ON DEFINING A PROPHET A THEOLOGICAL-ETHICAL STUDY OF THE BALAAM NARRATIVES OF NUMBERS 22-24 Herbert D. Ward, Jr. Dissertation Presented for the Degree of Doctor of Theology at the University of Stellenbosch Promoter: Professor H. L. Bosman March, 2009 Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signed:. Date: 10 February 2009 Herbert D. Ward, Jr. Copyright © 2009 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ABSTRACT The Balaam narratives of Numbers 22-24 have long proven to be a source of fascination for readers of the Old Testament. The narratives present Balaam as a faithful ‘word-of-Yahweh’ prophet. However, the Tale of the Donkey (22:22-35) portrays him as an ‘unseeing’ prophet intent on personal gain. How does one explain the conflicting views of Balaam within the narratives of Numbers 22-24? Socio-rhetorical criticism was employed as a methodology to examine the development of these conflicting views of Balaam. An analysis of the Inner Texture revealed that the repeated themes of ‘seeing’, ‘blessing’, and ‘cursing’ are central to the narratives, and serve to connect Balaam with the paradigmatic prophet Moses of Exodus 3 and Deuteronomy 18. The study of the narratives’ Intertexture revealed numerous inner-biblical allusions, and considered the possible relevance of the Deir ‘Alla texts to the narratives. The Social-cultural and Ideological textures of the narratives suggest that a process of prophetic redefinition took place during either the late pre-exilic or exilic periods, which resulted in the exclusion of divination from Israel’s prophetic tradition. Prophets entered into an alliance with the priests in order to centralise religious authority and place the focus of ‘prophecy’ on the exposition and application of Torah. A consideration of the theological texture of the narratives suggested that this process of prophetic redefinition continued into the early post-exilic period, and ultimately led to a re-evaluation of Balaam. Wide-spread xenophobia within early Yehud contributed to Balaam’s final demise, as later reception history within the Old Testament portrays Balaam as responsible for inciting Israel’s apostasy in Numbers 25. The Tale of the Donkey is integrated into the narratives of Numbers 22-24 by priestly writers in order to distance Balaam from Israel’s prophetic tradition. The result is a dynamic theological synthesis that recalls both an earlier period in which divination was accepted as part of Israel’s prophetic tradition, and a new perspective focused on the exposition and application of Torah. The Balaam narratives of Numbers 22-24 serve as the theological ‘hinge’ or ‘fulcrum’ of the book of Numbers, recalling both the old generation of rebellion, and the new generation of hope that will re-enter the land of promise. The Balaam narratives of Numbers 22-24 serve to powerfully proclaim that Yahweh’s purpose to bless his people will not be thwarted by the intrigues of Israel’s enemies, or Israel’s past disobedience. OPSOMMING Die Bileamverhale in Numeri 22 – 24 het oor baie jare belangstelling onder lesers van die Ou Testament ontlok. Hierdie verhale beskryf Bileam beide as ‘n getroue “woord – van – die Here” profeet; sowel as ‘n sienerprofeet wat nie kan sien nie in die sogenaamde “Verhaal van die donkie” (22:22 – 35) waar hy vir persoonlike gewin optree. Hiermee ontstaan die vraag hoe die uiteenlopende perspektiewe op Bileam in die verhale van Numeri 22 – 24 verklaar kan word? Sosio-retoriese kritiek is as metodologie gebruik om die ontstaan van die uiteenlopende perspektiewe op Bileam te verklaar. ‘n Analise van die “intrateks” van die Bileamverhale toon aan hoe die herhaling van die temas van “sien”, “seën” en “vloek” ‘n sentrale rol in die verhale speel en dat dit ‘n verband lê met Moses as paradigmatiese profeet in Eksodus 3 en Deuteronomium 18. Die bestudering van die “interteks” van die Bileamverhale het talle intertekstuele verwysings binne die Bybel aangetoon en oorweging geskenk aan die moontlike verband met die Deir ‘Alla tekste. Vervolgens is daar aandag geskenk aan die sosio-kulturele en ideologiese aspekte van die verhale. Hiervolgens word die voorstel ontwikkel dat daar ‘n proses van profetiese herdefiniëring plaasgevind het in die tydperk net voor of tydens die ballingskap waarvolgens divinasie van die profetiese tradisie van Israel uitgesluit is. Sodoende ontstaan daar noue samewerking tussen die profete en die priesters ten einde godsdienstige mag te sentraliseer en om “profesie” te verstaan as die uitleg en toepassing