Strata Darren Reid

RACIAL TRANSFORMATIONS: APPROACHING EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY RACIAL BOUNDARIES THROUGH BUFFALO CHILD LONG LANCE AND GREY OWL

DARREN REID MA student, University of Victoria

Abstract

This paper contends that understanding Buffalo Child Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s racial transformations from non-Indigenous to Indigenous is crucial for our understanding of racial boundaries in early twentieth century Canada, and in the British Empire as a whole. Yet it also recognizes that few historians have been drawn to the subject. To facilitate further research, this paper explores the three historiographical approaches that have been applied to Long Lance and Grey Owl, materialist, psychoanalytical, and discursive, and analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of each. This paper also identifies three key areas for further research: centring Indigenous voices, analyzing Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s afterlives, and expanding the discursive approach to address intersectionality.

Résumé

Cet article soutient que les transformations raciales de non-autochtones à autochtones de Buffalo Child Long Lance et de Grey Owl sont essentielles pour notre compréhension des frontières raciales au début du XXe siècle au Canada et dans l’ensemble de l’Empire britannique. Cependant, il reconnait également que peu d’historiens ont été attirés par l’étude de ce sujet. Pour ouvrir la voie à de plus amples recherches, cet article explore les trois approches historiographiques qui ont été appliquées à Buffalo Child Long Lance et Grey Owl, matérialiste, psychanalytique et discursive, et analyse les forces et les faiblesses de chacune. Il s’agira aussi identifier trois domaines clés pour des recherches plus approfondies : mettre en valeur les voix autochtones, analyser la vie après la mort de Long Lance et de Grey Owl, et développer l’approche discursive afin de traiter de l’intersectionnalité.

______

3 Strata Darren Reid

A pivotal moment in the history of nineteenth and twentieth century settler colonialism was the development of scientific racism. Variously referred to as Social Darwinism, biological or racial determinism, and innatism, the concept of scientific racism attempts to capture an epistemological paradigm shift from a sense of man as primarily a social being…to a sense of man as primarily a biological being. It was a move away from an eighteenth-century optimism about man and faith in the adaptability of man’s universal ‘nature,’ towards a nineteenth century biological pessimism, and a belief in the unchangeability of ‘racial’ natures.1 In terms of settler colonialism, this shift from optimism for adaptability to biological pessimism heralded a change in perceptions of, and attitudes towards, Indigenous peoples by “cast[ing] doubt on the very idea of the ‘civilizing mission.’”2 If a people’s culture was biologically determined and the races existed in a rigid civilizational hierarchy, then there was no longer any point in expending resources on helping a lost cause. As a consequence, British imperial historians have shown that an empire-wide “waiting for them to disappear” attitude replaced a civilizing attitude by the second half of the nineteenth century.3 In Canada, this paradigm shift manifested as a pessimism about the potential for Indigenous peoples to truly assimilate. In her influential 1990 monograph Lost Harvests, Sarah Carter identified this pessimism in the 1905 superintendent of Indian Affairs, Frank Oliver: Oliver had a low estimate of the potential of Indians; he believed they would never be ‘civilized’ and would never profitably use their land. Therefore it was useless to try to make farmers out of them.4

1 Nancy Stephan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982), 4. 2 Alexander Barder, “Scientific Racism, Race War and the Global Racial Imaginary,” Third World Quarterly 40, no. 1 (2019): 5. 3 See, for instance, Zoe Laidlaw and Alan Lester, eds., Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Less and Survival in an Interconnected World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), or Christopher Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780- 1914: global connections and comparisons (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004). 4 Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Farmers and Government Policy (: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990), 245.

4 Strata Darren Reid

J.R. Miller also identified this pessimism in his 1989 monograph Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, this time in the 1910 redesign of industrial schools: While the original intention of the founders of industrial schools had been to prepare Indian youths to live and compete with non-Native Canadians, henceforth the schools would seek ‘to develop the great natural intelligence of the race and to fit the Indian for civilized life in his own environment [emphasis mine].’5 It is in light of this narrative of hardening racial boundaries and biological pessimism that I find individuals such as Buffalo Child Long Lance and Grey Owl to be such important subjects of historical analysis, for the simple reason that they do not quite fit the narrative.6 Buffalo Child Long Lance was born Sylvester Clark Long in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, in 1890. Although he had some Cherokee ancestry, he and his family were socially classified as “coloured” and lived as such. He first began identifying himself as having Indigenous ancestry in order to attend the Carlisle Indian School, where he took the name Sylvester Long Lance. After travelling to Canada to fight in the First World War, Long Lance immigrated to the Canadian Prairies, where he worked as a reporter in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba between 1919 and 1924. When he first started at The Calgary Herald in 1919, he identified as a Cherokee named Sylvester Long Lance, but in 1922 he was adopted as an honorary chief by the Kainai of Southern Alberta, and given the name Buffalo Child. At that point he began identifying as Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance of the Kainai. In 1924 he was hired as a press representative for the Canadian Pacific Railway, in 1927 he wrote his autobiography of growing up as a Kainai child, and in 1929 he starred as an chief in The Silent Enemy: An Epic of the American Indian. He committed suicide in 1932.7

5 J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Native-Newcomer Relations in Canada (: University of Toronto Press, 1989), 267. 6 Scholars of Long Lance and Grey Owl waver between referring to them by their birth names and by their adopted names. In this paper, I will refer to them by their adoptive names, as these are the names they desired to be called by and they never reverted to their birth names. 7 Donald Smith, “LONG, SYLVESTER CLARK (Sylvester Chahuska Long Lance, Buffalo Child, Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance),” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography,

