beloved magazine. From this issue the name of the magazine changes to RetroMagazine World. We ◊ Star Watcher Page 17 have been thrifty and modest: we have only added a small word ("World") ◊ Playing infinite lives with your C64 – Page 21 to our historical name, mostly in order to show our new intention to The challenge goes on address the entire international community and no longer only our numerous Italian readers. ◊ Retromath: Secret Codes Page 24 ◊ 3D Graphs with few lines in BASIC Page 27 How do we intend to do this? Well, actually, we already did it last May 2nd, with the release of issue zero of RetroMagazine English, a pilot publication ◊ Japan cronicles: A new Game & Watch? Page 32 entirely in English, dedicated to all the retrocomputing, retrogaming and retrocoding fans scattered all over the planet. These readers have long ◊ How I discovered RPG games on my Page 36 been asking us to bring in a "neutral" language (an official language, TI99/4A understandable to all) for the content and columns that for over two years ◊ KNIGHTMARE SAGA (MSX) Page 42 have been reaching Italian readers.
    [Show full text]
  • VIDEO GAME SUBCULTURES Playing at the Periphery of Mainstream Culture Edited by Marco Benoît Carbone & Paolo Ruffino
    ISSN 2280-7705 www.gamejournal.it Published by LUDICA Issue 03, 2014 – volume 1: JOURNAL (PEER-REVIEWED) VIDEO GAME SUBCULTURES Playing at the periphery of mainstream culture Edited by Marco Benoît Carbone & Paolo Ruffino GAME JOURNAL – Peer Reviewed Section Issue 03 – 2014 GAME Journal A PROJECT BY SUPERVISING EDITORS Antioco Floris (Università di Cagliari), Roy Menarini (Università di Bologna), Peppino Ortoleva (Università di Torino), Leonardo Quaresima (Università di Udine). EDITORS WITH THE PATRONAGE OF Marco Benoît Carbone (University College London), Giovanni Caruso (Università di Udine), Riccardo Fassone (Università di Torino), Gabriele Ferri (Indiana University), Adam Gallimore (University of Warwick), Ivan Girina (University of Warwick), Federico Giordano (Università per Stranieri di Perugia), Dipartimento di Storia, Beni Culturali e Territorio Valentina Paggiarin, Justin Pickard, Paolo Ruffino (Goldsmiths, University of London), Mauro Salvador (Università Cattolica, Milano), Marco Teti (Università di Ferrara). PARTNERS ADVISORY BOARD Espen Aarseth (IT University of Copenaghen), Matteo Bittanti (California College of the Arts), Jay David Bolter (Georgia Institute of Technology), Gordon C. Calleja (IT University of Copenaghen), Gianni Canova (IULM, Milano), Antonio Catolfi (Università per Stranieri di Perugia), Mia Consalvo (Ohio University), Patrick Coppock (Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia), Ruggero Eugeni (Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano), Roy Menarini (Università di Bologna), Enrico Menduni (Università di
    [Show full text]
  • Commodore 64 - Wikipedia
    Commodore 64 - Wikipedia http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64 Da Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera. Il Commodore 64 (abbreviazioni diffuse: Commodore 64 "C64", "C-64", "C=64", "CBM 64",[1] "64") è un home computer della Commodore Business Machines Inc. commercializzato dal 1982 al 1993 in vari Paesi del mondo. Il Commodore 64 nasce come evoluzione del Commodore VIC-20. Evoluzione in grado di offrire capacità grafiche e sonore migliori rispetto al Commodore VIC-20 a scapito Il Commodore 64 però della compatibilità software. Classe di computer: home computer Del Commodore 64 sono state Paese d'origine: Stati Uniti d'America commercializzate anche tre varianti: il Commodore Business Machines Commodore MAX, il Commodore Educator Produttore: Inc. 64 e il Commodore SX-64, commercializzati rispettivamente a partire dal 1982, 1983 e 6 giugno 1982 (anteprima 1984. Dal Commodore 64 sono inoltre Presentazione: mondiale); 17 settembre 1982 derivate due console per videogiochi: il (anteprima italiana) Commodore 64 Games System e il agosto 1982 (Stati Uniti); Inizio commercializzazione: Commodore 64 DTV. La prima marzo 1983 (Italia) commercializzata a partire dal 1990, la Fine commercializzazione: 1993 seconda a partire dal 2004. Evoluzioni del Commodore 64 sono invece il Commodore Esemplari venduti: 17.000.000 circa 128, il Commodore 128D e il Commodore $ 595 (Stati Uniti); Prezzo di lancio: 65, tutti compatibili a livello software con il ₤ 973.500 (Italia) Commodore 64. I primi due sono stati CPU: MOS 6510 commercilizzati a partire dal 1985, il
    [Show full text]