van die Tora. Die oorweging van die teologiese aspekte van die Bileamverhale doen aan die hand dat die herdefiniëring van profetisme tot in die tydperk na die ballingskap voortgeduur het en dat dit aanleiding tot die herevaluering van Bileam aanleiding gegee het. Wydverspreide xenophobie het in die vroeë Yehud bygedra tot die negatiewe evaluering van Bileam. In die latere resepsie van Bileam binne die Ou Testament word hy uitgebeeld as die oorsaak Israel se afgodsdiens (Numeri 25). As deel van dieselfde proses van herevaluering word die Verhaal van die Donkie tot Numeri 22 – 24 deur priesterskrywers toegevoeg ten einde Bileam van Israel se profetiese tradisie te distansieer. Die resultaat is ‘n dinamiese teologiese sintese tussen die aanvanklike aanvaarding van divinasie as ‘n onderdeel van Israel se profetiese tradisie en die latere siening van profetisme as die uitleg en toepassing van die Tora. Die Bileamverhale in Numeri 22 – 24 vorm die teologiese “skarnier” of “fulcrum” van die boek Numeri, waarvolgens die herinnering aan die opstand van die ouer geslag in die wildernis in verband gebring word met die nuwe geslag van hoop wat die beloofde land sal binnegaan. Sodoende funksioneer die Bileamverhale in Numeri 22 – 24 as ‘n kragtige getuienis dat die Here se bedoeling om Israel te seën nie gedwarsboom sal word deur die knoeiery van Israel se vyande of deur Israel se eie ongehoorsaamheid in die verlede nie. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ix Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM. 1 1.1 Is Balaam among the prophets? . 1 1.2 The statement of the research problem . 2 1.3 The central theoretical argument.. 3 1.4 The use of socio-rhetorical criticism in examining and proving the hypothesis. 4 1.4.1 Inner texture . 7 1.4.2 Intertexture. 7 1.4.3 Social and cultural texture . 8 1.4.4 Ideological texture . 9 1.4.5. Theological (or ‘sacred’) texture . 11 1.4.6 Keeping the tapestry in view . 14 Chapter 2 INTERPRETATIVE APPROACHES TO THE BALAAM NARRATIVES. 16 2.1 An introduction to the literature on Balaam. 16 2.2 Examples of approaches which explore the inner texture of the text. 20 2.2.1 Martin Noth – a ‘history of traditions’ approach . 20 2.2.2 Jacob Licht and Robert Alter: the use of repetition . 21 2.2.3 George Coats – analysis of the progressive flow of the story line . 23 2.2.4 Arthur E. Zannoni: the Balaam narratives as an example of ‘fable’ 24 2.2.5 Shubert Spero -- argumentative texture . 24 2.2.6 David Marcus – the Balaam narratives as satire . 26 2.3 Oral-Scribal intertexture – Jonathan Safren and ‘reflection narrative’ . 26 2.4 Social and cultural texture – Michael Moore and role theory . 28 2.5 Ideological texture – John Greene . 28 2.6 The theological (‘sacred’) texture of the Balaam narratives . 29 2.6.1 Walter Kaiser . 29 2.6.2 Ronald Allen . 30 2.6.3 The scholarship of Baruch Levine . 31 2.7 Conclusion . 34 2.7.1 History of traditions approaches . 34 2.7.2 Literary critical approaches . 34 2.7.3 Social-scientific approaches . 35 2.7.4 Conservative theological analysis . 35 2.7.5 Reception history analysis . 35 2.7.6 The present study – a socio-rhetorical approach . .35 Chapter 3 – THE INNER TEXTURE OF NUMBERS 22-24. 37 3.1 Introduction to ‘inner texture’ . 37 3.2 Preliminary issues . 38 i 3.2.1 What is the relationship between the narratives and oracles in Num 22-24 . 38 3.2.2 Is Num 22 a unified text, or a melding of two traditions into one? 40 3.2.2.1 The use and repetition of divine names . 40 3.2.2.2 Narrative inconsistency in the Tale of the Donkey . 42 3.3 Repetitive-progressive texture and pattern . 44 3.3.1 Key verbal repetitions . 49 3.3.1.1 ‘See’ . 49 3.3.1.2 ‘Bless’ and ‘Curse’ . 53 3.3.1.3 ‘Word’ . 56 3.3.1.4 ‘Strike’ . 57 3.3.1.5 Conclusion (repetitive-progressive texture) . 58 3.3.2 Narrational texture and pattern . 58 3.3.3 Opening-middle-closing texture and pattern . 64 3.3.4 Argumentative texture and pattern . 66 3.3.4.1 Argument regarding ‘blessing’ and ‘cursing’ . 66 3.3.4.2 Argument regarding prophetic speech . 67 3.3.5 Sensory-aesthetic texture and pattern . 68 3.4 Conclusion . 73 Chapter 4 – INTERTEXTURE. 77 4.1 Oral-scribal intertexture . 78 4.1.1 Recitation . 78 4.1.2 Re-contextualization . 79 4.1.3 Reconfiguration . 79 4.1.4 Narrative Amplification . 80 4.1.5 Thematic Elaboration . 80 4.2 Cultural intertexture . 80 4.2.1 Numbers 22 and Genesis 22 . 80 4.2.2 Numbers 22 and Exodus 1 . 82 4.2.3 Genesis 2-3 and Numbers 22-24 . 85 4.2.4 Numbers 22 and 1 Kings 13 . 89 4.2.5 Numbers 22 and 1 Kings 22/2 Kings 1 .