NUCLEAR POWER FOR VANCOUVER ISLAND

i •• • .. •. .

;^ ; At the requc Canada limited generation of m NUCLEAR POWER FOR VANCOUVER ISLAND

At the request of the Greater Nanaimo Chamber of Commerce, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited has been most happy to prepare these notes on many aspects of the generation of nuclear power on Vancouver Island. The 23 topics are as listed in the letter of Mr. David D. Hart, President of the Chamber, which is reproduced herewith. ; Our study shows that Vancouver Island is a logical area for the application of nuclear power. - . • We would be glad to try to answer any questions arising from these notes, or to refer . those interested to AECL or other publications giving more detailed information on specific subjects. •- -

Ji. Gray President

Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, • - ,275 Slater Street, . ; , - Ottawa; Ontario . ' -'-.,',' Í K1A0S4 , ,'•'••• • ? fii

2nd edition

Covtr photo show« th« Douglw Point N,icl»ar Ganaiiting Station which i« part of tha Bruca Nuclaar Pcwyar Daválopmant on Laka - Huron.-' ,•'*•• '• " ~•-, > . °

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% INDEX

List of Illustrations 2 Summary 3 Explanatory Notes and Abbreviations 4 How a Nuclear Plant Works .: 5 Letter from Mr. David D. Hart 8 Topics Suggested by Greater Nanaimo Chamber of Commerce 9

ILLUSTRATIONS

i i;i Fig. No. Page I ii 1 Comparison of Nuclear with Conventional Power 5

I 2 Flow diagram of Nuclear Power Plant 5

!| 3, 540 MW Turbo-Generator. 5

I - 4 Pickering Nuclear Generating Station 6

)| , 5 Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station 6 if 6 . Map showing Canadian Atomic Energy Establishments 7 I •-"-"• p. 7 Burrard Thermal Generating Plant 7

I 8 Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Training Centre for Operators 15

9 NPD Generating Station • • • I6

-' ' 10 Effects of Inflation on Power Costs 18

11 Fuel Bundle;. 22

12 FuelCycles 23 ~~- -'" -" " i3 Cüt-awàydrawing of'Nuclear Power Plant. 27

14 i. Bruce Heavy Water Plant , 28

15- CANDUConcepts...... _...... ; 33

16. End of Voyage.. '.'...:>., ••., 35

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-SUMMARY This brief study indicates that: — Vancouver Island appears to be a logical area for the application of nuclear power. — The cost of power from a nucleat plant on the Island would be less than that from any of the alternatives understood to be currently under consideration; inflation of the costs of conventional fuel will increase the differentiafduring the life of the plant. — The effects on the environment would be less than for any alternative source of power. The level of radioactivity found in the environment, especially outside the exclusion area, as a result of reactor operations would be a small fraction ofthat existing prior to startup of the nuclear plant. The effects of the thermal discharge depend somewhat on the site chosen, but would be unlikely to be detectable more than 'A to 'A mile from the site, and within this distance are more likely to be desirable than otherwise. No other environmental effects are involved. — A nuclear power unit of up to 600 MW (600,000 kilowatts) would fit in with existing power sources on the Island. Existing hydro plants and undersea cables to the mainland would help to even the load on the nuclear plant, and provide power when it was necessary to shut down the nuclear plant for maintenance. Future increases in power demands could be met equally economically by adding nuclear units at the site of the first unit. — A significant portion of the expenditure on a nuclear plant would go to local and provincial labour, material supplies, manufactured components, operator training and engineering. ' — The first unit would require an operating staff of about 135; close to 300 new permanent jobs would be created in the community in which the plant was located." EXPLANATORY NOTES AND. ABBREVIATIONS H

