A Regional Supplement to Asia Notes ECHO Development Notes Edited by Abram Bicksler and Rebecca Garofano June 2015 | Issue 24 Neem for Sustainable Pest Management and Environemntal Conservation Featured in this AN by Ramesh C. Saxena, Ph.D.,Chairman, Neem Foundation 1 Neem for Sustainable Pest [Editor’s Note: Dr. Ramesh C. Saxena is a world-renowned scientist and Neem expert and Management and Environ- Chairman of the Neem Foundation in Bombay, India. This article is gratefully reprinted mental Conservation from a forthcoming book about the usefulness of the Neem tree entitled “Neem: Nature’s Healing Gift to Humanity,” compiled and edited by Klaus Ferlow of the Neem Research 12 Tricho-Composting in organization of Canada.] Bangladesh Abstract 16 ECHO Asia Agriculture & To be sustainable, agricultural processes, including pest and vector management must be Community Development efficient (effective and economically rewarding), ecologically sound (for long term stability), Conference: equitable (in providing social justice), and ethical (in respecting both future generations and other species). Basic and applied research conducted over the past three decades have shown that the use of natural and enriched neem (Azadirachta indica) products can provide a key component in ensuring sustainable integrated pest and vector management. The formi- dable array of more than 100 bioactive compounds in the neem tree makes it a unique plant with potential applications in pest and vector management. Unlike toxic synthetic insecti- cides, neem materials do not kill the pest, but incapacitate or neutralize it via cumulative behavioral, physiological, and cytological effects. In spite of high selectivity, neem materials affect more than 500 species of insect pests, phytophagous mites, mites, and ticks affecting man and animals, parasitic protozoans, noxious mollusks, plant parasitic nematodes, patho- genic fungi, and harmful bacteria and fungi. Results of large-scale field trials have illustrated the value of neem-based pest management for enhancing crop productivity. Neem is useful as windbreaks and in areas of low rainfall and high wind speed, it can protect crops from desiccation. Neem trees are being planted on a large scale in southern China and Brazil. Neem has also been grown in Australia, in many countries in Africa, Latin America, Caribbean islands, etc. Neem has much to offer in solving agricultural and public health problems, espe- cially in rural areas. Increased awareness of the potential of neem tree by creating awareness of its potential would go a long way in promoting its acceptance for pest management and improvement of plant health, animal health, human health, and environmental health.

Introduction the application of sustainable production methods, by improving tolerance of crops The global population is now 7.3 billion. to adverse environmental conditions, and Providing adequate food entitlements, by reducing crop and post-harvest losses safeguarding public health, meeting fuel caused by pests and diseases. Appropriate and firewood needs, and at the same time technologies, which do not assault nature, preventing deforestation, conserving the will have key roles to play in ensuring food environment, and slowing down the popu- security, in improving public and animal lation growth will be daunting challenges health, and in rehabilitating the environ- The ECHO Asia Impact Center in the coming decades. Although “green ment to safeguard the wellbeing of future revolution technologies” have more than generations. Instead of striving for more operates under ECHO, a non-profit doubled the yield potential of cereals, espe- “green revolutions” with emphasis on Christian organization that helps cially rice and wheat in India, these high miracle seeds, hard-hitting synthetic and you help the poor to produce food -input production systems requiring large engineered pesticides, and increased use in the developing world. quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, irriga- of fertilizers, the future must look to natural tion, and machines disregard the ecolog- ways and processes for augmenting agri- ECHO Asia Impact Center ical integrity of land, forests, and water cultural productivity. In fact, all develop- resources, endanger the flora and fauna, ment efforts and activities, including pest PO Box 64 and cannot be sustained over generations. management, should be within well-defined Chiang Mai 50000 Thailand Future food security and economic develop- ecological rules rather than within narrow [email protected] ment will depend on improving the produc- economic gains. Sustainable agricultural www.ECHOcommunity.org tivity of biophysical resources through systems must be efficient (i.e. effective and economically rewarding) and ecologi- Neem, however, is unsuited to growing in cally sound for long-term food sufficiency, cooler and mountainous areas (>1000 m). equitable in providing social justice, ethical in respecting both future generations and Neem is an evergreen, tall, fast-growing other species, and lead to employment and tree, which can reach a height of 25m and income-generating opportunities. For India 2.5m in girth. It has an attractive crown of and other countries, the use of neem may deep-green foliage (which can spread 10 provide a key component in more sustain- m across) and masses of honey-scented able agricultural systems, including pest flowers. The tree thrives even on nutri- and nutrient management, animal health, ent-poor dry soil. It tolerates high to very human health, and environmental conser- high temperatures, low rainfall, long spells vation. of drought, and salinity. It is propagated by seed; 9 to 12 month-old seedlings trans- plant well. Birds and bats also disperse Why Neem? the seed. Fruiting begins in 3 to 5 years. Neem, a member of the Meliaceae In the Indian sub-continent, neem flowers family, is a botanical cousin of mahogany. from Jan through Apr and fruits mature According to a report of an ad hoc panel of from May to Aug. In coastal Kenya, fruiting the Board on Science and Technology for occurs in March and April; some off types International Development, “this plant may also fruit in Nov or Dec. The fruit is about 2 usher in a new era in pest control, provide cm long, and when ripe, has a yellow fleshy millions with inexpensive medicines, cut pericarp, a white hard shell, and a brown, down the rate of human population growth oil-rich seed kernel. Fruit yields range from and even reduce erosion, deforestation, 30 to 100 kg per tree, depending on rainfall, and the excessive temperature of an over- insolation, soil type, and neem ecotype or heated globe” (National Research Council genotype. Fifty kg of fresh fruit yields 30 kg 1992). Neem’s other descriptions, such of seed, which gives 6 kg of oil and 24 kg of as “nature’s bitter boon,” “nature’s gift to seed cake. Seed viability ranges from 6 to mankind,” “the tree for many an occa- 8 weeks, but thoroughly cleaned and prop- sion,” “the tree that purifies,” “the wonder erly dried and cooled seeds remain viable tree,” “the tree of the 21st century,” and up to 6 months. Propagation by stumps “a tree for solving global problems,” are and stem cuttings also is practiced. Plant- recognition of its versatility. Its botanic lets, produced by tissue culturing, have name, Azadirachta indica, derived from also been used for propagation with partial Farsi,”azad darakht-i-hindi” literally means success. the “free or noble tree of India,” suggesting Neem is bitter in taste. The bitterness is that it is literally free from pest and disease due to the presence of an array of complex problems and is benign to the environment. compounds called “triterpenes” or more Neem’s Sanskritized name “Arishtha” specifically, “limonoids.” More than 100 means the reliever of sickness. In East unique bioactive compounds have been African Kiswahili language, neem is known isolated from various parts of the neem tree; as “Mwarubaini,” meaning the reliever of 40 still more are being isolated. This formi- disorders. dable array of highly bio-active compounds Neem is native to Myanmar and the arid makes neem a unique plant with potential regions of the Indian sub-continent, where applications in agriculture, animal care, it has almost been semi-domesticated. public health, and for even regulating even During the last century, neem was intro- human fertility. The limonoids in neem duced in arid zones of Africa. Today, it is belong to nine basic structure groups: azad- grown in many Asian countries, in tropical irone (from oil), amoorastatin (from fresh regions of the New World, in several Carib- leaves), vepinin (from seed oil), vilasinin bean and in some Mediterranean countries. (from green leaves), gedunin (from seed oil During the past three decades, neem was and bark), nimbin (from leaves and seed), introduced and planted on a large scale in nimbolin (from kernel), and salannin (from Australia, in the Philippines, and also in leaves and seed), and the aza group (from the Plains of Arafat near Meccah in Saudi neem seed). Azadirachtin and its analogs Arabia, regions ecologically highly diverse. have fascinated researchers for the past 40 Over the past decade, more than 25 million years because of phagorepellency, growth neem trees have been grown in southern inhibition, and chemosterilizing effects on China, particularly in Yunnan province. In insect pests (Saxena 1989, Schmutterer all these regions, the tree is thriving - a 1990, 2002). The azadirachtin content testimony to its hardiness and adaptability. in neem could vary considerably due to edaphic, climatic, or genotypic differences. From top to bottom: Leaves, seeds, flowers, and trunk of the neem tree.

