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The Influence of Amino Acid Properties on The THE INFLUENCE OF AMINO ACID PROPERTIES ON THE ADSORPTION OF PROTEINS AND PEPTIDES TO STAINLESS STEEL SURFACES A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical and Process Engineering University of Canterbury New Zealand NEHA CHANDRASEKARAN March 2014 To my beloved Master, spiritual guide, teacher and friend Baba Gurinder Singh Dhillon i Abstract Stainless steel (SS) is the material of choice in a number of process industries ranging from food and dairy to pharmaceuticals. Adsorption phenomena on SS surfaces are of paramount importance in these industries. For example, protein adsorption constitutes a major issue in process equipment, as the associated surface fouling decreases the efficiency of the overall process and leads to an increase in operational costs because of the need for regular cleaning. In addition, the adsorption of proteins at solid–liquid interfaces is an important research field with relevance in biosensor and biomaterial applications. The primary aim of this thesis was to understand the underlying adsorption properties of selected protein onto SS surfaces and to identify the influence of specific amino acids on bio-fouling. Protein adsorption experiments were carried out on 316 grade SS sensors using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D). The proteins consisted of milk proteins (α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, α-casein, β-casein, κ-casein and bovine serum albumin), blood proteins (cytochrome-c, haemoglobin and myoglobin) and proteins of industrial and medical relevance (α- chymotrypsinogen, human recombinant insulin, lysozyme and papain). The adsorption characteristics of the test proteins were studied and an empirical correlation relating the amount of protein adsorbed to their physical properties was proposed. Adsorption onto a SS surface was followed on the QCM-D in real time and the amounts adsorbed calculated using the Sauerbrey model. In addition, the binding kinetics was modelled using different theoretical models to describe the adsorption mechanism. In all the proteins tested, the conformational change model was found to fit considerably well the adsorption data. Finally, the data collected were used to identify the physical properties of proteins that induce surface binding, with hydrophobic and aromatic amino acids having the most effect on binding. A second aspect investigated in the present work was the determination of hydration water present in the adsorbed layer. In fact, water molecules, solvated ions and other small molecules in the vicinity of the surface all play an important role in protein adsorption and often constitute a large fraction of the total measured adsorbed mass. The fraction of water present on SS surfaces along with adsorbed proteins was determined using fluorescently labelled proteins through a comparative study that included QCM-D experiments as well as fluorescent light intensity measurements. The results were similar for all proteins tested, indicating that 32-45.8% of the total mass adsorbed composed of water. ii One last aspect considered in this thesis was the influence of the putative adhesive amino acid 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA). DOPA residues are present in high levels in the adhesive proteins from marine mussels, hence are thought to facilitate surface attachment. The role of DOPA residues in mediating protein adhesion on SS surfaces was studied using QCM-D. Two repetitive peptide motifs extracted from the sequence of the mussel foot protein mefp-5, KGYKYYGGSS and KGYKYY, were selected for this study. The two peptides contained unmodified tyrosine (Y) residues, which were chemo-enzymatically modified to DOPA using mushroom tyrosinase. Adsorption of the two sequences on SS surfaces was tested before and after modification of tyrosine residues to DOPA. Conversion was linearly related to the incubation time of the peptide fragments with mushroom tyrosinase, Amount of DOPA formed was 70-99% of the tyrosine content in the peptides. QCM-D adsorption experiments on the DOPA-modified sequences revealed four-fold greater adhesion than for unmodified mefp-5 motifs, indicating the paramount role that DOPA has on the adsorption of peptides on 316 grade stainless steel. iii Conferences and Publications The adsorption of proteins on stainless steel surfaces was the main subject of this thesis. Modification of tyrosine to DOPA in peptide sequences and its influence on adhesion was also studied. The following papers and presentations have resulted from this work to date. 1) Chandrasekaran, N., Dimartino, S. and Fee, C.J. (2013) Study of the adsorption of proteins on stainless steel surfaces using QCM-D. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 91, 1674-83, September 2013. 2) Chandrasekaran, N., Dimartino, S. and Fee, C.J. (2012) Adsorption of proteins on stainless steel surfaces. Wellington, New Zealand: Chemeca2012, 23-26 September 2012. (Conference Contribution - Paper in published proceedings) 3) Chandrasekaran, N., Dimartino, S. and Fee, C.J. (2013) Comparative study of dairy protein-associated water and its adsorption effects on stainless steel surfaces by fluorescent labelling and QCM-D, (Conference presentation Chemeca2013) iv Acknowledgements ―Although the road is never ending, take a step and keep walking – Rumi‖ The end of the PhD journey has lead me to a new journey with a lot of learning and gratitude for everyone who has been a part of my life to make this dream turn into reality. Conan, You have been my role model throughout my PhD. Words would not do justice to thank you for your guidance and support to make this happen. I have learnt not only academically, but also learnt to unveil myself with your inspiration on leadership, time management and dedication. Simone, Your advice of ―Non Scholæ sed Vitæ Discimus‖ – ―We do not learn for the school, but for life‖ would remain embedded in my heart forever. Thank you very much for being an inspirational guide, good friend and support throughout this journey. The research would not be successful without the guidance of Rayleen who has stretched herself and helped me immensely in the research. I would like to extend my warm gratitude to my research group mates Kannan, Prasanna, Balaji and Anton for their friendship during the happy and tough days of my research. John Abrahmanson, thank you for your advice on writing and constant encouragement during my whole thesis. The support received from Charlotte, Diandree and Swami for being there for me always will remain very close to my heart. Neeru and Lucas, thank you for the unconditional love, support and care through my writing phase. The research would be incomplete without the guidance of Prof. Steven Gieseg, Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences for the on the HPLC. Tejraj Janmale, thank you for your guidance through my experiments with the HPLC, for being my closest friend and extending your love and care through the past couple of years. Your constant encouragement, motivation and positive vibes have been very supportive. My deepest gratitude to my beloved extended family who has put up with me through my anxieties – Grandpa, Grandma, Badimum, Ajay and Ashwin uncle, Bindu and Seema aunty, Nandu aunty, Hari uncle, Adhithi, Manikanth Kadri, Chandhoke cousins – Nikhil, Ayush, Aanchal, Anuditta, Aakarshan, Avyukth, Ayaan and Anika. To all my lovely girlfriends across v the sea, Subhapriya, Kadamabari and Janani to remain a strong pillar of support through this journey – thank you. Warren and Ethel, thank you for your love and encouragement from time to time. This thesis would not have been possible without the unconditional support and immense love by my parents – Balu Chandrasekaran and Arthi Chandrasekaran. Both of you have been a pillar of support for me by moulding me to face the challenges – I could never thank you enough for inspiring, supporting and being there for me in every step of the way. My best friend, lovely little sister, angel and my research group mate now – Shradha Chandrasekaran, I would never be able to thank you for your encouragement and love throughout this phase. You are the best sister and I am blessed to have you as my sibling. To my beloved Master, Gurinder Singh Dhillon – You have been the highest power of protection and love during this journey. You held me by my hand throughout the rough and tough roads, making me a stronger person and helping me to get back on track when things seemed impossible. Your optimism, humbleness, grace and presence have been there with me every single day. Expressing my love and gratitude in words for You, Master, would never be enough. I do not owe you this thesis alone but my very life. vi Table of contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Conferences and Publications...................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ v List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xiii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xix Symbols and Abbreviations ......................................................................................................
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