AECB: The (Canadian) Atomic Energy Control Board represents the Federal Govern- ment in regulatory matters pertaining to the licensing and safety aspects of nuclear energy. AECL: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited is a Crown Corporation, formed in 1952 to ht take over the operation of the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories from the National (a Research Council and to further the development of nuclear power and other uses of ai nuclear energy. It operates research laboratories at Chalk River, Ontario, and Pinawa, be Manitoba, and an engineering office and laboratories at Sheridan Park, near Toronto. he Fig. 6 indicates the location of these establishments. te fossil fuel: Refers to coal, oil or natural gas. fr< sn kWh: Kilowatt-hour, a basic unit of electrical energy. The average yearly consumption of re electricity per person in Canada in 1969 was 3,893 kWh. he milis/kWh: Used to express the cost of electricity. A mill in this sense is one-tenth of a P« cent. The cost of transmitting electric power to Vancouver Island from the mainland is m about 2 mSs/kWh, in addition to the cost of generating it. tu MWe or MW: Megawatts electrical. A megawatt is 1,000 kilowatts. The maximum Pi electrical power available on Vancouver Island is about 980 MWe, of which about 540 de MWe can be transmitted from the mainland via the submarine cable from Tsawwassen. ne A likely size for the first nuclear power plant unit on the Island might be 600 MWe. so The heat generated in a reactor is measured in thermal megawatts (MWt). Most nuclear power systems convert about 30% of this heat into electrical energy, the "thermal H; efficiency" being limited by the maximum temperature at which heat can be ge transported from the reactor and by the cooHng water temperature. fa Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario (Ontario Hydro): supplies almost all of the electric power used in Ontario, and frequently exports some to New York State. In addition to hydro and coal-fired steam plants, and a 200 MWe nuclear prototype plant at Douglas Point in operation, it has under construction two-large 4-unit nuclear stations known as Pickering and Bruce. The first three 500 MWe Pickering units are. operating in an exceptionally satisfactory manner,, and the 4th unit will be brought into operation in 1973. The four Bruce units, of 750 MWe each, will be started up

about a year apart commencing in 1975. Similar or larger generating stations are in the Fig. 2- planning stage. Present generating capacity is over. 13,000 MW. ~ - powerpl Quebec Hydro-Electric Commission (Hydro-Quebec): supplies electric power for almost ; all of the Province of Quebec. Most of this is generated from water-power. The Commission operates one prototype nuclear unit rated at 250. MWe at Gentilly, which is in the process,,of being brought up to full power. If the James Bay hydro, development is carried through, Hydro-Quebec may build one'or two nuclear plants to provide'power in the interim but a full-scale nuclear power program, would not be required until the mid-1980s. ~ 'I . ,: ''_• rem: This is a unit of radiation effectively absorbed in man. If'a man were to stand in a radiation field such that he absorbed one rem in one hour, the,dose rate in the field is Fis.3- 1 rem per hour. Similarly,'if he had to stand in a radiation field for 100 hours to sett of 1 absorb 1 rem, the field would be l/100th rerirper hour. In each case he would have TiMCOIK absorbed one man-rem^The natural radiation on this continent averages about 0.13 rem per year. Statistical studies of large populations that have existed in natural radiation fields of up to a dozen times this figure have failed to reveal any discernible " - 'effect. • " .,.'.-'-. • . .", " . " •.,"*, • " • ' =-- - HOW A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT WORKS The first diagram shows that a nuclear power plant is similar to a coal or gas burning steam power plant, except that a nuclear reaction provides the heat to generate the steam. Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically how this is done. When tubes containing nuclear fuel (see Fig. 11, page22) ate surrounded by heavy water, a nuclear reaction takes place which causes the fuel to become hot. A separate system pumps high pressure heavy water past the fuel, which heats the water to a temperature of about 575°F (the pressure prevents it from boiling). This water passes through the many small tubes of a heat exchanger, thence back to the reactor. Ordinary water surrounds the tubes of the heat exchanger, or steam generator, and boils to provide ordinary steam for the turbine. As in all modern steam power plants, after passing through the turbine the steam must be condensed before being pumped back into the steam generator. The con-, denser is normally cooled by water drawn from the nearest lake, river or ocean, and is returned-to the source some 15°F warmer. Fig. 1 — Nuclear power plants are much like conventional steam Fig. 3 shows a 540 MW turbo-generator at Ontario power plants, except that a nuclear reactor provides the heat to Hydro's Pickering Nuclear Generating Station. . It generate the steam. generates more than'eight times the power of the famous ship "Queen Elizabeth". , . : MXMiAS POINT NUC11AR POWIR STATION

Fig. 2 — Schematic flow diagram of a nuclear power plant. Fig. 4 - The Pickering Nuclear G.S. under conttruçtion. The first three units are now operating steadHy at full power.