2 ...... Neem for Eco-friendly Table 1. Comparative rice tungro virus (RTV) control, grain yield, and net gain in ricefields sprayed Sustainable Pest Management with neem oil-custard apple oil (NO-CAO) mixture or an insecticide (BPMC) (Abdul Kareem et al. 1987)1 Crop Pests Net gain Value of yield Cost of trea- (value of yield Treatment RTV (%) Yield (t/ha) Pest control as practiced today in most (US$) ment (US$) less cost of developing countries relies mainly on the treatment) use of imported pesticides. This depen- January-April 1984 dence has to be reduced. Although pesti- cides are generally profitable on direct NO-CAO 5a 6.1a 1068 44 1024 crop return bases, their use often leads BPMC 4a 6.1 1068 125 943 to the contamination of terrestrial and Control 7a 5.6a 980 12 968 aquatic environments, damage to beneficial January-October 1984 insects and wild biota, accidental poisoning of humans and livestock, and the twin NO-CAO 4a 5.1a 892 44 848 problem of pest resistance and resurgence. BPMC 6ab 4.7a 822 125 697 More than 500 arthropod pest species have Control 9b 4.6a 805 12 793 become resistant to one or more insecti- cides. Resistance of the cotton boll worm in November 1984-March 1985 India and Pakistan, of the Colorado potato NO-CAO 29a 3.1a 542 44 498 beetle in the USA to all available insecti- BPMC 56b 2.5b 438 125 313 cides, and of the diamondback moth to all Control 52b 2.3b 402 12 390 classes of insecticides, including Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), in Hawaii, Malaysia, the 1Averages of 4 replications per cropping season. Cost of rice = $ 0.175/kg. Neem Oil-Custard Apple Oil mixture Philippines, Taiwan, and Thailand, illus- and Fenobucard carbamate type insecticide were applied 8 times during each cropping season. Means followed trate the complexity of the problem. Shifts by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5 per cent level by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test. Cost of in pest status – from minor to major, and treatment included labor and materials. Control treatment cost included labor (US$10) and 8 pieces of DC batter- resurgence of pests, such as whiteflies ies (US$ 2) for applying 1.6% Teepol-water solution (emulsifier) using an ultra-low volume applicator. caused by direct or indirect destruction of Table 2. Tassel breakage by Chilo partellus larvae and grain yield in plots planted to stemborer-sus- pests’ natural enemies are other unwel- ceptible ‘Katumani’ maize cultivar and applied with neem seed powder (NSP) or Furadan. ICIPE Field come developments associated with pesti- Station and farmer’s field, Mbita, Kenya, short-rains cropping season 1992 (Saxena, unpubl.)1 cide use. A World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Program ICIPE Field Station Farmer’s Field report estimated that there are 1 million Treatment Tassel Yield (kg/ha) Tassel Yield (kg/ha) human pesticide poisonings each year in breakage (%) breakage (%) the world, with about 20,000 deaths, mostly in developing countries. The problem is NSP basal 17.0b 4530b 12.0b 3570b rendered even more difficult because few, if NSP (foliar) 2.0a 6430a 4.0a 5480a any, new compounds are coming to replace NSP (basal + foliar) 2.0a 5870a 2.0a 5630a old insecticides. The cost of developing and Furadan 5G 0.3a 6400a 0.3a 6130a registering new pesticides is staggering: Untreated (Control) 21.0b 3370b 17.0c 3850b almost US $60 million, and pesticide manu- facturers are unwilling to risk investment on 1Within a column, means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by the LSD test; products whose market life could be short- averages of 4 replications. ened by development of pest resistance. attack neem leaves have been confirmed in now considered far more desirable than For ecologically sound, equitable, and laboratory studies and attributed to neem’s a quick knock-down in integrated pest ethical pest management, there is need antifeedant activity against locusts. management programs as they reduce the for control agents that are pest specific, risk of exposing pests’ natural enemies to nontoxic to humans and other biota, biode- The pest control potential of neem in devel- poisoned food or starvation. In spite of high gradable, less prone to pest resistance and oping countries, however, remained largely selectivity, neem derivatives affect ca. 400 resurgence, and relatively less expensive. untapped due to the advent of broad-spec- to 500 species of insect pests belonging Among various options, neem has been trum synthetic insecticides. Also, publicity to different orders (Schmutterer & Singh identified as a source of environmentally given to slogans such as “the only good 2002), one species of ostracod, several “soft” natural pesticides. bug is a dead bug,” and identifying tradi- species of mites and nematodes, and even tional uses of neem as backward, gradually noxious snails and fungi, including aflatox- Neem has had a long history of use primarily weaned people away from using neem. in-producing Aspergillus spp. against household and storage pests and to It is only in the past two decades that the some extent against crop pests in the Indian pest control potential of neem has been Results of field trials in some major food sub-continent. As early as 1930, neem cake appreciated. Though subtle, neem’s effects crops in tropical countries will illustrate the was applied to rice and sugarcane fields such as repellence, feeding and oviposi- value of neem-based pest management for against stem borers and white ants. Early tion deterrence, growth inhibition, mating enhancing agricultural productivity in Asia observations that swarming locusts did not disruption, chemo-sterilization, etc. are and Africa.

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 3 Table 3. Infestation and plant damage by Chilo partellus larvae and grain yield in plots planted to stemborer-susceptible ‘Serena’ sorghum cultivar and applied with neem cake (NC) once at 4 weeks after emergence (WE) or twice at 4- and 6 WE, or with Dipterex. Mbita, Kenya, short rains cropping season, 1994 (Saxena 1998)1

Experiment Station Farmer’s Field Foilar Plant Tunnel Larvae Head Yield (kg/ Foliar Plant Tunnel Larvae Head Yield (kg/ damage height length (no) 9WE width (cm) ha) damage height length (no) 9WE width (cm) ha) 9WE2 (cm) 9WE (cm) 9WE2 (cm) 9WE (cm) 15WE 15WE NC once 2.9ab 110a 27.5ab 7.4ab 0.66a 6182ab 2.9a 114a 25.4b 18.8b 0.64a 5242a NC twice 2.9ab 106ab 21.3a 2.2a 0.67a 7312a 3.0a 112a 18.9a 16.8a 0.63a 5052a Dipterex 2.3ab 117a 20.3a 7.0ab 0.79ab 6523ab 2.5a 111a 22.9ab 19.4ab 0.96c 5043a Control 3.5b 94b 30.3b 10.2b 0.84b 6056b 4.1b 99b 27.9b 25.8b 0.90b 3908b (untreated)

1Within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by LSD test; averages of 4 replications. 2Foliar damage scored visually on 1-9 scale (1 = no damage, 9 = completely damaged). was as high as that obtained with insecti- Table 4. Effect of soil application of neem seed powder (NSP), neem cake (NC), neem kernel powder cides and significantly higher than that in (NKP), or treatment with neem oil (NO) on population of banana nematodes at 2 and 8 months after untreated control plots (Table 2). Storage treatment of pared or unpared banana suckers planted in drums. ICIPE, Mbita Point Field Station of neem cake up to 2 years in the dark did (Musabyimana and Saxena 1999a) not reduce its pest effectiveness. Similar reduction in pest damage, including their Nematode poulation at (no.)/100 g of roots + SEM Treatment body size (measured by the width of larval 2 months 8 months head capsules), and increase in yield were Pared2 1200 + 489a 22200 + 3747a obtained when neem cake was applied to Unpared + NSP 200 + 300a 3600 + 490a sorghum crop (Table 3). In trials conducted in Mali, the use of local neem extract Pared + Furadan 56 0 + 0a 16800 + 2135a resulted in significant increase in yield of Pared + NC 0 + 0a 1200 + 2135a early and main season millet as a result Pared + NSP 0 + 0a 22500 + 2265a of the control of millet head pests, blister beetle, and head miner. Pared + NKP 0 + 0a 81600 + 23510b Unpared + NC 300 + 300a 1200 + 0a Banana. The banana weevil, Cosmopo- lites sordidus, and parasitic nematodes are Unpared + NO 0 + 0a 5700 + 1025a major pests of banana and plantain. They Unpared + NKP 125 + 125a 27600 + 373a often occur together and may destroy the Unpared (untreated) 25050 + 4057b 114000 + 4673b corm and the root system, resulting in loss of fruit yield. Most of the highland bananas CV % 95.7 50.4 in Eastern Africa are highly susceptible to Difference ** ** the weevil and nematode infestations. Soil 1Means in columns followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (P < 0.05, Tukey’s test); averages of 4 applications of neem seed powder or neem replications; ** = P < 0.001 (Tukey’s test). 2Pared refers to removing the corn epidermis. cake at 100 g/plant at planting and, subse- quently, at 3-month intervals, reduced the Rice. The efficacy of neem deriva- controlled populations of the green leaf- populations of the root-lesion nematode, tives against major pests of rice and hopper, the yellow stem borer, the rice gall Pratylenchus goodeyi and the root-knot virus diseases transmitted by them and midge, and grasshoppers. Plots sprayed nematodes, Meladogyne spp., on par with increases in yield has been reviewed by with 2% neem seed extract at 10 kg/ha Furadan 5G applied at 40 g/plant at planting Saxena (1989). In the Philippines, applica- yielded the highest grain yield. and then at 6-month-intervals to banana tion of a 2:10 neem cake-urea mixture at plants grown in 100 l containers with 120 kg/ha reduced the incidence of ragged Maize, sorghum, and millet. In trials controlled levels of banana nematode infes- stunt, grassy stunt, and tungro viruses and conducted at the Mbita Point Field Station tations (Musabyimana and Saxena 1999a). significantly increased the rice yield more of International Centre of Insect Physiology Eight months after planting, banana plants in both dry and wet seasons. Also, weekly and Ecology (ICIPE) and in farmers’ fields treated with NC, NSP, kernel powder, or with ultra-low volume (ULV) spraying of 50% in Kenya, foliar application of powdered oil had 7 to 95 times less parasitic nema- neem oil-custard apple oil mixture in 4:1 neem seed at 3 g/plant or powdered neem todes than the untreated control. However, proportion (vol/vol) at 8 l/ha from seedling cake at 1 g/plant once at 4 weeks after crop only NC or NSP applied to unpared banana to the maximum tillering stage decreased emergence (WE) or twice at 4 and 6 WE plants kept the nematode population the tungo incidence and increased the yield to maize, which had been infested with the below the economic threshold (Table 4). (Table 1) (Abdul Kareem et al. 1987). The spotted stem borer, significantly reduced At 8 months after incorporation into the low input cost of the treatment contributed the foliar damage, stem tunneling, tassel soil, NC or NSP application was still effec- to a high net gain compared with the insec- breakage, and populations of borer larvae. tive against banana nematodes, while the ticide treatment. In India, neem treatments Grain yield in neem-treated maize plots nematicidal activity of Furadan seemed to