5 Strata Darren Reid

Grey Owl was born Archibald Belaney in , England, in 1888. He moved to and began working as a fur trapper and wilderness guide around . He married Angele Egwuna of the Bear Island in 1910, the first of his four marriages, and began living with her on Bear Island. It was at this point that he started identifying as an Anishinaabe man named Grey Owl. Unhappy with the sedentary lifestyle he developed after the birth of their child, he left to fight in the First World War. After the war he lived briefly in Hastings again, where he married his second wife and old love interest, Ivy Holmes, but he quickly grew unhappy in England and departed back to Ontario in 1917. He worked as a trapper and lived with the Espaniels, an Ojibwa family near Biscotasing. After divorcing Ivy, but still technically married to Angele, he married his third wife, a Haudenosaunee woman named Gertrude Bernand, in 1926. It was Gertrude who inspired him to give up trapping and become an environmental advocate. He began publishing articles in Forest & Outdoors in 1925, published his first book in 1931, and in the same year was hired by James Harkin to work for the Dominion Parks Branch. He published another three monographs on Anishinaabe culture and the environment and embarked on a lecture tour of Britain, the US, and Canada between 1935 and 1937. Gertrude, herself an avid adventurer, grew unhappy with Grey Owl’s new public lifestyle. They parted ways in 1936, and Grey Owl married his fourth wife, a French- Canadian woman named Yvonne Perrier, that same year. He died of pneumonia two years later, in 1938.8 At a time when racial boundaries were hardening in the British empire, broadly, as well as in Canada, specifically, we have these two individuals who very successfully crossed those boundaries. Long Lance and Grey Owl are somewhat anomalous within the historical narrative of deepening racial boundaries and are for that reason of substantial historical significance. Just as Michel de Certeau calls for a history that “seek[s] out ‘exceptional details’ and ‘significant vol. 16, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed April 10, 2019, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/long_sylvester_clark_16E.html. 8 Donald Smith, “BELANEY, ARCHIBALD STANSFELD, known as Grey Owl and Wa-sha-quon-asin,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 16, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–, accessed April 10, 2019, http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/belaney_archibald_stansfeld_16E.html.

6 Strata Darren Reid deviations’ from actions or events readily accommodated within the explanatory models,” and as Giovanni Levi argues that “working from the exceptional and the marginal enables the historian to rewrite grand narratives,” I contend that understanding Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s somewhat anomalous9 racial transformations is crucial for our understanding of racial boundaries in early twentieth century Canada and in the British empire as a whole. 10 This paper explores the various approaches scholars have taken in their studies of Long Lance and Grey Owl, evaluates their strengths and weaknesses, and considers how they help us understand racial boundaries in early twentieth century Canada. I have selected nine pieces of scholarship and categorized them into three approaches: materialist, psychoanalytical, and discursive. The materialist and the psychoanalytical approaches balance and complement each other, with one looking at rational motivations and agency, and the other looking at emotional motivations and subjectivity. The discursive approach stands in stark contrast to both the materialist and the psychoanalytical approaches, undermining their focus on intentions and perceptions with a critical look at the underlying power structures Long Lance and Grey Owl supported. In terms of their commentary on racial boundaries, the materialist approach suggests that there were material incentives for identifying as specific races and that individuals could challenge racial boundaries and intentionally capitalize on these. The psychoanalytical approach questions the extent to which racial boundaries could be intentionally manipulated, and instead suggests that individuals could challenge racial boundaries by subconsciously performing various internalized racial identities. The discursive approach dismisses any claim that Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s racial transformations challenged racial boundaries, pointing to the racialized stereotypes they used to “play Indian.” I find the tension between the materialist and psychoanalytical approaches’ recognition of challenged racial boundaries and the discursive approach’s rejection

9 I insist on the phrase “somewhat anomalous” because, as James Axtell’s “The White Indians of Colonial America” illustrates, racial transformation is not entirely unheard-of. 10 John Brewer, “Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life,” Cultural and Social History 7, no. 1 (2015): 98.

7 Strata Darren Reid of such a challenge too great to be entirely reasonable, and I critique the discursive approach for being underdeveloped. Suggesting that there is much more to be learned about the significance of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations then what the historiography has covered so far, I identify three key gaps/areas of further research. The first gap is a lack of attention to Indigenous voices. The second gap is the lack of attention to Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s afterlives and to how the discovery of their transformations that took place after they died impacted the historical narratives that have been constructed about them. The third gap is a lack of attention to the intersectionality of discourses. This paper is laid out in four sections. The first three are each dedicated to one of the three approaches, first providing an overview of the three representative pieces of scholarship and then analyzing their strengths and weaknesses. I chose the pieces that are included in this paper so that I would have three for each approach and an even number about Long Lance and Grey Owl. You may notice that the majority of scholars included are literary scholars rather than historians, primarily because very few academic historians have written critically on Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s racial transformations.11 In some instances I have purposefully replaced historians with literary scholars. For example, Daniel Francis’ The Imaginary Indian made a very similar argument as Laura Browder’s Slippery Characters, but I chose Browder because her writing was more recent. On the other hand, Armand Ruffo’s Grey Owl was included despite its unconventional poetic style because Ruffo is the only piece I could find that was written by someone of Indigenous ancestry. In cases where authors have written about both Long Lance and Grey Owl, such as Rosmarin Heidenreich and Donald Smith, I have chosen whichever piece that would enable this paper to have a balance of both

11 This paper focuses on the significance of the mere fact that Long Land and Grey Owl changed their racial identities. There are various historians who have touched on either Long Lance or Grey Owl for reasons other than their identity transformation, but they fall outside the scope of this paper. Throughout this paper I repeatedly use the phrase “Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations” to emphasize my topic focus.

8 Strata Darren Reid characters. The fourth section of the paper is dedicated to expanding on the three gaps/areas of further research I have identified.