-Fig. 5-Th» Douglas Point Nuclear Generating . Station. ,•'••' ATOMIC ENERGY ESTAILISHMENTS IN CANADA

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Fig. 6 — Location of .Canadian atomic energy research establishments and nuclear power plants.

A bird's eye view of the Pickering station is shown a capacity of 200 MW, it commenced operation in in Fig. 4. Each of the four domed structures contains 1966. a nuclear reactor, connected to its own turbo- The locations of the various atomic energy esta- generator set in the flat-roofed building behind the blishments are shown on the map in Fig. 6. Ontario reactors. The two units at the right commenced Hydro's Nuclear Training Centre for operators is operation in an outstandingly successful manner in located at Rolphton and uses the Nuclear Power 1971 and the last unit should start up in 1973. When Demonstration station for practical experience. construction is completed, the temporary buildings in For comparison, Fig. 7 shows the Burrard thermal the background will be removed and the whole will generating plant, near Vancouver. Each ol' the five be landscaped to give a park-like appearance. The units is capable of generating ISO MW for n total of visitors' parking lot, reception centre and observation 750 MW. The mild climate makes practicable the use platform may be seen at the top right of the picture. of open construction for the boilers, but the iurbines The Douglas Point station is shown in Fig. 5. With are housed in an enclosed hall behind the boilers.

Fig. 7 — Burrard Thermal Generating Plant.. Capable of generating 750 MWe from five units burning p imarily natural gas, with fuel oil in reserve. It is the largest Canadian thermal generating plant west of Toronto. D.

84 COMMERCIAL ST. NÁNAIMO, B.C.,

November 23, 1971

Mr. J; L. Gray, President, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited,. • . . 275 Slater Street,' Ottawa 4, Ontario'.' Dear Mr. Gray: <. ' . '- .. During the past year there-have been several' .references to a possible atomic power station to supply the electric power needs of Vancouver Island. We are aware of the increasing use by Ontario of atomic power. However although atomic electricity may be commonplace in Ontario,, the lack of knowledge on the part of the general public in British Columbia is so serious as to prevent informed consideration of the subject, and may inhibit the., taking of proper steps 'to provide for "Vancouver"; island's future" energy needs.'

> The Chamber is therefore inviting Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to submit a proposal for providing sufficient information to enable a conclusive .evaluation by responsible groups and agencies of the technical, environmental and economic implications of an atomic power station suitably located on the Island.

The scope of information should be sufficiently broad to provide,.in. a singlebound report, fairly complete answers to all those questions which might reasonably be raised byrindividuals or groups„which might be affected by the proposed station. It is proposed that the , information so provided would become the property of the Chamber, but would be made available for consideration arid use by. other appropriate groups and government, agencies. . We envisage that as many as one hundred copies might eventually -be required. , ~

• We understand that prototype generating stations, of various' basic designs have been constructed in the past under favorable, financing by the federal government. With- out wishing to prejudge your proposal, we would particu- larly appreciate a technical approach which might be eligible for such financing as .a prototype station.

.-='• ^ In your reply would you please indicate the charge which would be made to the Chamber, f or "tu '• "formation. ; « * ""' •-""-- "- *-- —.- • " -. ' "« />'}•:. . - - A list of topics and aspects which we believe „ should tçe^covered' in the report is attached hereto. TOPICS SUGGESTED BY GREATER NANAIMO CHAMBER OF COMMERCE Page.