4 ...... decline. Weevil larvae fed little or altogether Kales, cabbages, and other crucifers. insecticides do not provide long-term avoided neem-treated corms, while exten- Kales, cabbages, and other crucifers are control, as the pest is known to develop sive damage occurred on untreated corms. highly vulnerable to attack by the diamond- resistance rapidly (Talekar & Shelton With neem treatment, fruit yield increased back moth, Plutella xylostella. Synthetic 1993). In trials conducted in Togo, weekly by 27-50% over the control in the first crop and by 30-60% over the control in the Table 5. Comparative yield and value of cowpea grain after deducting the cost of neem seed extract second crop, but yield with Furadan during (NSE) or Cypermethrin applied thrice to cowpea crop. ICIPE Mbita Point Field Station. Long-rains the second crop was even less than that cropping season; 1994 (Saxena and Kidiavai 1997)1 in the control (Musabyimana and Saxena Value of 1999b). Neem application conferred a net Grain yield (kg/ Value of yield3 Cost of treatment economic gain, whereas Furadan applica- Treatment2 yield - cost of ha) (US$/ha) (US$/ha) tion proved uneconomical (Table 4) (Musa- treament4 byimana et al. 2000). Field Station Grain legumes and vegetables. Because NSE 5% 1160ab 580 1.5 578.5 of high profitability of legumes and vegeta- NSE 10% 1280ab 640 3.0 637.0 bles, farmers tend to overuse chemicals, NSE 20% 1480a 740 6.0 734.0 which result in hazard to the environment Cypermethrin 1480a 740 108.0 632.0 and health of producer and consumer, as well as serious resistance problems. Control (1% Teepol) 1050b 525 0.0 525.0 However, neem can provide satisfac- Farmer’s Field tory control of insect pests affecting grain NSE 5% 1450d 725 1.5 723.5 legumes and vegetables. A wide range of pests attack cowpea, a major food crop in NSE 10% 1630c 815 3.0 812.0 Africa. Sprays with neem seed extract were NSE 20% 1760b 880 6.0 874.0 quite effective against lepidopterous pests, Cypermethrin 2130a 1065 108.0 957.0 but weekly “Ultra Low Volume” (ULV) spray Control (1% Teepol) 1290e 645 0.0 645.0 applications of neem oil did not control the flower thrips, Megalurothrips sjostedti 1Means followed by a common letter do not differ significantly (P < 0.05; Ryan-Einot-Gabriel- Welsch Multiple (Dreyer 1987). On the other hand, in trials Range Test). 2Using ultra-low volume applications, NSE or Cypermethrin was applied three times at 10 l/ha at 31, conducted at ICIPE’s Mbita Point Field 39 and 49 days after crop emergence. 31US$ = KSh 54; cost of cowpea grain = 50/kg. 4Treatment cost includes Station and in a farmer’s field in Kenya, only cost of NSE or Cypermethrin; neem seed @ US$0.5/kg, Cypermethrin @ US$ 36/l. applications of 2 or 3% neem seed extract at 200 l/ha at 38, 47, and 51 days after Table 6. Comparative diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella, infestation, spider population, and leaf yield in fields planted with a highly susceptible ‘Southern Georgia’ kale cultivar and sprayed emergence (DE) of cowpea crop or ULV with neem seed extract (NSE), azadirachtin-rich neem extractive (NE), or an insecticide with Cyper- spray applications of 5, 10, or 20% NSE methrin, ICIPE Field Station, Mbita, Kenya (Saxena, unpubl.)1 at 10 l/ha significantly reduced the number of thrips larvae in flowers recorded 2 days Spiders (no.)/20 Treatment2 DBM (no.)/20 leaves Leaf yields (kg/ha) after each treatment (Saxena and Kidiavai leaves 1997). Also fewer adults occurred in flowers Short-rains Cropping Season 1997 at 51 DE in plots sprayed with 5%, 10% or 20% NSE. Grain yield was significantly NSE 20% 41.8 + 6.89a - 14043 + 1577a higher in plots sprayed with 20% NSE than NSE 20% + ajwan3 51.8 + 9.98a - 13737 + 1497a in control plots and was comparable to yield Cypermethrin 45.2 + 7.21a - 13972 + 1931a obtained in plots sprayed thrice with Cyper- methrin (Table 5). Because of the low cost Untreated (control) 109.2 + 14.86b - 6630 + 741b of NSE treatment, the net gain was often Site #1. Long-rains Cropping Season 1998 more when cowpea was sprayed with NSE NSE 20% 24.6 + 3.82a 15.2 + 3.79a 9841 + 919.2a than with the insecticide. Also, grain quality NSE 20% + ajwan3 51.6 + 7.22b 16.0 + 7.22a 6187 + 482.1b was superior in neem-treated plots than in control or Cypermethrin-treated plots. Cypermethrin 50.8 + 6.04b 5.6 + 1.21a 6131 + 854.0b Untreated (control) 85.8 + 11.19c 17.6 + 2.84a 5360 + 947.4b In common beans, high volume spray Site #2. Long-rains Cropping Season 1998 applications of 2% neem kernel extract at 11-day intervals effectively controlled the NSE 20% 10.2 + 1.74a 18.0 + 2.81a 20776 + 1789a chrysomelid beetle, Ootheca benningseni NSE 20% + ajwan3 14.6 + 1.33a 21.6 + 3.97a 12591 + 1111b (Karel 1989). Neem derivatives also proved Cypermethrin 16.2 + 2.84a 8.6 + 1.03a 14117 + 1522b effective against pod borers and bollworms Untreated (control) 35.6 + 4.32b 20.2 + 2.69a 13979 + 1108b on Bengal gram, against the leaf roller, and flea beetles on okra, and against pod borers 1Means followed by a common letter do not differ significantly (P<0.001 for short-rains cropping season 1997 and and the pod fly on pigeon pea (Saxena for Site #1 long-rains cropping season 1998; P<0.002 for Site #2 long-rains cropping season 1998; Ryan-Einot- 1989). Gabriel-Welsch Multiple Range Test); average of 5 replications. 2Using ULV applicator, NSE, NE or Cypermethrin was applied to kale crop at 10-d intervals. 3Ajwan is a natural antioxidant used as a spice in India.

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 5 high volume spray applications of 4% meth- In Africa, the root-knot nematodes, Meloi- damage and increased the marketable fruit anolic neem kernel extract (NKE) (neem dogyne spp., and the fruit borer, Helicov- yield (Ostermann 1992). dissolved in methanol) (Adhikary 1985) or erpa armigera are the most damaging even 2.25 to 5% aqueous NKE (Dreyer & pests of tomato. As nematodes are “unseen Okra. Pests, such as the leaf-cutting cater- Hellpap 1991) almost completely protected enemies,” their role in limiting tomato pillar, Sylepta derogate, were quite suscep- the cabbage crop against the pest. Similar production in tropical regions is generally tible to spray applications of 0.25% aqueous results have been obtained in Asia. Other overlooked. Rössner & Zebitz (1987) and neem kernel extract (Dreyer 1987) or 5, lepidopterous pests of cabbage and aphids Parveen & Alam (1998) reported nemati- 10, or 20% aqueous neem seed extract are also controlled with neem. In repeated cidal effects of neem materials in tomato. In (Cobbinah & Olei-Owusu 1988). Also, the trials conducted at ICIPE Field Station field trials conducted at ICIPE’s Field Station cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, was well and in a farmer’s field in western Kenya, at Mbita, Kenya in 1997-98, we found that, controlled on okra by four weekly sprays ULV spray applications of 20% neem compared with untreated control, soil appli- of 0.5% aqueous neem seed extract or seed extract at 10-d intervals, significantly cation of neem seed powder at 3 g/hill at 2% neem oil; the effects being on par with reduced the pest infestation and damage planting significantly reduced the number Butocarboxim insecticide (Dreyer & Hellpap and increased the yield of marketable of galls per plant, on par with Furadan 5G 1991). leaves of kale (‘Sukuma-wiki’ in Kiswa- (Table 7). However, the nematicidal effects hili language) (Table 6) (Saxena unpubl.). of neem seed powder treatment persisted In Niger, foliar applications of aqueous Spray applications of 0.3% neem extractive much longer than that of Furadan. The neem seed extract at 0.25%, 0.5% or 1% to were not as good as neem seed extract fruit borer incidence was low, but as a amaranth fields strongly repelled Spodop- treatment. The population of spiders, which precautionary measure against insect tera exigua and a soil drench of 0.5% neem are important predators of DBM larvae, pests in general, neem seed extract, neem seed extract repelled Spodoptera exigua, was as high in neem-treated plots as in extractive, or Cypermethrin was sprayed while a soil drench of 0.5% neem seed untreated control plots, while it was much with a ULV sprayer at 10 l/ha at 10-d inter- extract repelled Spodoptera littoralis (Oster- lower in Cypermethrin-treated plots. During vals. Although fruit yield did not increase mann 1992). Spray applications at 0.5% or long rainy seasons, kale leaf yield was significantly with neem or pesticide -treat 1% neem seed extract reduced the foliar significantly higher with neem seed extract ment over the untreated control, the quality damage by S. exigua significantly, while pre- than with Cypermethrin. Economic returns of fruits produced in neem-treated plots and post-sowing soil drenches with 0.5% with neem seed extract treatments were was distinctly superior. In Niger, weekly neem seed extract at 1000 l/ha stopped promising because the cost of neem seed spray applications of 5% aqueous neem the immigration of S. littoralis larvae into is low. seed extract reduced the tomato fruit borer treated fields and almost doubled the leaf yield over that of the untreated plots (Oster- Table 7. Comparison of root galls caused by root-knot nematodes in tomato plants treated with neem mann 1992). seed powder (NSP), neem seed extract (NSE), neem extractive (NE), insecticide, and in untreated tomato plants. ICIPE Field Station, Mbita, Kenya (Saxena, unpubl.)1 In Sudan, remarkable results were obtained with neem products in the control of the Root gall score (0-10 scale) recorded at weeks after sweet potao whitefly, Bemisia tabaci and Treatment2 transplanting (WT)3 the leafhopper, Jacobiasca lybica on potato 4 WT 6 WT 8 WT (Siddig 1987, 1991). Two high volume Short-rains Cropping Season 1997 applications of 2.5% aqueous neem kernel extract sprayed at two-week intervals NSP (3g/plant), NSE 20% 2.1 + 0.30a 1.4 + 0.18a - significantly reduced the pest populations NSP (3g/plant), NE 0.3% 1.6 + 0.47a 1.3 + 0.26a - to >50% of the control and increased the Furadan 5G (1g/plant), Cypermethrin 2.8 + 0.33ab 2.4 + 0.28a - yield. The potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella, was unaffected in the field but Untreated (control) 3.9 + 0.49b 2.2 + 0.32a - spray applications of 0.05% and 0.1% of Short-rains Cropping Season 1998 neem oil strongly deterred oviposition and NSP (3g/plant), NSE 20% 1.8 + 0.50a 0.9 + 0.17a - prevented damage in the stored potatoes (Siddig 1988). NSP (3g/plant), NE 0.5% 2.1 + 0.66a 2.2 + 0.25b - NSP (3g/plant), NE 1.0-% 2.0 + 0.44a 1.1 + 0.10a - Agroforestry and tobacco. Insects and Furadan 5G (1g/plant), Cypermethrin 2.2 + 0.45a 0.9 + 0.17a - nematodes also affect trees and crops in agroforestry. In collaborative trials Untreated (control) 4.4 + 0.35b 4.7 + 0.39c - conducted by International Centre for Short-rains Cropping Season 1999 Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) at Shin- NSP (3g/plant), NSE 20% 1.6 + 0.43a 1.4 + 0.39a 0.8 + 0.34a yanga in Tanzania in 1995-1996, applica- NSP (3g/plant), NE 10% 1.9 + 0.51a 1.7 + 0.34a 1.5 + 0.35ab tion of powdered neem cake at 2 g/plant to a hybrid maize, “Cargill,” at 4 and 5 weeks Furadan 5G (1g/plant), Cypermethrin 1.9 + 0.28a 2.0 + 0.23a 2.0 + 0.36bc after sowing, resulted in a 30% yield increase Untreated (control) 3.1 + 0.22b 3.5 + 0.31b 2.8 + 0.17c over the control (ICIPE 1998). Application

1Means followed by a common letter do not differ significantly (P<0.001-0.05) for different cropping seasons; of neem cake at 135 kg/ha also reduced the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch (REGW) Multiple Range Test; average of 5 replications for 1997 and 1999; average of termite damage and significantly increased 4 replications for 1998. 2Root gall score (on 0-10 scale); 0 = 0 galls per plant, 1 = 1-2, 2 = 3-5, 3 = 6-10, 4 = 11-15, the grain yield of hybrid maize over the 5 = 16-20, 7 = 31-40, 8 = 41-50, 9 = 51-60, 10 = 61 and above galls per plant. 3Using ULV spray applicators, NSE, Furadan-treated or untreated crop. In a NE or Cypermethrin was applied to tomato crop at 10 l/ha at 10-d intervals. long-term trial conducted at ICRAF Field