MATERIALIST APPROACH

Armand Ruffo’s 1997 Grey Owl: The Mystery of Archie Belaney, Wayde Compton’s 2010 After Canaan: Essays on Race, Writing, and Region, and Rosmarin Heidenreich’s 2018 Literary Impostors: Canadian Autofiction of the Early Twentieth Century each demonstrate what I term the materialist approach to Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations. In this section I argue that the materialist approach is problematic because it presupposes what Long Lance and Grey Owl considered to be “rational action.” Nonetheless, I conclude that this approach’s attention to material circumstances provides a necessary counterpoint to the lack of such attention in the psychoanalytical and discursive approaches. I will first summarize the arguments of the three materialist pieces, explain why I categorize them as materialist, and then present my analysis. Armand Ruffo’s Grey Owl argues that Grey Owl consciously embraced his racial transformation as a strategy for improving the impact of his environmental advocacy.12 This argument represents Grey Owl as someone who rationally adopted an Indigenous identity as a means of navigating societal expectations of who could speak for the environment. Ruffo further argues that Grey Owl’s transformation was enabled by the conscious and intentional assistance of Indigenous peoples. He illustrates that the Anishinaabe community of Temagami willingly shared their culture with Grey Owl, that his Anishinaabe wife encouraged him in his transformation, and that an Anishinaabe family actively adopted and educated him in their culture.13 Wayde Compton’s main argument in After Canaan is that Long Lance’s racial indecipherability, the fact that his skin colour did not obviously fall into any preconceived racial categories, empowered

12 Armand Ruffo, Grey Owl: The Mystery of Archie Belaney (Regina: Coteau Books, 1996), 72. 13 Ruffo, Grey Owl, 18, 19, 33.

9 Strata Darren Reid him with the agency to choose his own racial identification.14 Compton suggests that Long Lance exercised the agency granted to him by his racial indecipherability by “intercepting a roaming pheneticization”15 of Indigeneity so as to be identified as the race of his choice. Rosmarin Heidenreich’s main argument in Literary Impostors is that Long Lance’s identification as Indigenous was not motivated by a personal affinity for Indigenous culture, but by a rational strategy to escape discrimination. Suggesting that “had he been as fair-skinned as most of his family, he would have chosen to pass as white,”16 Heidenreich emphasizes Long Lance’s transformation as an expression of agency by which he adopted the only other identity that his appearance could plausibly allow so that he could escape anti-Black racism. I term this approach “materialist,” but I specifically refer to a rational-choice strain of materialist historiography. Miguel Cabrera identifies two strains of materialist historiography, which he calls social history and post-social history. Social history views historical entities as free agents who make rational choices, while post-social history views historical entities as subjects who “cannot be free agents who make rational choices because the subjectivity that guides their behaviour is a derived entity.”17 Alex Callinicos replicates this division, identifying what he calls “rational-choice Marxism,” which demands that “the existence of social mechanisms and structural tendencies depends on the incentives and interests they give individual actors,” and “Althusserian structural determinism,” which treats individual agency as merely subservient to more dominant social structures.18 In the categorical dichotomy of rational and structural materialist historiography that Cabrera and Callinicos establish, the scholars I have outlined belong to the former. In Ruffo’s case, his representation of Grey Owl’s transformation as both a calculated decision to further

14 Wayde Compton, After Canaan: Essays on Race, Writing, and Region (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press), 33-4. 15 Compton, After Canaan, 34. 16 Rosmarin Heidenreich, Literary Impostors: Canadian Autofiction of the Early Twentieth Century (Montreal: McGIll-Queen’s University Press, 2018), 150. 17 Miguel Cabrera, Postsocial History: An Introduction (Toronto: Lexington Books, 2004), 98. 18 Callinicos, Making History, xxi.

10 Strata Darren Reid his environmental advocacy and an expression of the Anishinaabe community’s agency clearly emphasize a rational decision-making process. Compton differentiates between “racial passing” and “racial pheneticizing,” where passing is “deliberately misrepresenting oneself racially” and pheneticizing is “racially perceiving someone based on a subjective examination of his or her outward appearance.”19 To Compton, passing is an act of agency, and pheneticizing is an epistemological phenomenon outside the agency of an individual. By this differentiation, Compton acknowledges both the rational-choice and the structural determinist aspect of agency, and as such seems to resist categorization as one or the other. However, his concluding argument that Long Lance purposefully “intercepted a roaming pheneticization” to counteract his own “racial indecipherability” illustrates Compton’s overarching rational-choice leaning. Hiedenreich, by asserting Long Lance’s ability to strategically escape anti-Black racism through deliberate action, adheres to the rational- choice stance on the primacy of agency over social structures. Rather than awkwardly calling this approach “rationalist” or “rational materialist,” I decided to simply use a qualified “materialist.” I consider the materialist approach to Long Lance and Grey Owl to have one major weakness and one major strength. Its weakness is that it presupposes what Long Lance and Grey Owl perceived to be “rational action.” I borrow this critique from Walter Johnson’s work on historical approaches to agency. In his own context of slave agency, Johnson argues that to say that enslaved people ‘preserved their humanity’ is to say that they acted in ways that the author recognizes as the ways that human beings would act in a given situation. The actions of enslaved people are thus emptied of any specific meaning beyond the bounded terms of the author’s own definition of ‘humanness.’20 Thus, for Johnson, to speak of a slave’s agency to preserve their humanity is, first, to presuppose what it means to be human, and, second, to deny the significance of phenomena that do not correspond to such presuppositions. I suggest that this critique can be applied

19 Compton, After Canaan, 25. 20 Walter Johnson, “On Agency,” Journal of Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 114.