1. Size and reactor type of proposed station. . 10 2. Eligibility for financing as prototype-experience of other prototype station financing. 11 3. Siting requirements — needs for construction access, cooling power distribution, future expansion, etc. 11 4. Capital cost estimate — breakdown of expenditures, listing of local and imported components, materials and services, schedule of required deliveries, typical construction schedule. 12 5. Construction labour — number, classes and scheduling of required construction trades, at project site. J 14 6. Operating labour — numbers, qualifications, types, experience, training procedures, etc. 14 7. Energy cost estimate — breakdown of energy costs, supporting estimates of availability and capacity factors up to maturity. Prediction of future energy costs relative to fossil fuel sources. . 18 8. Waste heat' disposal — proposed method, environmental effects, sea water versus cooling towers or rivers. - 19 9. Radioactivity and radiation — predicted levels and environmental effects. Shielding and exclusion areas. 19 10. Health and Safety. 20 11. Fuel cycle — initial and ultimate fuel cycles, adaptability to advanced fuels, fuel-cycle cost, spent fuel disposal and future reprocessing, refuelling. 21 12. Fuel fabrication — assessment of possible local manufacture. 24 13. Reactor control systems — operating and emergency procedures, outline of pro- posed reactor physics and control theory, criteria of safety — instrumentation design. 25 14. Containment — assessment'Öf credible accidents and provisions for containment. 25 15. • Heavy wafer — initial charge and prospects for local manufacture. 28 16. Future fuel-cycle possibilities — breeding and thorium cycles.-future adaptability of - reactor, test loops. • 21 17. Assessment of possibility of Island development program for fuels, coolants, reactor . materials etc. '"-•"'• 29 18. Assessment of participation of B.C. engineering firms in station designs and construction. Previous experiences. 29 19. Capability of B.C. manufacture, of station components — calandria, end-fittings, steam generators, reactor piping, pumps, steam-system piping, surface condensers, turbines, generators; motors, switchgear etc. _ 29 20. Capability of • B.C. manufacture of instrumentation systems and components, • installation, development of software. - ' -• , 29 21. v Local educational courses for training of station designers and operating staff, required curricula and procedures for post-graduate training. : , 31 22. Long-range assessment of atomic-power — projection of,future systems, fuels, ^coolants, station sizes, generating costs relative to fossil fuels, assessment of fast-breeder and fusion prospects. '-•?-.- . 31 23. Assessment of suggested alternatives - tidal and wind power, solar power, in terms of feasibility, capacity, capital and energy costs, at present state of art and prospective target». , - 34

' If TOPIC 1 - SIZE AND REACTOR TYPE OF a third less heat in its cooling water than a PHW 'per PROPOSED STATION unit of energy generated, a consideration if thermal pollution is a problem (See Topic 8). If the station were to be ordered in 1972, AECL would recommend a heavy water moderated and PROBLEMS OF PROTOTYPES cooled plant (CANDU-PHW) generally similar to the Pickering and Bruce generating stations of Ontario A small organic cooled experimental reactor has Hydro but laid out for a single unit with provision for been in operation at. Pinawã, Manitoba, since adding a second unit later. It would probably be November 1965* and its performance suggests the desirable to choose a site suitable for two pairs of suitability of this type, for large power plants. A such units. The plant would be almost identical to design study by AECL to assess the economics of a those being offered off-shore, and for single-unit full-scale plant should be completed by the end of stations in New Brunswick and Quebec. Experience 1972. If this study indicates that the further develop- with such units promises high reliability; extensive ment of the OCR is warranted, then the matter of data are available to support cost estimates and whether a prototype OCR should be built on design, and in existence are relevant training facilities, Vancouver Island is a subject for discussion between operational and maintenance information and special the B.C. Hydro and Power Authority and AECL. equipment for construction and maintenance. Basically, it' is a matter of weighing the risk of not Ontario Hydro gives every indication of continuing to fully realizing the expected advantages of the new build this type of plant; the first two units of the system against the promise of a better system for Pickering station have performed most satisfactorily following nuclear plants. A prototype might not since starting up in 1971. generate its full rated power; it might take longer to Two new versions of these reactors are under complete than expected in the first few years; it development. The first, known as CANDU-BLW (for might cost more than estimated. On the other hand, boiling light water), is represented by the 250 MWe if the economic studies show, say, a 10% potential prototype power plant at Gentilly, Quebec. As cost advantage over PHW. reactors, and the prototype coolant it uses ordinary water which boils in the performs as satisfactorily as the Pinawa reactor, the reactor to provide steam directly to the turbine, savings could exceed $3 million a year for each whereas the CANDU-PHW reactors use high pressure subsequent similar plant. heavy water to transport the reactor heat to external heat-exchanger boilers. The BLW requires somewhat CONDITIONS SUITED TO A PROTOTYPE less heavy water than the PHWs and supplies higher pressure steam to a more efficient turbine, but it is "There are three main conditions under which a unable to extract as much energy from the fuel as the utility can reasonably contemplate acquiring a proto- PHW. The net economics- are not yet clear. The type reactor. First, the system mus? have sufficient Gentilly plant is in the process of being gradually reserves that a delay of, say, a year in bringing the brought up to power while many tests and measure- plant up to power would be, manageable. Secondly, ments of its characteristics are being made. These - the utility should be planning to build more nuclear should be completed to the extent of permitting . stations in the future to realize the economic advan- economic comparisons with PHWs to be made by tages of the prototype, since the prototype itself will about the end of 1972. be more expensive than a duplicate of an existing plant. (The cost to the utility would depend on the ORGANIC COOLED REACTOR terms'of the contract, as discussed under Topic 2.) The third requirement is that the utility management The second new version of heavy water moderated should be sufficiently interested in keeping their reactors uses an "organic (oil-like) liquid to transfer power costs to a minimum in the long term'to accept the reactor heat to the steam generators. Because the ' the possible initial inconvenience of operating a organic coolant can be operated at a higher tempera- prototype. ture than-water and át moderate .-pressures, the - . In any case, any nuclear power plant offered for CANDU-OCR is capable of generating high pressure Vancouver Island would have certain features in steam (2500 pá) with some superheat. Its thermal „ common with all CANDU reactors. The fuel would be efficiency compares with that of a modern fossil- natural uranium which would not hive to be repro- fuelled steam plant, about 39-40% compared to a cessed after use, but which would contain plutonium PHWs 20 to 30%. It therefore would discharge about that could'later be extracted and sold if the market