6 ...... Station at Machakos, it was observed rifos dust. Likewise, neem seed extract at damage to untreated or fumigated rice, that when neem cake was applied at 15g/ 7.2 g/90 kg capacity jute bag (100 x 60 cm) neem oil treatments significantly reduced grevillea seedling, the tree mortality after 15 controlled 80% of the population of major the damage to rice grain. At 8 months after months was 60%, compared with 52% tree insects and checked the damage to wheat storage, weevil-attacked grains in neem mortality in Furadan treatment, and 72% in up to 6 months. The treatment was effective treatments were 50% of those in the fumi- untreated control. up to 13 months and provided more than gated rice and 25% of those in untreated 70% protection as compared with untreated rice. In field trials conducted in Tabora, Tanzania, control. The neem seed extract treatment although application of neem seed powder was as effective as that of 0.0005% Prim- Paddy grain that had been fumigated and or neem cake at 15 g/m2 was not as effec- iphos methyl mixed with the grain. then treated with neem oil or, after fumi- tive as Ethylene dibromide at 62 ml/m2 in gation stored in neem oil-treated bags, reducing the root galling index in tobacco The effectiveness of neem oil alone or in also had fewer adults of T. castaneum, R. plants, the tobacco yield increased signifi- combination with fumigants was evaluated dominica, S. oryzae, and O. surinamensis, cantly with neem treatments (ICIPE 1998). against five major species of stored grain as compared with the fumigated or the pests infesting rice and paddy grains in a untreated paddy grain (Table 8). C. ceph- Pests of Stored Products warehouse trial conducted in the Philip- alonica infestation was found in the stored pines (Jilani & Saxena 1988). Rice grain paddy only after 4 months and remained Post-harvest losses are notoriously high treated with 0.05 - 0.1% neem oil or treated low throughout the trial in treated as well in developing countries. Worldwide losses with neem oil after fumigation with Phos- as untreated paddy. Neem treatments also in storage reach up to 10% of all stored toxin, and stored for 8 months had signifi- decreased the per cent weevil-attacked grain, i.e. 13 million tons of grain lost due cantly less Tribolium castaneum adults grains by about 70% or more. Compared to insects or 100 million tons from failure to than in the untreated control. Both kinds with fumigation, which was effective for store properly. Saxena (2002) has reviewed of treatments were as effective as the bag only 2 months, neem treatments conferred the potential of neem against stored prod- treatment with Actellic at 25 µg/cm2 or grain protection against the stored grain pests ucts pests: pests of grain legumes, maize, treatment with Actellic at 0.0005%, and for up to 8 months, after which the trial was sorghum, wheat, rice, and potato tubers. suppressed the pest population by 60%. terminated. At farm-level storage and warehouses, the The population build-up was also reduced application of neem derivatives to bags when fumigated or non-fumigated rice was In studies conducted in Kenya, the growth and stored grains has provided protection stored in bags treated with neem oil at >1 and development of 1st-instars of the maize against insect pests. Powdered neem seed mg/cm2. Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitophilus weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, was completely kernel mixed with paddy (1 to 2%) signifi- oryzae, Oryzaephilus surinamensis and arrested in maize grain treated with neem cantly reduced infestation in warehouses. Corcyra cephalonica were similarly reduced oil at 0.02%, while the weight loss of treated Neem leaves mixed with paddy (2%), bags by neem treatments alone or in combina- cobs was less than 1% as compared with treated with 2% neem seed extract, or a 20- tion with prior grain fumigation. Fumigation 50% reduction in weight of untreated cobs to 30-cm dried neem leaf barrier between and Phostoxin were effective only for about stored for 6 months (Kega & Saxena 1996). the bags and storage floor significantly 2 months against R. dominica, and for up While neem cannot completely replace reduced insect infestation and damage to to 6 months against other pest species. In chemical pesticides used in stored prod- grain during a 3-month storage period; the contrast, neem oil treatments were effective ucts preservation, the amounts of pesticide effectiveness being comparable to Methac- up to 8 months. Compared with the pest needed could be reduced, particularly in

Table 8. T. castaneum (TC), R. dominica (RD), S. oryzae (SO), O. surinamensis (OS), and C. cephalonica (CC) adults and weevil-attacked grains found in samples taken from paddy treated prior to bagging and stored for 8 months in a warehouse in the Philippines. Pest infestation was low (0 – 0.7 adults/ species/ sample) and weevil attacked grains were few (0.2 – 0.6%) in paddy grains sampled usually at one month after storage (Jilani & Saxena 1988)

Adult insects and weevil-attacked grains in 250 g samples1 Treatment Conc. Weevil attacked TC (No.) RD (No.) SO (No.) OS (No.) CC (No.) grains (%) NO-treated bag (1 mg/cm2) 1.3a 6.7bcd 4.3abc 2.1abc 0.7a 4.3ab NO-treated bag (4 mg/cm2) 1.7ab 5.0abc 3.1a 1.2a 1.0a 3.3a Fumigation+NO-treated bag (1 mg/cm2) 3.0b 3.3ab 3.5ab 2.4bc 1.0a 3.6ab Fumigation+NO-treated bag (4mg/cm2) 1.7ab 3.7ab 3.1a 1.8ab 1.0a 3.1a NO-treated paddy (0.05%) 2.3b 4.7abc 4.3abc 2.1abc 0.7a 3.3a NO-treated paddy (0.1%) 2.3b 6.0a-d 3.5ab 2.1abc 0.7a 3.3a Fumigation+NO-treated paddy (0.05%) 1.0a 3.3ab 3.1a 3.1bc 0.7a 3.4a Fumigation+NO-treated paddy (0.1%) 1.3a 3.7ab 3.1a 2.4bc 1.0a 3.3a Actellic-treated bag (25 µg/cm2) 1.0a 3.7ab 3.9ab 2.1abc 0.7a 3.1a Actellic-treated paddy (0.0005%) 2.7b 3.3ab 6.8cd 1.8ab 0.7a 3.7ab Phosphine fumigation (1 g/m3) 3.3b 7.0cd 9.1d 2.7bc 1.3a 5.9b Control (untreated) 1.9ab 9.3d 5.7bc 3.5c 1.3a 13.3c

1In a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT; averages of 3 replications per treatment.

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 7 Table 9. Growth, development, and fecundity of A. variegatum, R. appendiculatus, and B. decoloratus ticks on rabbit hosts treated with neem oil (Kaaya et al. 2007)

Engorgement duration (d) Engorgement weight (mg) Molting (5) Weight Hatchability Treatment Larva Nymph Larva Nymph Adult Larva Nymph per egg mass

A. variegatum

Neem oil 10a 16a 43+19a 44+1b 211+8a 66+1.3a 94+3.3a 940+1a 31+2.0a

Peanut oil (control) 6b 9b 43+4a 35+1a 306+6b 85+0.7b 94+3.3a 1320+20b 68+1.8b R. appendiculatus Neem oil 5a 5a 8+0.6a 9+0.1a 295+10a 50+0.8a 94+0.9a 100+10a 52+5.8a Peanut oil (control) 5a 5a 8+0.1a 9+0.3a 388+10b 87+1.2b 94+0.9a 182+10b 100+2.3b B. decoloratus Neem oil --2 --2 --2 --2 --2 2+0.1a --2 39+0.2a 43+0.6a Peanut oil (control) --2 --2 --2 --2 --2 86+0.6b --2 57+0.1b 88+1.2b

1For a particular species, within a column, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05; REGW Multiple Range est).T 2Not tested. developing countries, thereby decreasing repelled all stages of R. appendiculatus, B. thrin-treated lines developed resistance the pesticide load in food grains. With proper decoloratus, and A. variegatum (Kaaya et factor of 20 in one line and 35 in the other. timing and innovative methods of applica- al. 2007). There was no cross resistance between tion, their use could be well integrated in Deltamethrin and neem seed extract in the stored products pest management. Neem products also repel and affect the Deltamethrin-resistant lines. The diversity development of mosquitoes. Two percent of neem compounds and their combined neem oil mixed in coconut oil, when applied Blood-sucking Pests effects on insect pests seem to confer a to exposed body parts of human volunteers, built-in resistance prevention mechanism The effects of neem on hematophagous provided complete protection for 12 h from in neem. However, wisdom demands that insects affecting humans and livestock bites of all anophilines (Sharma et al. 1993). users should refrain from exclusive and have been reviewed (Ascher & Meisner Kerosene lamps containing 0.01-1 percent extended application of single bio-active 1989). Application of paste made from neem oil, lighted in rooms containing human materials, such as azadirachtin. neem leaves and turmeric in 4:1 propor- volunteers, reduced mosquito biting activity tion to the skin cured 87% of the patients as well as catches of mosquitoes resting on walls in the rooms; protection was greater Environmental Services and suffering from scabies caused by itch mite Other Benefits in 3-15 days. Monthly spray applications against Anopheles than against Culex. of ethanolic extracts of neem or weekly Effectiveness of mats with neem oil against bathing in azadirachtin-rich aqueous 1:20 mosquitoes has also been demonstrated; Environmental Services ‘Green Gold’ controlled the bush tick in the vaporizing oil repelled mosquitoes for Neem in India has been ranked higher Australia, but were less effective against 5-7 h at almost negligible cost. The sandfly than the ‘Kalpavriksha’, the mytholog- the brown dog tick (Rice 1993). In Jamaica, also was totally repelled by neem oil, mixed ical wish-fulfilling tree. Although scientific neem kernel extract controlled ticks on with coconut oil or mustard oil, throughout studies are wanting, neem is reputed to cattle and dogs. In Kenya, engorgement the night under field conditions. Application purify air and the environment of noxious duration of larvae and nymphs of Ambly- of neem cake at 500 kg/ha, either alone or elements. During hot summer months in omma variegatum and larvae of Rhipiceph- mixed with urea, in paddy fields, was very northern parts of the Indian sub-continent, alus appendiculatus were significantly effective and reduced the number of pupae the temperature under the neem tree is prolonged due to slowed feeding on rabbit of Culex tritaeniorhynchus, the vector of -10oC less than the surrounding tempera- host sprayed with neem oil (Table 9) (Kaaya Japanese encephalitis, and also resulted in ture. Restoration of the health of degraded et al. 2007). Neem treatment also led to a higher grain yield. soils and the ultimate use of such reclaimed reduction in engorgement weight of larvae, wastelands through neem is another nymphs, and adults of A. variegatum, R. Pest Resistance to Neem Materials example of its value to humans. About 25 appendiculatus, and Boophilus decolor- years ago, some 50,000 neem trees were atus feeding on neem-treated rabbits and A few herbivorous insects, including some planted over 10 km2 on the plains of Arafat fewer larvae and nymphs molted to the sucking insects, some beetles, and some to provide shade for Muslim pilgrims during next developmental stage. Egg masses moths do survive on neem but, largely, the hajj (Ahmed et al. 1989). The neem planta- produced by neem-treated ticks weighed tree is free from serious pest problems. tion has had a marked impact on the area’s significantly less while hatchability of their Some insects can adapt to limonoids, but microclimate, microflora, microfauna, and eggs was adversely affected. Regardless of in laboratory tests, two genetically different soil properties, and the full-grown trees tick species, attachment by larvae also was strains of the diamondback moth treated provide shade to about 2 million pilgrims. significantly reduced on neem oil-treated with a neem seed extract showed no sign of In the last decade, about 25 million neem rabbits. In trials conducted in pastures in resistance in feeding and fecundity tests up trees have been grown in southern China, Kenya, application of neem oil on cattle to 35 generations (Völlinger 1987, Völlinger & Schmutterer 2002). In contrast, deltame- especially in Yunnan province.