11 Strata Darren Reid equally to the materialist approach to Long Lance and Grey Owl. When Heidenreich and Compton argue that Long Lance’s transformation was a rational decision to escape anti-Black discrimination, they assume that escaping anti-Black racism is the rational thing to do. However, that is not necessarily how Long Lance perceived it. For modern historians studying racialization in the early twentieth century, Long Lance’s experiences with racial discrimination are the defining aspect of his life, but was this the case for Long Lance himself? I am doubtful. When Ruffo argues that Grey Owl adopted an Indigenous identity as a rational decision to improve his reception as an environmental advocate, he assumes that it is rational to think that Indigenous environmentalists can have more impact than British environmentalists, but did Grey Owl see it that way? By approaching Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations as rational flexions of agency, these scholars not only impose an unhistoricized understanding of rationality, but they also assume that people always do what they know to be rational. As I discuss below, the psychoanalytical approach’s biggest strength is that it offers a counterpoint to the materialist focus on rationality, embracing the irrationality of human action through its consideration of emotions. On the other hand, the materialist approach’s strength is its simple recognition that Long Lance and Grey Owl benefited from their racial transformations. When thinking about racial boundaries from a history of ideas perspective, as historians of scientific racism often do, it is easy to lose sight of the materiality of race. Racial boundaries do not exist only in the imagination, they are visible and their stakes are real. Whether or not they considered racial transformation to be rational or not, Long Lance and Grey Owl benefited from identifying as a different race and therefore must have been aware of the unequal stakes of racialization. From a materialist perspective, Long Lance and Grey Owl are not so anomalous. Indeed, if the material stakes of racialization were clear to everyone, it would be the individuals who could change their racial identity but chose not to who would be anomalous. However, as the next two approaches emphasize, racial identity is not always a matter of choice or reason.

12 Strata Darren Reid

PSYCHOANALYTICAL APPROACH

Donald Smith’s 1990 From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl, Karina Vernon’s 2011 “The First Black Prairie Novel: Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance’s Autobiography and the Repression of Prairie Blackness,” and Albert Braz’s 2015 Apostate Englishman: Grey Owl, the Writer and the Myths each demonstrate what I term the psychoanalytical approach to Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations. In many ways, psychoanalytical approaches to history came about in reaction to materialist approaches that considered external, material circumstances to the detriment of internal, emotional circumstances. Lyndal Roper, for instance, critiqued materialist historians who wrote “as if social change impinges directly and uniformly upon the individual’s mental structure, as if the psyche were a kind of blank sheet for social processes to write upon.”21 In this section I argue that the psychoanalytical approach fills a void left by the materialist approach through its examination of emotions, but that it suffers from its own tendency towards universalizing those same emotions. As before, I will first summarize the arguments of the three psychoanalytical pieces, explain why I categorize them as psychoanalytical, and then present my analysis. In From the Land of Shadows, Donald Smith argues that Grey Owl’s transformation was a fantasy that Grey Owl constructed around himself in an effort to escape the shame and insecurity of being abandoned by his parents. To Smith, Grey Owl’s transformation was founded upon unconscious emotions linked to the disappearance of his parents: “Abandoned by his parents, Archie desperately wanted love and affection,” and in response, “he sought refuge in a warm, friendly fantasy world…to escape from himself, from his self-pity, his shame, his insecurity.”22 Karina Vernon’s “The First Black Prairie Novel” argues that Long Lance came to adopt an Indigenous identity

21 Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality, and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994), quoted in Joy Damousi and Robert Reynolds, eds., History on the Couch: Essays in History and Psychoanalysis (Melbourne: Melbourne Universty Press, 2003), 3. 22 Donald Smith, From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl (Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1990), 215.

13 Strata Darren Reid as a way to metaphorically express the Black identity that he was forced to repress. Vernon shares the materialist approach’s attention to the practical and rational motivations behind Long Lance’s change of identity: “in the political and cultural climate of both the United States and Canada...Long Lance felt he was safer, and that he could go farther, by disavowing any connection, cultural or racial, to Blackness.”23 Unlike the materialist approach, she disputes the extent to which Long Lance’s transformation was a conscious choice. She directly argues against approaches that “presuppose the possibilities of a fully self-cognizant subject capable of choosing to perform either a truthful self-representation or a ‘fraudulent’ identity.”24 Thus, Vernon’s use of the concept of metaphorical identities allows for Long Lance to have purposefully identified in a manner that was beneficial to him while unconsciously using that identity to fulfill the original identity that had been repressed. In Apostate Englishman, Albert Braz adopts a psychoanalytical approach that attributes Grey Owl’s adoption of Indigeneity to an unconscious rejection of his British upbringing. Braz argues that Grey Owl’s adoption of Indigeneity was “a form of revenge for the matriarch-ruled days of his boyhood, a revolt against the aunts and grandmother who had scorned his Indian games.”25 For Braz, Grey Owl’s transformation was motivated not by material circumstances but by a disparity of cultural values which led him to favour Indigeneity, or what he perceived as Indigeneity, over his own Britishness. I categorized these pieces as psychoanalytical because they utilize psychoanalytical theory to explain Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations over and beyond any explicit or immediately obvious rational choice. Smith’s argument, that Grey Owl “conjured up an imaginary Scots-American guide as his father and chose an Apache woman as his mother,”26 is an unacknowledged reference to Freudian psychoanalysis, where the lack of a father figure in childhood is

23 Karina Vernon, “The First Black Prairie Novel: Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance’s Autobiography and the Repression of Prairie Blackness,” Journal of Canadian Studies 45, no. 2 (2011): 46. 24 Vernon, “The First Black Prairie Novel,” 50. 25 Albert Braz, Apostate Englishman: Grey Owl, the Writer and the Myths (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2015), 5-6. 26 Smith, From the Land of Shadows, 215.

14 Strata Darren Reid considered a factor in distorting perceptions of reality. For example, consider the similarities between the following interpretation of Freudian approaches to absentee father complexes and Smith’s argument: Whether absent or visiting regularly or erratically, whether living three blocks away or in a distant state, the noncustodial father remains a significant psychological presence in the lives of children…When they lack information regarding the father, children construct an image of a father, one suitable to their developmental needs at the time.27

Vernon’s debt to Freud is explicitly acknowledged, as she uses Freud’s concept of “splitting off” to explain why Long Lance would instinctively reject a Blackness that he subconsciously perceived within himself.28 Braz fits less easily into the psychoanalytical category, as he does not directly reference any psychoanalytical theory. I include him in this category because he identifies Grey Owl’s motivation for transforming himself as one of personal preference, subconsciously informed by a negative association of British culture with his unhappy childhood. As will be mentioned later, however, Braz also exhibits some discursive tendencies. Like the materialist approach, I consider the psychoanalytical approach to have one major weakness and one major strength. Its major weakness is that it has a tendency to universalize subjective values and experiences. Donald Smith’s argument, that Grey Owl’s transformation was motivated on his desire to escape the “self-pity, shame, and insecurity” that his parents’ abandonment inflicted on him, is predicated on Smith’s assumption that he could understand how being abandoned by parents would have made Grey Owl feel. This assumption, that we in the present can understand how people in the past felt, is one of the founding principles of psychohistory. Yet to adopt this assumption requires us to believe in the universality of emotion (as opposed to the historicity of emotion). Lloyd DeMause

