Coalescence De L'écologie Du Paysage Littoral Et De La Technologie

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Coalescence De L'écologie Du Paysage Littoral Et De La Technologie Université du Québec INRS (Eau, Terre et Environnement) Coalescence de l’écologie du paysage littoral et de la technologie aéroportée du LiDAR ubiquiste THÈSE DE DOCTORAT Présentée pour l‘obtention du grade de Philosophiae Doctor (Ph.D.) en Sciences de la Terre Par Antoine Collin 19 mai 2009 Jury d‘évaluation Présidente du jury et Monique Bernier examinatrice interne Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique - Eau Terre et Environnement, Québec, Canada Examinateur interne Pierre Francus Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique - Eau Terre et Environnement, Québec, Canada Examinatrice externe Marie-Josée Fortin Université de Toronto, Ontario, Canada Examinateur externe Georges Stora Université de la Méditerranée, Marseille, France Directeur de recherche Bernard Long Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique – Eau, Terre et Environnement, Québec, Canada Co-directeur de recherche Philippe Archambault Institut des Sciences de la Mer, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Canada © Droits réservés de Antoine Collin, 2009 v Imprimée sur papier 100% recyclé « Nous croyons regarder la nature et c'est la nature qui nous regarde et nous imprègne. » Christian Charrière, Extrait de Le maître d'âme. vi vii Résumé La frange littorale englobe un éventail d‘écosystèmes dont les services écologiques atteignent 17.447 billions de dollars U.S., ce qui constitue la moitié de la somme totale des capitaux naturels des écosystèmes de la Terre. L‘accroissement démographique couplé aux bouleversements provoqués par le réchauffement climatique, génèrent inexorablement de fortes pressions sur les processus écologiques côtiers. L‘écologie du paysage, née de la rencontre de l‘écologie et de l‘aménagement du territoire, est susceptible d‘apporter les fondements scientifiques nécessaires à la gestion durable de ces écosystèmes littoraux. Cette discipline vise à comprendre les interactions entre l‘organisation des structures spatiales, les processus écologiques et les échelles mises en jeu. Les problématiques littorales doivent bénéficier d‘un suivi à haute résolution spatio- temporelle, et ce, sur des étendues régionales. Les techniques de relevés par télédétection aérienne peuvent répondre efficacement à ces exigences. C‘est dans ce contexte que s‘inscrit cette recherche doctorale. Ses objectifs sont de déterminer les caractéristiques de l‘écologie du paysage littoral, d‘évaluer les potentialités d‘applications écologiques d‘une nouvelle technique de relevés aériens, le LiDAR, et de tisser des liens entre la discipline et la technologie afin d'aider à la gestion durable des écosystèmes littoraux, i.e., intertidaux et infralittoraux. Basées sur cinq publications, les avancées déterminantes de la coalescence de l‘écologie du paysage littoral et du LiDAR ubiquiste ont été investiguées, à partir de campagnes réalisées en Gaspésie (Québec, Canada), en fonction de leur assise écologique : infralittoral, intertidal, et la réunion des deux. Ainsi, le traitement multivarié des paramètres issus des formes d‘onde LiDAR et des variables écologiques, dérivées des campagnes océanographiques, a permis de classifier quatre habitats benthiques avec une performance de 82.1% sur une aire de 0.5 km2. Les outils de géostatistiques, i.e., statistiques spatiales et filtres de texture, ont été testés sur une autre zone dont l‘aire équivalait à 7.9 km2. Intégrés à la méthodologie précédente, l‘indice de Getis-Ord, les moyennes respectives des matrices d‘occurrence et de co- occurrence ont conduit à améliorer la classification des quatre habitats benthiques, à nouveau, de 89.9 % à 95.2 %, i.e., 5.3%. Suite à la caractérisation de l‘organisation viii spatiale des habitats infralittoraux, l‘influence de la résolution spatiale, i.e., l‘échelle, sur 21 métriques du paysage, décrivant les habitats précédents, appartenant à 6 familles distinctes (aire, parcelle, arête, forme, contagion et connectivité), fut évaluée. Dix métriques ont affiché un comportement prédictif en fonction de l‘évolution de la résolution, mais la métrique de forme, PARA_MN, égal au ratio périmètre / aire, démontra une très forte prédictibilité (R2 = 0.994, p<0.01). Au niveau intertidal, un nouvel indice de végétation, basé sur le LiDAR, a été mis en œuvre et sa corrélation avec les données-terrain indique une forte robustesse (r = 0.87, p<0.01). Les processus écologiques, menant à la mise en place de l‘hydrosère palustre, ont, dès lors, été investigués par le LiDAR. Les relations entre l‘indice de végétation LiDAR et la topographie (R2 = 0.558, p<0.01), d‘une part, et l‘hétérogénéité topographique, ou rugosité, (R2 = 0.815, p<0.01), d‘autre part, ont permis de relier les structures des phytocénoses