8 ...... The tree is not only beautiful to look at, preferred tree along avenues, in markets, Neem for Mitigating Rural Poverty providing grandeur and serenity, but also and near homesteads because of the serves as a refugia to many beneficial shade it provides. However, neem is best Poverty is not necessarily the want of organisms, bats, birds, honey bees, spiders, planted in mixed stands. It was probably money or cash in hand. In a wider sense, etc. Honeycombs established on the neem no coincidence that Emperor Ashoka, it is the lack of options, whether it is the tree are free from galleria wax moth infesta- the great ruler of ancient India in the 3rd non-availability of fertilizer for crop culti- tion. Many species of birds and fruit-eating century BC, commanded that neem be vation or pesticides for crop protection, bats subsist on the sweet flesh of ripe fruits, planted along the royal highway and roads medical remedies for family welfare, fuel or while certain rodents selectively feed on along with other perennials – tamarind and firewood for cooking, timber for furniture or the kernel, confirming neem’s safety to ‘mahua’. Neem has all the good characters dwelling, or the availability of appropriate warm-blooded animals. The litter of falling for various social forestry programs. technology for restoring wastelands, or leaves improves soil fertility and the organic absence of income generation and employ- content. Recently, mycorrhizal associations Neem is an excellent tree for silvipastoral ment opportunities. In all these respects, between neem and bacterial and fungal systems involving production of forage neem could be a ‘panacea,’ particularly endophytes have been identified. Indeed, grasses and legumes. But according to in rural areas. In India, during the neem the neem tree is a living microcosm! some reports, neem cannot be grown fruiting season in June-July, seed collection among agricultural crops due to its aggres- provides employment and income to unem- The evergreen, perennial tree can survive sive habit. Others say that neem can be ployed women, children, and infirm people. 250 to 300 years. Even a highly conser- planted in combination with fruit cultures With growing demand worldwide for neem vative estimate of the intangible ‘environ- and crops such as sesame, cotton, hemp, seed, neem honey, and other neem prod- mental service’ rendered by the tree at peanuts, beans, sorghum, cassava, etc., ucts, there is substantial scope for estab- US $10 per month over its lifetime would particularly when neem trees are still lishing cottage industries, and other small- give an astonishing value of US $30,000 young. The neem tree can be lopped to scale enterprises in rural areas of Asia and to $36,000. Other tangible economic uses reduce shading and to provide fodder and Africa where neem is widespread. Since of neem and the benefits derived, such mulch. Recent advances in tissue culture agriculture is the staff of life in rural areas, as biomass production, timber, seed, and and biotechnology should make it possible enhanced agricultural productivity through honey, are quantifiable. to select neem phenotypes with desirable the use of neem products in pest manage- height and stature for use in intercropping ment could significantly contribute to allevi- Reforestation and Agroforestry and various agroforestry systems. The alle- ation of poverty in rural areas. lopathic effects of neem on crops, if any, Neem is a very valuable forestry species in need to be investigated. Recent Developments on Neem Asia and Africa and also becoming popular in the Developed World in Tropical America, the Middle East, and in Biomass Production and Utilization Australia. Nineteenth-century immigrants For nearly the past three decades, neem carried the tree from India to Fiji, and it Full-grown neem trees yield between 10 to has come under close scientific scrutiny has since then spread to other islands in 100 tons of dried biomass/ha, depending as a source of natural insect control mate- the South Pacific, even to Easter Island, on rainfall, site characteristics, spacing, rial in numerous international conferences, which is hardly known as a place for trees. ecotype or genotype. Leaves comprise mostly held in developed countries such Being a hard, multipurpose tree, it is ideal about 50% of the biomass, while fruits as Germany, Canada, Australia, USA, etc. for reforestation programs and for rehabil- and wood constitute one-quarter each. Nearly 3000 scientific papers have been itating degraded, semiarid and arid lands, Improved management of neem stands can published to date on neem. Australia, with and coastal areas. During a severe drought yield harvests of about 12.5 cubic meters its large tracts of unused arid and semi- in Tamil Nadu, India, in June-July 1987, it (40 tons) of high quality wood/ha. arid lands, may become a major grower of was witnessed that neem grew luxuriantly, neem in the next couple of decades. while other vegetation dried up. Neem wood is hard and relatively heavy and is generally used for making carts, The interest in neem in the developed world Neem is useful as windbreaks. In areas of tool handles, farm implements, toys, and is attributable to the fact that neem-based low rainfall and high wind speed, the neem religious icons in some parts of India. The pest control products with diverse modes of tree can protect crops from desiccation. In wood seasons well, except for end split- action are not only effective against pests, the Majjia valley in Niger, over 500 km of ting. Being durable and termite resistant, but also inherently safer, less persistent windbreaks comprised of double rows of neem wood is used in making fence posts, in the environment, and less prone to neem trees have been planted to protect poles for house construction, furniture, etc. the problem of pest resistance than the millet crops, which reportedly resulted in There is a growing market in some Euro- synthetic pesticides. Technical grade neem a 20% increase in grain yield. Neem wind- pean countries for light-colored neem wood active ingredients, principally azadirachtins, breaks on a smaller scale have also been for making household furniture. Pole wood fetch the highest price, about US $375/ grown along sisal plantations in coastal is especially important in developing coun- kg as compared with US $75/kg for pyre- Kenya. Large-scale planting of neem has tries; the tree’s ability to re-sprout after thrum (Isman 1995). In 1989, the use of been initiated in Kwimba Afforestation cutting and to re-grow its canopy after ‘Margosan’, containing 0.3% azadirachtin, Scheme in Tanzania and at Adjumani in pollarding makes it useful for pole produc- was granted approval from the US Environ- northern Uganda. tion. Neem grows fast and is a good source mental Agency for non-food uses on orna- of firewood and fuels; the charcoal has high mentals and landscape plants; in 1993 EPA In countries from Somalia to Mauritania, calorific value. approved the use of neem products, such neem has been used for halting the spread as ‘Neemix’ on food crops. The U.S. based of the Sahara desert. Also, neem is a

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 9 W.R. Grace Co., which holds patents from neem trees of superior ecotypes or geno- •• Aqueous neem kernel extract: the extract of the U.S. Patent and Trademarks Office on types will have to be grown, particularly as active ingredients of the neem seed kernel the method of extracting the insecticide from a strategy for restoring marginal lands and using water as the solvent neem, is advertising ‘Neemix’ as a “modern making them productive and remunerative. technology from ancient trees.” Agridyne, Certainly, this would not happen overnight. References another U.S. based company, is marketing If we are planning for long-term sustain- ‘Align’ (with 3% azadirachtin and 97% inert ability, then an investment in a time frame Abdul Kareem, A., R. C. Saxena, & J. D. ingredients, mainly other neem limonoids) of five to 10 years is insignificant. Also, Justo, Jr. 1987. Cost comparison of neem for control of insect pests in vegetable, fruit, financial support, backed by favorable poli- oil and an insecticide against rice tungro nut, and agronomic crops. Both products cies for neem promotion, production, and virus (RTV). Int. Rice Res. Newsl. 12: are now being used for commercial-scale commercialization will be necessary. 28-29. crop protection in the USA. Neem seed extracts are being used for forest insect As pointed out above, the demand for Adhikary, S. 1985. Results of field trials pest management in Canada. Neem-based neem products, especially the seed as the to control the diamond-back moth, Plutella pesticides are expected to capture 10% basic raw material, is going to increase by xylostella L. in Togo by application of crude of the global pesticide market in the next leaps and bounds. Herein also lies a solu- methanolic extracts of leaves and kernels decade. A technique using a neem extract tion for creating income generation and of the neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. as a fungicide has also been patented in job opportunities in rural and tribal areas. Juss, in Togo. Z. Angew. Entomol. 100: the USA. Worldwide, nearly 50 patents Neem-based industries in urban and indus- 27-33. have been granted on neem so far. The trialized regions would also create job Ahmed, S., S. Bamofleh, & M. Munshi. use of additives, adjuvants, activators, and slots for producing value-added products 1989. Cultivation of neem in Saudi Arabia. even Bt are being examined for potentiating for domestic consumption and exports. Econ. Bot. 43: 35-38. the activity of azadirachtins against insect Neem should also play a significant role in enriching the floral and faunal biodiver- pests. Ascher, K. R. S. & J. Meisner. 1989. The sity, as a huge variety of organisms, from effects of neem on insects affecting man The patenting of neem pesticides and their insects to birds and mammals subsist on and animal, pp. 113-131. In M. Jacobson formulations has evoked serious criticism neem. Increased planting of neem along [ed.], Focus on Phytochemical Pesticides, and challenge in the developing world, roadsides and avenues should make cities vol. 1. The Neem Tree, CRC Press Boca particularly in India, as an example of ‘folk more liveable and make rural areas more Raton, Fl. wisdom piracy’. Efforts were made in some attractive than now. Use of neem-based European countries to extract azadirachtin pest control agents and fertilizers should Cobbinah, J. R. & K. Olei-Owusu. 1988. on a commercial scale from neem calli. reduce pesticide-related hazards and pollu- Effects of neem seed extracts on insect But such ventures remained nonviable and tion on land and in water bodies. In fact, the pests of eggplant, okra and cowpea. economically unjustifiable. Quality neem neem story is just unfolding. Tropical coun- Insect Sci. Applic. 9: 601-607. seed with high azadirachtin content would tries where neem can thrive have much to remain the basic raw material for production gain from increased awareness of neem’s Dreyer, M. 1987. Field and laboratory of neem-based insecticides of the future. In hidden ‘treasures’. trials with simple neem products as that context, tropical countries of Asia and protectants Against pests of vegetables Africa could become major exporters of the Glossary of Terms and field crops in Togo, pp. 431-447. In H. raw material or even value-added finished Schmutterer & K. products. •• Neem seed powder: the ground and dried powder of the neem seed (includes oil, R. S. Ascher [eds.], Natural Pesticides active ingredients, and seed cake) Conclusion from the Neem Tree (Azadireachta indica •• Neem seed cake: the residue cake (or A. Juss.) and Other Tropical Plants. In the coming decades, the developing solids) left over from the seed kernel when Proc. 3rd Int. Neem Conf., Nairobi, GTZ, world would be facing four distressing it is pressed or expelled to separate the oil Eschborn. crises, all counter-productive impacts of • • Neem kernel powder: the ground and dried Dreyer, M. & C. Hellpap. 1991. Neem - a increased human activity and failure to use powder of the neem seed kernel (includes promising insecticide for small-scale vege- natural resources in a sustainable manner: oil, active ingredients, and seed cake) 1. Threat to food security due to popula- table production in tropical and subtropical •• Neem oil: the oil extract from the seed tion pressure, 2. Rural and urban poverty countries. Z. Pflkrankh. PflSchutz. 98: kernel when it is pressed or expelled and joblessness, 3. Pollution and degrada- 428-437. tion of arable land and water bodies, and •• Neem seed extract- the oil extract from the ICIPE (International Centre of Insect Physi- 4. Loss of biodiversity. Neem has much seed kernel when it is pressed or expelled ology & Ecology). 1998. Natural pesti- to offer in solving global agricultural, public •• Neem extractive: the extract of various cides from neem, pp. 93-110. In Annual health, population, and environmental liquids from parts of the neem plant, Report, 1995-1997. pollution problems. Certainly, it cannot be including its leaves and seeds, which are achieved without building awareness of its azadirachtin-rich Isman, M. 1995. Leads and prospects for potential and dissemination of neem-based •• Methanolic neem kernel extract: the extract the development of new botanical insecti- technology, whether for pest management, of active ingredients of the neem seed cides. Review Pesticide Toxicology 3: 1-20. public health, reforestation, or production kernel using alcohol as the solvent and commercialization of various neem Jilani, G. & P. Amir. 1987. Economics of products for domestic use or exports. More neem in reducing wheat storage losses:

10 ...... policy implications. Tech. Bull. 2. South- 2001. Effects of neem seed derivatives on Industry and Other Purposes, 2nd edition. east Asian Reg. Center for Grad. Study & behavioral and physiological responses of Neem Foundation, Mumbai, India. Res. In Agric., Philippines, 15 pp. the Cosmopolites sordidus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 94: Saxena, R. C. & E. L. Kidiavai. 1997. Jilani, G. & R. C. Saxena. 1988. Eval- 449-454. Neem seed extract applications as uation of neem oil, combination of neem low-cost inputs for management of the oil and fumigation, and Actellic as paddy/ National Research Council. 1992. Neem flower thrips in cowpea crop. Phytopara- rice protectants against storage insects. – A Tree for Solving Global Problems. sitica, 25: 99-110. Proceedings of the Final Workshop on Report of an ad hoc panel of the Board on Botanical Pest Control in Rice-based Crop- Science and Technology for International Schmutterer, H. 1990. Properties and ping Systems. Int. Rice Res. Inst. (IRRI) Development. National Academy Press, potential of natural pesticides from the (Manila, Philippines, 1988), 28 pp. Washington DC. 141 p. neem tree, Azadirachta indica. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 35: 271-297. Jilani, G. & R. C. Saxena. 1990. Repel- Ostermann, H. 1992. Zur Wirkung und lent and feeding deterrent effects of Anwendung cinfacher Niemprodukte in 2002. The Neem Tree, Azadirachta turmeric oil, sweetflag oil, neem oil, and Kleinbauer-lichen Tomaten-, Vignabohnen- indica A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous a neem-based insecticide against lesser und Amaranthkulturen in Niger. PhD Plants: Sources of Unique Natural Prod- grain borer (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). J. thesis, Universityof Giessen, Germany. ucts for Integrated Pest Management, Econ. Entomol. 83: 629-634. Medicine, Industry and Other Parveen, G. & M. M. Alam. 1998. Efficacy Purposes, 2nd edition, Neem Founda- Jilani, G., R. C. Saxena, & B. P. Rueda. of neem products for the management of tion, Mumbai, India, 893 p. 1988. Repellent and growth-inhibiting root-knot nematodes on tomato, in soil effects of turmeric oil, neem oil, and polluted with heavy metals, calcium and Schmutterer, H. & R. P. Singh. 2002. Margosan-Oon red flour beetle (Coleop- lead, pp. 235-244. In R. P. Singh & R. C. List of insect pests susceptible to neem tera: Tenebrionidae). J. Econ. Entomol. Saxena [eds.] Azadirachta indica A. Juss. products, pp. 411-456. In H. Schmutterer 81: 1226-1230. Oxford & IBH. New Delhi, India. [ed.], The Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous Plants: Kaaya, G. P., R. C. Saxena, & S. Gebre. Rice, M. 1993. Development of neem Sources of Unique Natural Products for 2007. The potential of neem products for research and industry in Australia, pp. Integrated Pest Management, Medicine, control of economically important African 8-24. In Souvenir, World Neem Confer- Industry and Other Purposes, 2nd edition, ticks. Biosciences, Biotechnol. Res. Asia, ence, Bangalore, 1993, sponsored by Neem Foundation, Mumbai, India. 4: 95-104. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India. Sharma, V. P., M. A. Ansari, & R. K. Karel, A. K. 1989. Response of Ootheca Razdan. 1993. Mosquito repellent action bennigseni (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to Rössner, J. & C. P. W. Zebitz. 1987. of neem (Azadirachta indica) oil. J. Amer. extracts from neem. J. Econ. Entomol. 82: Effect of neem products on nematodes Mosquito Control Assoc., 9: 359-360 1799-1803. and growth of Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plants, pp. 611-621. In H. Siddig, S. A. 1987. A proposed pest Kega, K. M. & R. C. Saxena. 1996. Neem Schmutterer & K. R. S. Ascher [eds.], management program including neem derivatives for management of Sitophilus Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree treatments for combating potato pests in zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curcu- (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) and Other Sudan, pp. 449-459. In H. Schmutterer & lionidae). Paper presented at Int. Neem Tropical Plants. Proc. 3rd Int. Neem Conf., K. R. S. Ascher [eds.], Natural Pesticides Conf., Gatton College, Australia, Feb. 1996 1986, GTZ, Eschborn. from the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica (abstract). A. Juss) and Other Tropical Plants. Proc. Saxena, R. C. 1989. Insecticides from 3rd Int. Neem Conf., Nairobi, 1986. GTZ, Musabyimana, T. & R. C. Saxena. 1999a. neem, pp. 110-135. In J. T. Arnason, B. J. Eschborn. Efficacy of neem seed derivatives against R. Philogène, & P. Morand [eds.], Insec- nematodes affecting banana. Phytopara- ticides of Plant Origin. ACS Symposium Siddig, S. A. 1988. Cultural means of sitica 27: 43-49. Series 387, American Chemical Society, controlling potato tuber moth (Phthori- Washington, DC. maea operculella Zell.)and improvement Musabyimana, T. & R. C. Saxena. 1999b. of potato yield and quality in Sudan. Acta Use of neem seed derivatives for sustain- Saxena, R. C. 1998. “Green Revolutions” Horticulture. 218: 281-287. able banana pest management. Paper without blues: Botanicals for pest manage- presented at the World Neem Conf., ment, pp. 111-127. In G. S. Dhaliwal, N. Siddig, S. A. 1991. Evaluation of neem Vancouver, May 1999. S. Randhawa, R. Arora, & A. K. Dhawan seed and leaf water extracts and powders [eds.], Ecological Agriculture and Sustain- for the control of insect pests in Sudan. Musabyimana, T., R. C. Saxena, E. W. able Development, vol. 2. Indian Ecological Tech. Bulletin #6. Agric. Res. Corp., Kairu, C. K. P. O. Ogol, & Z. R. Khan. Society, Ludhiana, India. Shambat Res. Station. 39 p. 2000. Powdered neem seed cake for management of the banana weevil, Saxena, R. C. 2002. Pests of stored Völlinger, M. 1987. The possible devel- Cosmopolites sordidus, and parasitic products, pp. 524-537. In H. Schmutterer opment of resistance against neem seed nematodes. Phytoparasitica 28: 321-330. [ed.], The Neem Tree, Azadirachta indica kernel extract and deltamethrin in Plutella A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous Plants: xylostella, pp. 543-554. In H. Schmutterer Musabyimana, T., R. C. Saxena, E. W. Sources of Unique Natural Products for & K. R. S. Ascher [eds.], Natural Pesticides Kairu, C. K. P. O. Ogol, & Z. R. Khan. Integrated Pest Management, Medicine, from the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 11 A. Juss) and OtherTropical Plants. Proc. 3rd Int. Neem Conf., Nairobi, 1986. GTZ, Tricho-Composting in Bangladesh Eschborn. by Md. Mokhlesur Rahman and Philip Mathew Birkey

Völlinger, M. & H. Schmutterer. 2002. [Editors’ Note: Over the past several years, itself. The leachate has a nutritive value for Development of resistance to azadirachtin ECHO Asia has coordinated research, plants, and can be used as a foliar spray and other Neem ingredients, pp. 598-606. conducted trainings, and promoted the use (in diluted form) for plants. Alternatively, it In H. Schmutterer [ed.], The Neem Tree, of biocontrol fungi known as Trichoderma can be used as a Trichoderma inoculum Azadirachta indica A. Juss. And Other and Beauveria. This article briefly shares for the next batch of compost preparation Meliaceous Plants: Sources of Unique findings by Mennonite Central Committee (Deepthi and Reddy, 2013). Details use of Natural Products for Pest Management, (MCC) Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Trichoderma leachate is described later in Medicine, Industry and Other Purposes, Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) this document. 2nd edition, Neem Foundation, Mumbai, about the benefits and techniques of using India. tricho-compost.] Making Tricho-Compost