27 J. Wallerstein, “Children of Divorce: Preliminary report of a ten-year follow-up of young children,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 54 (1987): 207, quoted in Kim Jones, “Assessing the Impact of Father-Absence from a Psychoanalytic Perspective,” Psychoanalytic Social Work 14, no. 1 (2007): 48. 28 Vernon, “The First Black Prairie Novel,” 41.

15 Strata Darren Reid recognized this very notion back in 1982, although he did not represent it as a problem: Ultimately, a psyche can only explore itself to discover the motives of another…It is only by discovering the ‘Hitler in ourselves’ that we can understand a Hitler. If one denies one has a ‘Hitler in ourselves,’ one cannot do psychohistory.29 To believe that we can understand a historical figure’s emotions requires us also to believe that we experience the same emotions in the same ways that historical figures did. Is not such a belief a universalization of emotion? Is not Smith, by attributing Grey Owl’s transformation to an unexplicated emotional state of parental abandonment, assuming that all humans experience parental abandonment in a predictable and understandable way, regardless of temporal separation? I believe this to be so. The other scholars display a similar, albeit less pervasive, universalization. Consider the following statements by Vernon: That Long Lance was not able to acknowledge the full complexity of his identity, including his cultural and racial Blackness, during his time on the Prairies, and that his Autobiography was penned by one whose Blackness was so radically disavowed, hints at the degree to which Blackness has been repressed in the Prairie imaginary.30 Although Long Lance is more or less successfully passing as Blackfoot, he is nevertheless compelled to write about Blackness, even if he cannot—or will not—explicitly acknowledge his own. It is as though in repressing his personal identification with Blackness, the Blackness he wishes he could admit nevertheless returns.31 Vernon goes to great lengths to identify an internal “Blackness” within Long Lance which he was repressing, but at no point does she explain what exactly “Blackness” is, or why she assumes Long Lance to possess it, other than the fact that he was born into a “coloured” community. Vernon operates on an assumption that all people born and raised in Black communities have some sort of shared “Blackness.” To be clear, my criticism is not that these scholars engage

29 Lloyd DeMause, Foundations of Psychohistory (New York: Creative Roots, 1982), i. 30 Vernon, “The First Black Prairie Novel,” 32. 31 Ibid., 42.

16 Strata Darren Reid in conjecture, but that their conjecture is informed by assumptions of universal emotions rather than observations of individual behaviour. Smith and Vernon assume an inherent abandonment issue and an inherent state of “Blackness” of which there is no real evidence for, and then search for Freudian slips that might be expressions of these. Braz largely avoids this issue. His argument that Grey Owl’s transformation was motivated by an internal rejection of British culture is directly evidenced by Grey Owl’s behaviour, as much of his life in the wilderness was indeed a rejection of his British upbringing. This tendency towards universalizing Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s psychological characteristics undermines the psychoanalytical approach’s persuasiveness. On the other hand, the psychoanalytical approach’s biggest strength is the nuance it adds to the materialist approach’s rationalism. Dennis Wrong argued that an overemphasis on rational, prima facie explanations of historical phenomena leads to a “flattening-out of experience,” and therefore “the most fundamental insight of psychoanalysis is that the wish, the emotion, and the fantasy are as important as the act.”32 By looking at the wishes, emotions, and fantasies that motivated Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations, the psychoanalytical approach locates the contingency of their transformations not only on their material circumstances but also on their perceptions and experiences of those circumstances. What, then, does the psychoanalytical approach offer to our understanding of racial boundaries in early twentieth century Canada? By attending to irrationality and emotion, it illustrates the need for historians to expand their scope of research beyond an individual’s singular racialized experiences to include all of their previous experiences that might distort their reasoning. Thus, rather than noting that Long Lance and Grey Owl changed their racial identities and concluding that they did so out of material gain, the psychoanalytical approach shows us that Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s perceptions of racial boundaries were informed by their

32 Dennis Wrong, Skeptical Sociology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), quoted in Damousi and Reynolds, eds., History on the Couch, 191.

17 Strata Darren Reid childhood racialization and may likely have been uninformed by modern conceptions of rationality.

DISCURSIVE APPROACH

Laura Browder’s 2000 Slippery Characters: Ethnic Impersonators and American Identities, Bruce Erickson’s 2011 “‘A Phantasy in White in a World that is Dead’: Grey Owl and the Whiteness of Surrogacy,” and Fenn Stewart’s 2018 “Grey Owl in the White Settler Wilderness: ‘Imaginary Indians’ in Canadian Culture and Law” each demonstrate what I term the discursive approach to Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations. When I describe these approaches as discursive, I do not intend to give them a monopoly over discourse. The materialist approach, especially Wayde Compton, certainly engages with discursive racialization, and the psychoanalytical approach is founded upon an acceptance that people operate within systems of unconscious yet structural meanings. What makes Browder’s, Erickson’s, and Stewart’s approaches uniquely discursive is that they emphasize the power structures that underlay Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s racial transformations. In this section I argue that the discursive approach’s attention to underlying power structures is valuable because it problematizes their racial transformations with concepts like cultural appropriation and settler colonialism, yet that a limited focus on such concepts fails to realize the full potential of a discursive approach. One more time, I will first summarize the arguments of the three discursive pieces, explain why I categorize them as discursive, and then present my analysis. In Slippery Characters, Laura Browder argues that Long Lance’s transformation was founded upon his “ability to manipulate stereotypes, thus further miring [his] audience in essentialist racial and ethnic categories.”33 Browder concludes that while Long Lance at some points in his writings seems to advocate for Indigenous peoples, overall he engaged in and reinforced a strongly assimilationist discourse that she categorizes as somewhere in “the nexus of Social

33 Laura Browder, Slippery Characters: Ethnic Impersonators and American Identities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2000), 128.