10 warranted this. The moderator would be heavy water. years before Douglas Point'became operational, the At least 80% of the plant would be made in federal government, through AECL, and the Ontario Canada and a substantial portion, to be determined, government agreed to assist Ontario Hydro in could represent B.C. supply of labour and equipment; financing them. In this case, Ontario Hydro put up an this portion could be increased for future plants. amount equal to the initial cost of corresponding There is every expectation that a detailed study cod-fired units and AECL and the provincial govern- would show that a CANDU nuciear power plant ment shared the remainder. The split works out at would provide lower cost power on Vancouver Island about 38% for AECL, and 31% each for Ontario than any alternative: AECL will be glad to cooperate Hydro and the Province of Ontario. The three in such a study at the appropriate time. partners are to be reimbursed in proportion to their respective shares out of revenue from the power generated', based on the cost of power from an TOPIC 2 - FINANCING equivalent coal-fired unit, until such time as their investments are fully repaid with interest. Two prototype nuclear power plants have been The third and fourth Pickering units and the four built by AECL with federal government financing. 750 MWe Bruce G.S. units are all financed by Ontario These are the 200 MWe CANDU-EHW plant at Hydro in the normal manner. Douglas Point, the forerunner of Ontario Hydro's The foregoing outlines roughly the financial Pickering and Bruce plants, and the 250 MWe plant at arrangements that have been made to date. Gentilly, Quebec. Douglas Point generated its first power in January 1967. The Gentilly plant is expected to reach full power in 1972, and has been TOPIC 3 - SITING REQUIREMENTS operating at up to 50% of full power since May 1971.