Author’s Contact Information Introduction Ingredients

Dr. Ramesh C. Saxena What is Tricho-Compost? In 2008, MCC was approached by BARI Chairman, Neem Foundation to do research on tricho-compost. BARI G-152, Palam Vihar, G Tricho-compost is the material that results had developed a method for producing urgaon, India, 122 017 when spores of a beneficial fungus, Trich- this compost, but wanted help in finding oderma sp. are used in the composting ways to adapt it for use by organiza- Tel.: 91-124-2360870, 9811573439; process. Trichoderma sp. are natural tions and farmers in Bangladesh, as their E-mail: [email protected] competitors against a wide range of harmful current system was not efficient for these fungi; when it is added to compost, the purposes. In turn, MCC approached one of [Editor’s Note: The neem tree truly is a latter can then work as an anti-fungal agent its partners, Grameen Krishok Shahayok miraculous plant with much potential for to protect crops in the field. Sangstha (GKSS), a group that was already helping smallholders in agriculture and doing vermi-composting, and they agreed to community development to strengthen assist with this research. Through research livelihoods. ECHO has been researching From Where is the Trichoderma and field testing, a consistent mixture was and promoting neem since the early 1980’s Obtained? developed as follows: and has quite a repertoire on www.echoc- ommunity.org related to neem, including Trichoderma is a genus of beneficial fungus •• 25% cow dung (rich in nitrogen, with a this early Technical Note from 1984. As present in nature. It needs to be isolated carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) of 8) with all ECHO techniques, ideas and from the soil in order to obtain a pure culture •• 5% sawdust (as a source of carbon) information, we encourage you to try these of Trichoderma. Soil samples from the root various ideas and options after further zone of plants are diluted up to 106 times in •• 36% poultry refuse (to provide calcium and research and in a low-risk setting to your distilled water and then used as inoculum nitrogen, and to reduce incidence of soil- beneficiaries. Remember that agriculture in a sterilized Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) borne disease) and culture are context-sensitive, and what medium to allow the fungi to grow. From the •• 33% water hyacinth (to provide potassium) may work well in once context might not fungi colonies in PDA growth medium, Trich- •• 0.5% ash (to provide potassium) in another. Please do let us know your oderma is isolated (by observing the spores/ successes and failures as you seek to see conidia) and then put for pure culture in the •• 0.5% maize bran (as a feed for the inoc- how neem might fit into your sustainable same growth medium. A higher dilution of ulum) pest management and environmental the soil sample will lead bacterial colonies conservation work! to grow in the growth medium, rather than Benefits of the Ingredients fungi, which is not desirable. Regarding the distribution of neem seeds, This mixture was decided upon for several the ECHO Asia Seed Bank does not Trichoderma inoculum is a fresh and pure reasons. Cow dung and water hyacinth are routinely keep seeds on hand, as they culture of Trichoderma sp. used in Trich- readily available in Bangladesh, and are a rapidly loose their ability to germinate, but oderma compost preparation. It is usually good source of nutrients and organic matter. the Seed Bank can source neem seeds produced in a lab, where a specific Trich- seasonally from our partner organizations oderma species can be isolated and multi- Poultry refuse is added for its nutrient in Thailand. If you are interested in neem plied on a growth medium without contami- content as well as anti-nematode and seeds, kindly e-mail asiaseeds@echonet. nation from other species of fungus. bactericidal effect. In MCC’s experiments org.] here in Bangladesh, we have found that What is Trichoderma Leachate? application of poultry refuse around plants results in successful control of bacterial Trichoderma leachate is the liquid soup/ wilt in tomato and eggplant (MCC research syrup that comes out of the compost heap, Report). When using poultry refuse in as a result of the Tricho-composting process tricho-compost, the compost retains this (Nahar et al., 2012). This leachate often has quality. Poultry refuse has some phenolic a higher content of Trichoderma spores per substances which work as anti-bacterial unit than the same amount of the compost agents against bacterial wilt. Poultry refuse

12 ...... is also rich in nitrogen and in calcium, which are mixed together and makes the plant cells strong and enable added to the compost plants to resist diseases like root knot from recipe listed above. The nematode infestation (Faruk et al., 2011), compost and inoculum thus preventing secondary infection by mixture are combined bacteria and fungi that might cause bacte- thoroughly before being rial wilt, and damping off respectively. placed in the compost bin. At first, MCC Bangla- Water hyacinth provides a great deal of desh tried putting the organic matter, but its C:N ratio is high; compost mixture in the it contains 29 times more carbon than bin by using a layering nitrogen (Mathew et al., 2014). Poultry method, sprinkling the refuse and cow dung, by contrast, have lots inoculant mixture over of nitrogen that can be released quickly in each layer. However, the composting process and can potentially layering was found to be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia. be a poor method for This means mixing water hyacinth with several reasons: it was poultry refuse can increase the C:N ratio very labor intensive, it of the whole composting mix and thus subsequently required minimize the nitrogen loss in the compost agitation of the compost (Compost Fundamentals, 2015). Including to facilitate Trichoderma water hyacinth in the tricho-compost allows mycelium to mix with the nitrogen to be trapped by microorgan- the composting mate- isms during the decomposition process. rial homogeneously for Although urine from animals has not been better decomposition of used in the tricho-compost mixture in materials inside layers Bangladesh, it is an alternative nitrogen (a very smelly job that source. As with poultry refuse, the pres- no laborer liked), and the ence of water hyacinth can help in trapping agitation consequently the nitrogen in the compost. Green water disturbed the natural hyacinth also serves as source of carbo- warm thermal environ- hydrate (Luu and Getsinger, 1990) in the ment that the fungus composting mix; as a carbohydrate source likes. The current method it can be replaced with other green mate- of composting using rial, but may not contain as much carbon as latrine rings, described water hyacinth does. in next paragraph, works great (provided that (above) Md. Aftab Ali is showing his composting facility. Blue plastic Ash adds minerals to the compost, espe- the compost is mixed cially potassium. Maize bran is added as underneath. The rings facilitate the collection of Trichoderma leachate. well, the moisture level (below) Md. Bazlur Rashid is mixing the composting material before a growth medium (carbohydrate/energy is appropriately main- putting it in the composting bins or rings. source) for the Trichoderma to grow and tained, and the compost multiply vigorously in the compost mix, is not compressed). concern. If the bin is too small, the compost especially in the early days of composting. loses its residual heat and the Trichoderma works more slowly. Apart from being a source of carbon, both Size of the Compost Bin and Use of sawdust and water hyacinth make the Latrine Rings Given these requirements, currently MCC compost mix fluffy and help with aeration. Bangladesh is mostly using concrete pit The height of the bin used for composting Sawdust also prevents the final product latrine rings for our bins. These rings are is important because of the compression (compost) from being compact and solid, stacked three high and filled with about 400 issue. Because the composting mixture thus making it friable. kg of compost materials including 240 liters contains 33% fluffy water hyacinth, as the of water, resulting in about 120 to 140 kg of All of these ingredients are readily avail- decomposition process progresses, it gets final product from each set of three rings. able in Bangladesh at a reasonable price reduced in volume significantly. Therefore, These rings are used because of their wide- compared to alternatives. However, if the composting pile is not high enough, in spread availability to farmers in Bangla- continued monitoring of market prices is few days it will be reduced into a thin layer, desh, and are appropriate because they are needed, as prices and availability of these and may not be providing the natural warm scaled to the size of what a farmer would and materials may change over time. thermal environment that Trichoderma need if they have one cow. Typically in a likes. In their resarch, our staff have found 10’ x 5’ x 4.5’ design, the bin would have a that a 10’ x 5’ x 4.5’ bin is the optimal size Mixing in the Trichoderma Inoculum concrete floor with a drainage system that for composting. This size is small enough to leads to a trap to catch the leachate that allow proper aeration but large enough that The inoculant mix used in Bangladesh is runs off the compost. In MCC Bangladesh’s the Trichoderma can produce some residual one liter of Trichoderma inoculum mixed latrine ring bins, this is not economically heat, which speeds up the process. If the with 0.5 kg of molasses and 20-25 liters of feasible. So instead, a sheet of polythene water, per ton of compost. These ingredients bin is too large, lack of aeration becomes a

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 13 plastic is used under the bin, which works Using Tricho-Compost leachate contains micronutrients as well, pretty well as a makeshift waterproof floor, the user needs to be aware that the overuse as long as it does not get punctured. The Tricho-compost is primarily used as a soil of it in the growing stage of plants might leachate should be collected and poured amendment. Like traditional compost, it result in much vegetative growth which may back onto the compost for the first 10 days. improves soil structure, improves water lead to less fruiting (over-fertilization effect). The leachate that comes out in first 10 days holding capacity, can help regulate soil pH, Spraying of leachate on fruits and vegeta- is not really the result of the decomposition and can assist with soil temperature main- bles a few days before harvesting might process, but more from the seepage of the tenance. It should be applied at a rate of 2 result in fruits and vegetables retaining excess water (with Trichoderma spores) to 2.5 tons/hectare to the crop field. It can some foul smell from the leachate. from the composting mix. Putting it back in be used in the land preparation stage, and/ the composting bin keeps the composting or as a secondary dose or overhead dose Story of Md. Abdul Mannan mixture moist and helps out with the for the farmer’s plants. decomposition process. From 15 days after [Note: Below is a story of how a farmer setting up the composting process onward, Tricho-compost has additional benefits near Bogra has benefitted greatly from the leachate may be collected and bottled, compared to traditional compost: using Tricho compost.] as it has multiple beneficial uses described •• Tricho-compost works as a natural anti- later. Be sure to use caution in bottling, as fungal agent against harmful fungi (Pythium Md. Abdul Mannan is a Bangladeshi farmer the liquid still releases gas that can blow the sp, Sclerotium sp, Phytophthora sp, Rhizoc- from the Bogra district of Bangladesh. His bottle up (Deepthi and Reddy, 2013). tonia sp, Fusarium sp, Botrytis sp, Sclero- main source of income is vegetable cultiva- tonia sp ), which are mostly responsible for tion. He has one daughter and two sons; all Monitoring of the Bin and Routine soil born disease and fungal wilt; of them are currently studying at the college level. Md. Mannan lives with his elderly Maintenance •• Because of the inclusion of poultry refuse, Tricho-compost provides resistance against mother. In total, five family members live in After the compost has been placed in the bacterial wilt and nematode infestation his household. bin, some monitoring is necessary. MCC (Gapasin, 2007; Nahar et al., 2012); Md. Mannan has 0.485 hectares of land, Bangladesh’s staff recommends checking •• Tricho-compost may work as growth where he has been cultivating vegetables the temperature of each batch by poking a promoter in plants (Celar and Valic, 2005; and rice for many years. Every year, Md. thermometer (tied onto a stick) or a needle Rabeerdran et al.,2000; Inbar et al.,1994; Mannan found he needed to spray a huge thermometer down into the center every Lynch et al.,1991; Hoyos-Carvajal et amount of pesticides to control pests in his 7-15 days. Once the Trichoderma begins to al.,2009). vegetable and rice plots. He also had to grow and produce, the temperature of the apply a lot of fertilizer in his field. Because of compost should rise to as much as 50-60oC, As previously mentioned, Trichoderma these expensive inputs, he wasn’t receiving depending on the outside temperature and leachate, a by-product of the Tricho-com- a high amount of profit from his crops. It the size of the bin. A decrease in tempera- post process, has many uses. One chal- was difficult for him to bear the cost of his ture is a sign that there is too little moisture lenge in Bangladesh is that Trichoderma family’s living expenses, as well as the cost for the Trichoderma, or that the process inoculum is a bit too complex for farmers of his children’s study expenses. is near completion. Another form of moni- to produce, and requires laboratory produc- toring is to poke a stick down into the tion. This makes Trichoderma inoculum difficult for farmers to obtain. To address One day, Md. Mannan was selected as a middle of the compost to the bottom and beneficiary of Grameen Unnayan Prokolpo pulled it out to check the colour differences this issue, MCC Bangladesh researched with our partners and found that Tricho- (GUP), a partner NGO of the MCC Bangla- in the stick, the decomposed material will desh food security project. GUP imple- make the stick dark in colour, but the unde- derma leachate contains enough spores to be used as a substitute for the inoculum for ments integrated pest management (IPM) composed segment of the compost mix will techniques in vegetable cultivation. Md. make the stick not so dark (natural colour up to six generations of compost production before a fresh inoculum is required again. Mannan received information about IPM of cow dung). The decomposition process at the GUP yard meetings. Yard meetings begins from the surface and moves down- Additional research is currently being done to see whether this process produces are short training sessions with group of wards due to higher availability of oxygen farmers gathered in someone’s court yard, in the surface region, which allows Trich- compost with all the same benefits as that made by fresh inoculum. like a farmer field school. He also noticed oderma to grow faster. Smell is another information on billboards and posters that indicator of the nearness to completion; Trichoderma leachate’s other primary use GUP and MCC had displayed in the area finished compost smells somewhat sweet, where the GUP project was implemented. compared to the initial smell of manure in Bangladesh is as a foliar spray. For its and rot. In MCC Bangladesh’s experi- use, it needs to be sieved (because solid particles present in leachate may block the After receiving training support from GUP, ence, during the summer, when tempera- Md. Mannan started to make tricho-com- o sprayer) before putting it into the sprayer, tures average 35 C in Bangladesh, the post and vermicompost (compost prepared composting process takes roughly 45 days. and diluted in water at 20ml/liter water. This spray is primarily used for (but not restricted by using earth worms) in his homestead. During the winter, when temperatures may He also learned about the use of phero- o to) fruit trees during flowering, as it provides drop as low as 10 C, the process can take mones to control harmful insects. Sex pher- up to 70 days. both nutritional and hormonal boosts to trees during a key stage of production. omone is the chemical usually emitted by MCC Bangladesh has also found very female insects to attract males of the same good results by spraying it in seedling and species for mating (Knodel, Petzoldt, and growing stages of vegetables. Since the Hoffmann, 1995). Synthetic pheromones are used as bait in a trap to attract the male