18 Strata Darren Reid

Darwinist or romanticized racialist thought.”34 In “A Phantasy of White in a World that is Dead,” Bruce Erickson argues that Grey Owl’s environmental advocacy adopted and reinforced a discourse of vanishing wilderness that represented Canada’s wilderness as a white settler space. Some may argue that given Grey Owl’s identification with First Nations communities, his work was asserting a place for Native peoples in Canadian life...Yet, despite his personal actions, Grey Owl’s masquerade was integral to the construction and popularity of a new regime of white space that inevitably envisioned the Canadian wilderness without a First Nations presence.35 Erickson locates Grey Owl within a “wilderness-production-through- conservation discourse” that represented wilderness as the birthright of white Canadians.36 Contextualizing Grey Owl within the tentative legality of Treaty 6, Fenn Stewart’s “Grey Owl in the White Settler Wilderness” argues that Grey Owl’s appropriation of Indigeneity and his widely publicized role within the Dominion Parks Branch functioned to “appropriate Indigenous consent” for reallocating reserved land for national parks by “suggest[ing] that the nation has the consent and support of Indigenous peoples.”37 Stewart conceptualizes Grey Owl’s adoption of Indigeneity as a “dual process of erasure and appropriation” which, through a performance of “playing Indian,” created a narrative that supported a discourse of settler control over Indigenous societies.38 I call these approaches discursive because their primary emphasis is Foucauldian discourse analysis. Foucault theorized knowledge systems as made up of six levels of meaning: signs, statements, positivities, discourses, discursive formations, and epistemes. Epistemes are historically specific totalities of knowledge systems, and

34 Browder, Slippery Characters, 124. 35 Bruce Erickson, “A Phantasy in White in a World that is Dead,” in Andrew Baldwin, Laura Cameron, and Audrey Kobayashi, eds., Rethinking the Great White North: Race, Nature, and the Historical Geographies of Whiteness in Canada (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2011), 20. 36 Erickson, “A Phantasy in White in a World that is Dead,” 33. 37 Fenn Stewart, “Grey Owl in the White Settler Wilderness: ‘Imaginary Indians’ in Canadian Culture and Law,” Law, Culture and the Humanities 14, no. 1 (2018): 164-5. 38 Stewart, “Grey Owl in the White Settler Wilderness,” 167, 170.

19 Strata Darren Reid the historical specificity of such knowledge systems are defined by the particular discursive formations that make up a particular episteme. Discourses themselves are made up of statements and signs, but “a discourse, unlike a sign or a statement, is not a material thing. It is a message which is embedded in the signs, and which arises from them as a group of statements.”39 As such, discourse analysis is not interested in materiality, but in the deeper messages embedded in materiality. Browder illustrates this approach by distinguishing between the materiality of Long Lance’s transformation and the deeper meaning behind it. On the surface, his transformation seems to align with Elaine Ginsberg’s conception of racial passing as “a way of challenging categories and boundaries.”40 However, by attending to the discursive implications of a non-Indigenous person who simulates Indigeneity by manipulating stereotypes, Browder concludes that the deeper meaning of Long Lance’s transformation was an entrenchment of “essentialist racial and ethnic categories.”41 Erickson adopted Foucauldian discourse analysis by distinguishing between Grey Owl’s material statements, that Indigenous people had a place in Canada, with the overall message embedded in his representations of wilderness: that the wilderness was a white space. Similarly, Stewart adopted Foucauldian discourse analysis by distinguishing between Grey Owl’s material statements and the overall message embedded in his employment by the Dominion Parks Department: that Indigenous people supported the reallocation of Indian reserves to wildlife reserves. All three scholars illustrate the discursive approach’s attention to embedded, indirect meanings over explicit, material statements. I suggest that the discursive approach’s greatest strength is that its attention to underlying power structures highlights the destructive aspect of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations, locating them as acts of cultural appropriation and settler colonialism. By attending only to their intentions, materialists and psychoanalysts have presented an unnuanced image of Long Lance and Grey Owl as

39 Callum Brown, Postmodernism for Historians (New York: Pearson Education, 2005), 61. 40 Browder, Slippery Characters, 10. 41 Ibid.

20 Strata Darren Reid individuals who challenged racial boundaries and oppressive power structures. Sometimes this is explicit. Vernon claimed that “as problematic as his identification with the Blackfoot is, Long Lance also used his Indian persona in his published articles and in his public lectures to advocate for First Nations issues.”42 Similarly, Braz countered the claim that Grey Owl was “a poster boy for Canadian colonialism” by pointing out that “one of his ambitions was to persuade the people of Canada that the rightful and effective place of the Indian is as the supervisor and custodian of the wilderness.”43 But often this is by omission, as neither Compton, Heidenreich, nor Ruffo problematizes Long Lance’s or Grey Owl’s advocacy of Indigenous issues at any point in their writing. By addressing power structures, the discursive approach offers a counternarrative against the materialist and psychoanalytical narrative of Long Lance and Grey Owl as Indigenous advocates. However, the discursive approach’s blanket dismissal of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s ability to challenge racial boundaries strikes me as reactionary. The materialist and psychoanalytical approaches may be flawed, but I do not see that their representations of Long Lance and Grey Owl as racially subversive can be dismissed solely on the basis of a discursive theory of power. I suggest that the discursive approach is so contradictory to the materialist and psychological approaches because the discursive scholars have been too narrowly focused on the cultural appropriative and settler colonial aspect of Long Lance and Grey Owl. To remedy this, I identify three significant gaps in the historiography that the discursive approach is uniquely suited to address. Following my contention in the introduction of this paper that Long Lance and Grey Owl offer significant insights into the nature of racial boundaries in early twentieth century Canada, I suggest that filling these gaps will reduce the reactionary nature of the discursive approach so that it can be used to nuance, rather than outright dismiss, the other two approaches.