The ideal nuclear power plant site should be FEDERAL ASSISTANCE FOR PROTOTYPES reasonably level, on the coast, with an elevation of some 15 to 30 feet above the highest water levels. It the financing of the two prototypes was essen- should be possible to fence in (on the landward side) tially the same. - The design, construction and an area with a radius roughly 1,000 yards from all operation were paid by the federal government proposed reactor sites. The land for a further radius through AECL. The utility concerned (Ontario Hydro of one to two miles should have a low density of for Douglas Point, and Hydro-Quebec for Gentilly) population, such as farms or recreational parks. . agreed to offer to buy the plant from AECL when it Current thinking is that it should not be less than 10 was satisfied the plant was capable of operating safely to 15 miles from a major city. These distances should and reliably. The price would result in the same be adequate to permit expansion of the station to overall power cost to thé utility as its most efficient two, three or four units in the future, as the demand coal-fired power plant, allowing for the much cheaper for power increases. cost of nuclear fuel. In the meantime, the utility agreed to reimburse AECL for the power produced at one of.- two rates. Where the power is likely to be ' COOLING WATER required for the system, the charge for "capacity Since a 600 MW unit requires a supply of cooling energy" is. based on a fixed-price per megawatt water at the rate of roughly 375,000 gallons per available per day plus a fixed price for each kilowatt minute (see Topic 8), it is an advantage to have a Tiour delivered to the system. At other times, the water depth of 30 to 40 feet at a reasonable distance price is based on the.incremental cost of coal saved off shore to reduce the cost of the water intake by operation of the nuclear plant. Ontario Hydro has structure. This water is discharged back to the source not yet offered to buy the Douglas Point plant, and . and natural features such as a point of land which consideration of its sale may be delayed by AECL's would prevent the warmed water from being recircu- requirements for its steam to operate the Bruce heavy lated are desirable. water plant. -Foundations for the station will be carried to bed rock, and their cost is least if this is at a depth of 20 FINANCING OF PICKERING to 40 feet below the surface of the overburden. The foundation, as well as the rest of the structure, will Because-'of the economic risk involved in com- take into consideration the earthquake rating of the mitting the first two units of Pickering tome three area. (Vancouver Island is zone 3, as are the sites of the NPD and Gentilly nuclear power plants in Ontario Energy Control Board is required (see Topics 9 and and Quebec, respectively.) 10), and this Board should be consulted at an early Transportation for people, heavy equipment and stage hi site selection. The Board, as well as the plant construction materials is required. The water intake designers, require as complete records as possible of structures for several nuclear plants have been the history of water levels and temperatures, wind designed to facilitate off-loading from Barges of the directions and velocities, atmospheric temperature heaviest equipment, generally parts of the turbo- inversions, earthquakes, population distribution and generator set. This method should be applicable to a use of the land and sea in the area. site on the east coast of Vancouver Island. A good In selecting a site for a nuclear power plant, it road, capable of handling heavy trucks, should take should be borne in mind that it would have less of an care of the remaining transportation requirements. A impact on the environment than any other power railway spur would not be likely to be worthwhile for plant of similar capacity. It emits no smoke or fumes, an Island site. makes no noise other than the generator. The warm water discharge may affect marine life, probably beneficially, over a smaller area of sea than the area TOURIST ATTRACTION of land required for the station and switchyard. Since the first nuclear power plant in an area always attracts thousands of sight-seers, the plant site should be laid out with an ample visitors' parking lot. Consideration should also be given to providing a TOPIC 4 - CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES public information building where guides can explain the station, to visitors, using models, diagrams and The following estimate for a 600 MWe (net) moving pictures; there should be a look-out with a CANDU-PHW nuclear power plant assumes that it good view of the station, well away from the will be identical to another to be built first elsewhere, construction work. except for site requirements. SThousands CONSTRUCTION WORK FORCE Civil Works: Site improvements, A work force peaking at 400 to 600 men would buildings and structures 24 000 probably be employed during the construction period. Temporary accommodation may have to be Equipment and Installation inclu- .considered; at some other projects serviced trailer lots ding turbo-generator and allowance have been provided by municipal authorities or for spares, but'not including the private enterprise at nearby locations where they switchyard - ---...-.-. 96 600 could subsequently be used by tourists or vacationers. The permanent housing required by the 135 members Engineering= and Other Services: of the operating staff and then- famines, wherever Includes project and construction built, would probably be used by senior members of management, and engineering and the construction and commissioning groups if commissioning services of AECL available early hi the project schedule: consultants, and the engineering Proximity to the main power distribution network staff of the Utility. 27 300 is a prime requirement, but not a problem if the plant were to be built in the general Nanaimo area. The Heavy Water 27 600 right of way for the transmission line from the plant TOTAL $175 500 must be considered. During construction, the plant would require a medium-voltage power supply of a few megawatts, possibly via the final transmission line Further costs to the Utility would include ihe first with temporary terminal facilities. A fresh water charge of fuel, which would be purchased on the basis supply of around 400 gallons per minute would also of competitive bids from one of the two Canadian be required during and after construction. suppliers. The price would =probably be in the neighbourhood of $5.4 million in 1972 dollars. ATOMIC ENERGY CONTROL BOARD APPROVAL Interest during construction depends on the rate at which the Utility can borrow money during the The site requirements are summarized here as a construction period. An approximate estimate can be guide only. Final approval.of the ate by the Atomic made by assuming this applies to the total project