14 ...... insect to trap it to death, thus leaving only L.). Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Compost Fundamentals, 2015. Whatcom the females which cannot mate or repro- Research, 36(3): 477-486. County Composting, Washington State duce. After producing these composts and University. http://whatcom.wsu.edu/ag/ pheromones, he used the compost in his Gapasin, D. P. 2007. Integrated pest compost/fundamentals/consideration_ vegetable field. management collaborative research reclamation.htm support program. South Asia (Bangladesh) By using Tricho-compost, vermicompost, Site Evaluation Report, 2p. Inbar, J., M. Abramsky, D. Cohen and I. and pheromones, Md. Mannan has been Chet. 1994. Plant growth enhancement able to greatly reduce his costs for fertil- Hoyos-Carvajal, L., S. Ordua and J. and disease control by Trichoderma izer and pesticides. In addition, harzianum in vegetable seed- he produced a good quality lings growth under commercial vegetable crop from his field. conditions. European Journal of Most recently, he cultivated Plant Pathology, 100: 337- 346. eggplant, country bean (Lablab purpureus), yard-long bean, Luu, K. T. and K. D. Getsinger. pointed gourd, and chili on his 1990. Seasonal Biomass and land. Using the organic farming Carbohydrate Allocation in methods that he learned Water Hyacinth. J. Aquat. Plant through GUP, Md. Mannan had Manage. 28: 3-10. higher crop production, as well as good color and vigorous Lynch, J. M., K. L. Wilson, M. vegetable growth. Last year, Md. A. Ousley and J. M. Wipps. Mannan earned US$ 865 from 1991. Response of lettuce to selling vegetables, compared to Trichoderma treatment. Letters approximately US$ 288 by any in Applied Microbiology, 12: average farmers with similar 59-61. landholding. He was very happy Mathew A. K., Bhui, I., to see the beneficial effect of the Banerjee, S.N., Goswami, R., IPM techniques; it was because Chakraborty, A.K., Shome, of these IPM techniques that A., Balachandran, S. and S. he earned more money than Chaudhury. 2014. Biogas in past years. Now, he and his production from locally avail- family members are very happy, able aquatic weeds of Santini- because their income has ketan through anaerobic improved. Due to this success, digestion. Clean Technologies Md. Mannan isstill practicing and Environmental Policies. IPM techniques in his field and 10.1007/s10098-014-0877-6 says that he will continue to http://link.springer.com/ practice these techniques in article/10.1007/s10098-014- future. 0877-6#page-1

References Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) Bangladesh Research Celar, F. and N. Valic. 2005. Report 33 & 34. Effects of Trichoderma spp and Glicladium roseum culture Nahar, M. S., Rahman, M. A., filtrates on seed germination of Kibria, M. G., Karim A. N. M. vegetables and maize. Journal (above) Md. Abdul Mannan beside a pheromone trap in his pointed gourd R. and S. A. Miller. 2012. Use of Plant Disease Protection, field. (below) Md. Abdul Mannan in his Tricho-composting shed-showing the of tricho-compost and tricho- 112 (4): 343-350. compost. leachate for management of soil-borne pathogens and Deepthi, K. P. and Reddy, P. N. production of healthy cabbage 2013. Compost teas – an organic source Bissett. 2009. Growth stimulation in bean seedlings Bangladesh. Journal of Agricul- for crop disease management. Interna- (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Trichoderma. tural Research, 37(4): 653-664. tional Journal of Innovative Biological Biological Control, 51: 409-416. Research, 2 (1): 51-60. Rabeerdran, N., D. J. Moot, E. E Jones Knodel, Janet J., Curtis H. Petzoldt, and and A. Stewart. 2000. Inconsistent growth Faruk, M. I., Rahman, M. L., Ali, M. R., Michael P. Hoffmann, 1995. Pheromone promotion of cabbage and lettuce from Rahman, M. M. and M. M. H. Mustafa. Traps - Effective Tools for Monitoring Trichoderma isolates. New Zealand Plant 2011. Efficacy of two organic amendments Lepidopterous Insect Pests of Sweet Corn. Protection, 53: 143-146. and a nematicide to manage root-knot Vegetable Fact Sheets, Cornell University. nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu/factsheets/ of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum vegetables/swcorn/pheromone_traps.pdf

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 15 2015 ECHO Asia Agriculture & Community Development Conference

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16 ...... 2015 ECHO Asia Agriculture & Community Development Conference

Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Stan- •• Integrated Pest Management and Biolog- Speakers List dards.” ical Pest Control at the Chiang Mai Pest Management Center. To provide an idea of some of the speakers •• Mother and daughter team, Wanpen and topics that will be featured in the Channarod and Phicharinee Suksree, inno- •• System of Rice Intensification with a visit to morning plenary sessions, here is a list vative farmers from Nakhon Sawan, Thai- a Northern Thai farmer’s field in the Chiang of the morning plenary speakers that will land, will share about recent innovations in Rai area. Fa Mui has grown organic brown share with conference participants: the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and rice and produced GABBA using SRI for lessons learned. over four years. •• Samuel Gurel, CEO of Torch Coffee, will discuss coffee as a development tool and •• Dr. Sabine Schuerer is a botanist and horti- •• Vermiculture and mushroom farming at Mae niche agriculture product in a talk entitled cultural therapist from Austria who has Jo University worked in Nepal, Tibet, and North-India. “The WHY Behind Coffee Development.” •• Coffee farming, processing, and cupping. She will be sharing her research on culi- •• Keith Mikkelson, the Executive Director nary herbs, specialty greens, and high- •• Dairy farming and farmer cooperatives with and co-founder of Aloha House and Natural value fruits as an alternative for small-scale a local Thai dairy cooperative. Farm, as well as the author of “Sustainable farming in the tropics and sub-stripcs. Agriculture in the Tropics,” will be giving Register now! Early bird rates expire on a talk entitled “Natural Farming: A Key to To learn more about the upcoming ECHO August 31st! Higher Production with Reduced Inputs.” Asia Agriculture and Community Develop- •• Tom Love, Agriculture Advisor at USAID, ment Conference and to register for the will be giving a talk about the nature of event, please visit ECHOcommunity.org. Poster Session value and how it is created, entitled “The In addition to the plenary and workshop Mystery of Value.” Post-Conference Tours sessions this year, we also would like to •• Siem Sun, manager of the Improved Indig- Following three days of plenary sessions invite delegates to participate in a poster enous Livelihoods program for International and workshops, the ECHO Asia Agriculture session as a means to share and exchange Cooperation Cambodia, will be discussing & Communidty Development Conference other information. This might be a partic- livelihoods improvement through develop- will culminate in a fourth day of field trips ularly suitable venue for any research or ment and giving a talk entitled “Community and site visits to local community develop- information which academics, graduate Solutions to the Changing Context of Liveli- ment projects, farms, and businesses. The students, or practitioners have conducted hoods in Northeastern Cambodia of Indige- or created regarding experimentation, crop nous Minorities.” tour is included in the cost of registration. To give you an idea of what’s in store, here is evaluations, or to showcase an agricultural •• Dr. Paul McNamara from the University a list of current post-conference tours that development project. Presenters are asked of Illinois and Director of the Modernizing conference participants can select from: to submit a brief title and synopsis (2-3 Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) sentences) ahead of time, and e-mail those will share about lessons learned from agri- •• Natural building at Mae Mut Garden farm to [email protected]. culture extension best practices. and small farm resource center. •• Dr. Peter Quesenberry from Christian Veter- •• Tropical forest restoration and steward- Please visit ECHOcommunity.org for full inary Mission and the Mekong Minority ship with the Chiang Mai University Forest details on the poster session. Foundation, as well as author of the book Restoration Research Unit (FORRU). “Where there is No Animal Doctor,” will •• Community-appropriate biochar research discuss livestock and community devel- and application at the Warm Heart Small opment and give a talk entitled “Livestock Farm Resource Center. Bridges to Community Development and

Asia Notes Issue 24 ...... 17