42 Vernon, “The First Black Prairie Novel,” 45. 43 Braz, Apostate Englishman, 163-4.

21 Strata Darren Reid

GAPS IN THE HISTORIOGRAPHY

The first gap is the lack of Indigenous voices. Ruffo clearly illustrates that Grey Owl’s transformation was predicated upon Anishinaabe agency, but he is the only one other than Braz who gives any serious attention to this. And Braz’s attention is largely based on citing Ruffo. Furthermore, my own reading of Long Lance suggests that he was in a similar situation to Grey Owl. He only began identifying as Kainai after he was adopted as an honorary Kainai chief and given the name “Buffalo Child” by Mountain Horse.44 His knowledge of Kainai culture was shared with him by the Kainai community when he was writing articles about them for The Calgary Herald.45 He did not always have a good relationship with the Kainai, and they eventually denounced him for using their culture for monetary gain,46 but the implication that they were okay with him using their culture for purposes other than monetary gain suggests that his transformation was predicated upon Kainai agency in a manner similar to Grey Owl’s. Further research into the role of Indigenous peoples is clearly necessary. I contend that the discursive approach has the most merit for this research. A materialist and a psychoanalytical approach clearly have the merit as well, for the same reasons that they have merit for the study of Long Lance and Grey Owl themselves. The Anishinaabe and the Kainai likely had rational reasons for sharing their culture, as Ruffo suggests for the Anishinaabe, and they likely also had many less-than-rational motivations which can augment that narrative. However, given the emphasis of Foucauldian discourse on the subversive power of counter discourses, it is crucial that discursive scholars of Long Lance and Grey Owl consider the role of Indigenous voices. Is the narrative of Long Lance and Grey Owl as cultural appropriators and “colonial stooge[s]” still appropriate when their transformation was enabled by Indigenous agency? Perhaps, perhaps not, but this is a serious lacuna in the discursive historiography.

44 Donald Smith, Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance: The Glorious Impostor (Red Deer: Red Deer Press, 1999), 120-122. 45 Smith, Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance, 110-146. 46 Ibid., 168

22 Strata Darren Reid

The second gap is the lack of attention to Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s afterlives, to how the discovery of their transformations that took place after their deaths impacts the historical narratives that have been constructed about them. The only scholar who has paid serious attention to this is Braz: The visceral denunciations of Grey Owl after his death are often interpreted as a rejection of his appropriation of another culture. But in this study...I argue that what really troubled many people was not so much that Grey Owl had fooled them about his identity...but that he had forsaken European culture.47 Here Braz illustrates how a discursive approach and psychoanalytical approach can be overlapped. He identifies an epistemological structure within contemporary discourse, drawing on James Axtell’s argument that many early twentieth century Britons were “unable to conceive that any civilized person in possession of his faculties or free from undue restraint would choose to become an Indian.”48 He then argues that Grey Owl’s transformation offered a counternarrative which challenged that discursive structure, and this challenge pushed commentators to viscerally denounce Grey Owl. Braz’s focus doesn’t linger on the significance of Grey Owl’s counternarrative, instead focusing on a psychoanalytical exploration of why Grey Owl’s contemporaries and later Grey Owl scholars reacted to his counternarrative in the ways they have. However, Braz’s argument requires a response from a discursive perspective because, if the discovery of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations did pose a challenge to the racialized discursive structures that their transformations were founded upon, then the discursive approach’s argument is severely undermined. The discursive approach contends that despite Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s apparent agency in overcoming the racialized boundaries of their episteme, their reliance on racialized stereotypes and representations only reinforced those epistemic boundaries. If, however, upon the discovery of their transformations, their contemporaries were forced to confront the socially constructed nature of their epistemic boundaries, might it be

47 Braz, Apostate Englishman, 1. 48 James Axtell, “The White Indians of Colonial America,” The William and Mary Quarterly 32, no. 1 (1975): 6.

23 Strata Darren Reid the case that Long Lance and Grey Owl did succeed in challenging those boundaries, in death if not in life? As with the lack of Indigenous voices, this lack of attention to afterlives is another lacuna in the discursive historiography. The third gap is a lack of attention to the intersectionality of discourses. The discursive scholars outlined in this paper have approached discourse from different angles: Browder focused on discourse within autobiography, Erickson focused on discourse within environmental advocacy, and Stewart focused on the performative discourse of civil service. Despite the variety of discursive media they address, they all explore Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s interactions with a single discourse: settler colonialism. This is certainly an important discourse to study, but people do not live within a single discourse. Foucauldian discourse analysis is based in a conception of dispersed relational power: Relations of power are not in a position of exteriority with respect to other types of relations (economic processes, knowledge relationships, sexual relations), but are immanent in the latter; they are the immediate effects of the divisions, inequalities, and disequilibriums which occur in the latter, and conversely they are the internal conditions of these differentiations; relations of power are not in superstructural positions, with merely a role of prohibition or accompaniment; they have a directly productive role, wherever they come into play.49 The point Foucault makes here is that power structures do not exist in a single discourse but are compounded by all of the discourses we perform. A change in the power structure of one discourse ripples through the power structures of all discourses which intersect with it, so that discourses constantly reinforce and undermine each other. Kay Anderson succinctly summarized the importance of this theory to colonial power structures: Colonial regimes were neither monolithic nor omnipotent; moreover, the racialized binary of colonizing self and colonized other was striated by class and gender, not least because colonialism’s many different projects operated in complex

49 Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction (New York: Random House, 1978), 94.

24 Strata Darren Reid

interaction with wider regimes of capitalism, modernity and patriarchy.50 While Browder, Erickson, and Stewart have illuminated Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s reinforcement of their society’s power structures through assimilationist discourses, they have not adequately explored Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s overall influence on their society’s power structures because they have not addressed the range of other discourses Long Lance and Grey Owl performed. This will be a significant gap in the historiography of Long Lance and Grey Owl until the discursive approach has broadened its scope to the intersectionality of other discourses.