12 cost during one-half of the period of the project made only after discussions with the Utility. The only schedule, which is 63 months. Escalation would also other possible major cost riot included here is that of increase the above costs; in the absence of more the land and services (power, drinking water and accurate estimates, this could be taken at the rate of sewage disposal). 5% per year from the enid of 1972 to the midpoint of Table I gives a typical schedule, based on the the schedule, which depends on the date of project engineering and manufacturing organizations being approval. A one-year delay would probably increase reasonably familiar with the types of work required the cost by $10 to $12 million.The cost to the Utility of them. of training the operating staff depends on the Approximately 80% bf equipment and materials backgrounds of those selected and an estimate can be can be supplied from Canadian sources.

TABLE 1 - 600 MW NUCLEAR POWER STATION PROJECT SCHEDULE

13 TOPIC 5 - CONSTRUCTION LABOUR

MINIMUM AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONNEL FOR EACH PERIOD

Period (months) Type of Labour 0-12 13-24 25-36 37-48 49-60 60-63 Management & Engineering 14 25 37 34 18 12 Carpenters 50 61 33 9 5 2 Labourers 28 48 36 19 15 8 Concrete Workers 22 53 63 20 8 2 Not included in table are the Utility?s inspectors, operating staff, Const'n. Machinery Op'rs. 16 22 22 14 7 2 public relations staff, groundsmen, 37 Pipe Fitters 3 14 39 50 26 etc., most o£ whom will move to the Iron Workers & Riggers 7 20 32 22 16 9 site during the third and subsequent Welders 2 12 24 18 14 11 years. Millwrights & Erectors 2 16 24 12 8 4 Electricians 1 8 39 34 34 30 Finishing & Insulation 0 8 6 9 5 0 Safety, Fire Security 17 29 42 42 29 18 & Office Services TOTALS 162 316 397 283 196 124

TOPIC 6 - OPERATING STAFF RE- Production superintendent: QUIRED FOR 600 MWe NUCLEAR POWER (a) Managerial responsibility for operating and STATION maintenance groups.' (b) P. Eng. with 4 years' experience in power The Operating Staff required to operate and plants including reactor experience. maintain a single unit nuclear power station com- Shift Supervisors (5): prises approximately 135 personnel of all categories. These may be generalized as follows: (a) Direct operational control of plant. (b) Engineering technologists with .5 years' The staff may be divided into four specific groups: experience in power plant including reactor 1. Key personnel experience. 2. Specialists '• • " i Technical Engineer: 3. Technicians 4. Clerical and labour (a) Responsible for technical and training aspects of plant, analysis of plant performance, pro- The following gives some of the specific require- vision of routine technical services to ments of the groups: with (a) being the,responsi- operations staff. bilities and (b) the minimum, qualifications required: (b) P. Eng. with 4 years' nuclear experience. 0 - 1. Key Personnel HeaKh Physicist: (a) Conduct health physics program with overall Station Superintendent: a responsibility for ,;safe operation; conduct (a) Complete responsibility for plant. personnel monitoring and education program. (b) P. Eng. with 4 years' experience in power (b) Technologist with biological and radiological plants including reactor experience. experience. . * °. ~

14 he ff, n, he nt

Fig. 8 — Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Training Centre for operators. Student operators receive both classroom and practical instruction, and operate the 22 MW NPD nuclear power plant. On satisfactory completion of the courses, they are issued with nuclear operator licences of various grades by the Atomic Energy Control Board.

IS Fig. 9 —The NPD (Nuclear Power Demonstration) Generating Station at Rolphton, Ontario. Commis- sioned in 1963, it is now used chiefly for operator training except during the three winter months of each year when its output of 22 MW is important to the Ontario Hydro system.