intertidales à leurs processus écologiques. Finalement, la combinaison de l‘indice de végétation et des surfaces topographiques, tous deux issus du LiDAR, ont été classifiés en 17 habitats avec une performance de 91.89%. Enfin, un arbre de décision destiné à séparer les formes d‘onde en quatre familles littorales (terre avec arbres, terre sans arbres, faible profondeur et grande profondeur) a permis d‘exploiter les informations du LiDAR sans discontinuité intertidale / infralittorale, et donc d‘unifier le paysage littoral. La complexité structurale des habitats littoraux a été évaluée de manière satisfaisante par un indice dérivé du LiDAR (r = 0.75, p<0.01). La synergie entre les trois longueurs d‘onde (vert, rouge et proche infra-rouge) a conduit à cartographier finement 19 habitats en trois dimensions avec un succès de 90.09%. La discussion de ces résultats offre d‘intéressantes perspectives de recherche, ayant trait aux améliorations de traitement du signal LiDAR, aux investigations au sein de l‘écologie du paysage littoral unifié, et aux applications environnementales qui encourageraient une gestion intégrée et harmonisée du littoral par tous les intervenants. ix Summary The coastal fringe encompasses a range of ecosystems whose ecological services reach US $ 17,447 trillion, which is half of the total natural capital of the Earth's ecosystems. Population growth coupled with the upheavals caused by global warming are inexorably generating strong pressures on coastal ecological processes. The landscape ecology, resulting from the combinatio of ecology and spatial planning, is likely to provide the scientific foundation necessary for the sustainable management of these coastal ecosystems. This discipline aims to understand the interactions between the patterns of spatial structures, the ecological processes and the scales involved. Coastal issues need to benefit from spatiotemporal high-resolution monitoring over regional extents. Airborne remote sensing techniques can effectively meet these requirements. It is in this context that this doctoral research evolves. Its objectives are to determine the characteristics of the littoscape ecology, to evaluate the potentialities of ecological applications of a new technique of airborne surveys, LiDAR, and to forge links between the discipline and the technology in order to assist in the sustainable management of coastal, i.e., intertidal and subtidal, ecosystems. Based on five publications, the decisive advances in the coalescence of the littoscape ecology and ubiquitous LiDAR were investigated, based on campaigns conducted in the Gaspesia Peninsula (Quebec, Canada), according to their ecological base: subtidal, intertidal, and the fusion of both. Thus, the multivariate processing of the parameters resulting from LiDAR waveforms and ecological variables, derived from the oceanographic surveys, made possible to classify four benthic habitats with a performance of 82.1% over an area of 0.5 km². Geostatistical tools, i.e., spatial statistics and texture filters, were tested on another area with an area equivalent to 7.9 km². Integrated with the previous methodology, the Getis-Ord index, the respective averages of the occurrence and co-occurrence matrices led to improve the classification of the four benthic habitats, again, from 89.9% to 95.2%, i.e., 5.3%. Following the characterization of the spatial patterns of subtidal habitats, the influence of the spatial resolution, i.e., the scale, on 21 metrics of the landscape, describing the previous habitats, belonging to 6 distinct families (area, patch, ridge, shape, contagion and connectivity), was evaluated. Ten metrics displayed a predictive behavior according x to the evolution of the resolution, but the metric of shape, PARA_MN, equal to the ratio perimeter / area, demonstrated a very strong predictability (R² = 0.994, p <0.01). At the intertidal level, a new vegetation index, based on LiDAR, has been implemented and its correlation with the field data indicates a strong robustness (r = 0.87, p <0.01). The ecological processes leading to the establishment of the salt marsh zonation have therefore been investigated by LiDAR. The relationships between the LiDAR vegetation index and the topography (R² = 0.558, p <0.01), on the one hand, and the topographic heterogeneity, or roughness, (R² = 0.815, p <0.01), on the other hand, have enabled to link the structures of intertidal phytocenoses with their ecological processes. The combination of vegetation index and topographic surfaces, both derived from LiDAR, were classified into 17 habitats with a performance of 91.89%. A decision tree intended to separate the waveforms into four littoral families (land with trees, land without trees, shallow depth and great depth) helped to exploit LiDAR information seamlessly (i.e. intertidal / subtidal continuity), and
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