***

I began this paper with a zoomed-out consideration of scientific racism in the larger British empire before zooming-in to Canada, and I would like to finish by zooming-out again. Talking about the British empire is inherently problematic because it was never a homogenous entity. Despite the allure of the core-periphery model that suggests some level of uniformly reproduced colonies and settlements, we know that each of the nodes of the imperial network were defined by temporal, geographic, and social contingencies which rendered them infinitely unique from each other. But uniqueness is not separateness; all nodes of the imperial network were connected by a continual transference of people, resources, and, most importantly, knowledge. Books, newspapers, letters, and word of mouth ensured that information from one node spread to all the others to create one large, amalgamated imperial knowledge system. It is in this imperial knowledge system that scientific racism supposedly arose in the late nineteenth century, and in which racial boundaries became increasingly rigid. Yet it is also in this imperial knowledge system that Long Lance and Grey Owl operated. Their writings, their movies, and their very bodies travelled across the empire, spreading their ideas as they went. Studying the significance of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s transformations is therefore not just about understanding racial

50 Kay Anderson, Race and the Crisis of Humanism (New York: Routledge, 2007), 16.

25 Strata Darren Reid boundaries in Canada, but about the very concept of race in the British empire as a whole. Each of the approaches outlined in this paper offers a useful insight into the significance of Long Lance’s and Grey Owl’s racial transformations. The materialist approach is well suited to capturing agency, the psychoanalytical approach is well suited to capturing emotion, and the discursive approach is well suited to exploring embedded meanings. Any understanding of Long Lance and Grey Owl that was informed by a consideration of only one approach would be incomplete. However, the historiography of Long Lance and Grey Owl is also incomplete. It is my hope that by addressing the three gaps in the historiography I have identified, historians can move towards illuminating the various significances of their racial transformations.

26 Strata Darren Reid

Bibliography

Études

ANDERSON, Kay. Race and the Crisis of Humanism. New York: Routledge, 2007. AXTELL, James. “The White Indians of Colonial America.” The William and Mary Quarterly 32, no. 1 (1975): 55-88. BARDER, Alexander. “Scientific Racism, Race War and the Global Racial Imaginary.” Third World Quarterly 40, no. 1 (2019): 1-17. BILLINGHURST, Jane. Grey Owl: The Many Faces of Archie Belaney. Vancouver: Greystone Books, 1999. BRAZ, Albert. Apostate Englishman: Grey Owl, the Writer and the Myths. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2015. BREWER, John. “Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life.” Cultural and Social History 7, no. 1 (2015): 87-109. BROWDER, Laura. Slippery Characters: Ethnic Impersonators and American Identities. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2000. BROWN, Callum. Postmodernism for Historians. New York: Pearson Education, 2005. CABRERA, Miguel. Postsocial History: An Introduction. Toronto: Lexington Books, 2004. CALLINICOS, Alex. Making History: Agency, Structure, and Change in Social Theory. Boston: Brill, 2004. CARTER, Sarah. Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Farmers and Government Policy. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990. COMPTON, Wayde. After Canaan: Essays on Race, Writing, and Region. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 2010. DAMOUSI, Joy and Robert REYNOLDS, editors. History on the Couch: Essays in History and Psychoanalysis. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2003. DEMAUSE, Lloyd. Foundations of Psychohistory. New York: Creative Roots, 1982. ERICKSON, Bruce. “‘A Phantasy in White in a World that is Dead’: Grey Owl and the Whiteness of Surrogacy,” in Andrew Baldwin, Laura Cameron, and Audrey Kobayashi, editors. Rethinking the Great White North: Race, Nature, and the Historical Geographies of Whiteness in Canada. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2011. FOUCAULT, Michel. The History of Sexuality Volume 1: An Introduction. New York: Random House, 1978.

27 Strata Darren Reid

HEIDENREICH, Rosmarin. Literary Impostors: Canadian Autofiction of the Early Twentieth Century. Montreal: McGIll-Queen’s University Press, 2018. JOHNSON, Walter. “On Agency.” Journal of Social History 37, no. 1 (2003): 113-124. MARTIN, Luther, Huck GUTMAN, and Patrick HUTTON. Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault. London: Tavistock Publications, 1988. MILLER, J. R. Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Native-Newcomer Relations in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989. RUFFO, Armand. Grey Owl: The Mystery of Archie Belaney. Regina: Coteau Books, 1996. SMITH, Donald. “BELANEY, ARCHIBALD STANSFELD, known as Grey Owl and Wa-sha-quon-asin,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 16. University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–. Accessed April 10. 2019. http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/belaney_archibald_stansfeld_ 16E.html SMITH, Donald. “LONG, SYLVESTER CLARK (Sylvester Chahuska Long Lance, Buffalo Child, Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance),” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 16. University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2003–. Accessed April 10, 2019. http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/long_sylvester_clark_16E.html. SMITH, Donald. Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance: The Glorious Impostor. Red Deer: Red Deer Press, 1999. SMITH, Donald. From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1990. STEPHAN, Nancy. The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960. London: Macmillan, 1982. STEWART, Fenn. “Grey Owl in the White Settler Wilderness: ‘Imaginary Indians’ in Canadian Culture and Law.” Law, Culture and the Humanities 14, no. 1 (2018): 161-181. VERNON, Karina. “The First Black Prairie Novel: Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance’s Autobiography and the Repression of Prairie Blackness.” Journal of Canadian Studies 45, no. 2 (2011): 31-57. WALLERSTEIN, Judith. “Children of Divorce: Preliminary report of a ten- year follow-up of young children,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 54 (1987): 207, quoted in Kim Jones. “Assessing the Impact of Father- Absence from a Psychoanalytic Perspective.” Psychoanalytic Social Work 14, no. 1 (2007): 43-58.

28