The selection of Key Personnel is the first part of 3. Technicians the program for staffing the plant. Appointment of First Operator: an operating liaison officer (possibly future station (a) Control room assignment, reactor and power superintendent) to establish continuous technical plant control. contact and liaison with the designer's office should be done at the beginning of the project. (b) Technician with 5 years' experience as opera- tor of reactor and/or thermal power plant. 2. Specialist Licensed to operate the reactor. Chemist: Second (Field) Operator: (a) Supervise and operate chemical laboratory; (a) Plant assignment, investigation of abnormal perform chemical analysis. .. conditions, relief for First Operator. (b) Chemist or chemical technologist with 2 (b) Technician with 5 years' experience as opera- years' experience. tor of reactor and/or thermal power plant. Licensed to operate the reactor. Physics technologist: Assistant (Fuelling) Operator: (a) Technical advisor in physics area. (a) Refuelling on-power or plant assignments. (b) Engineering technologist with 2 years' nuclear (b) High school graduate with operating expe- experience. rience. Electrical/Mechanical Technologist: Chemical Technician: (a) Technical advisor in electrical/mechanical (a) Perform routine tests or analyses. ' areas. (b) High school graduate with laboratory (b) Engineering technologist with 2 years' electri- experience. cal/mechanical experience. Control MainUiner: Supervisor and Control Radiation Control Supervisor: Technician. (a) Responsible for radiation control co- (a) Repair and maintain electrical and control ordination. equipment. : (b) Engineering technologist with general indus- (b) Technician with technical experience with trial experience. electrical and control equipment.

16 Mechanical Maintainer: Supervisor and Mechani- lowed by complete take-over at contract completion. cal Maintained Training of junior and.less skilled operators and (a) Repair and maintain mechanical equipment. maintainers by the senior engineers would be completed in this period. (b) High school graduate with power plant and/or generating station experience. The second group of engineers/technologists would have more specialized training. This group OPERATOR TRAINING would be hired six months after the first group and would supplement previous experience with thermal Licensing of some of-the nuclear power station and nuclear power station experience. This group operating staff is a requirement of the Atomic Energy would join the first group at site at about the 40th Control Board (AECB). However, the training pro- month of the contract. gram carried out in Canada goes well beyond the training level required to pass the AECB exami- nations. OPERATORS AND MAINTAINERS (TECHNICIANS) The power plant personnel are classified into two categories: At least 10 men should be engaged to take early (a) personnel requiring residential training training as operators and maintainers. Their one to courses and local training. two years of practical thermal and nuclear training (b) other personnel requiring local training only. should start at the 16th month of the contract. At about the 32nd month of the contract period, this group would proceed to Rolphton for a mini- ENGINEER/TECHNOLOGISTS FOR OPERATION mum of six months' practical training. This phase would be completed and the technicians would join Thirteen competent engineers/technologists should the engineers at site for the commissioning phase. be adequate for a single unit nuclear power plant. The remaining operators and maintainers would be These 13 men should be divided into-two^ groups, engaged about the 22nd month of the contract and with the first group of 10 including the station receive their thermal plant or preliminary basic superintendent designate, production superintendent, nuclear instruction. They would then join the senior shift supervisors and health physicist having had operators at site where they would be instructed in considerable experience in a conventional generating plant familiarization and assist in commissioning and plant. operation. These 10 men would be engaged or nominated shortly after commencement of the contract. During FUTURE TRAINING the initial two-and-a-half years they would receive local training, including practical operation in steam A continuing training program for replacement of plants, preliminary nuclear engineering courses personnel would be required after the station was including nuclear theory and general plant practice. operational. This would be carried out by on-job training at the station. After this background training these senior engineers should have six months' practical and systems An operating staff of 135 people will bring approxi- training stich as could be obtained at the Ontario mately these to the community in which they live: Hydro Nuclear Training Centre and the Nuclear Power Demonstration Station (NPD) at Rolphton, 575 People Ontario. 90 School children The second phase of training would be at the 177 Households designer's offices for approximately six months. This 4 Retail establishments would be devoted to station design familiarization $ 1,300,000 Retail sales per year and preparation of commissioning and operational 250 Motor vehicles documentation. 530 Telephones The final.phase of training would be at the station 160 New jobs outside of the nuclear station site starting at the 40th month of the contract. They would take an active and responsible part infringing (Based on "Canadian National Development" sur- the nuclear power plant to operational status fol- vey for Ontario and Quebec).

17 TOPIC 7 - NUCLEAR ENERGY COST ESTIMATES 600 MWe Gas-Fired Plant - 1979 Start-up Capital cost component 3.0 milis/kWh An accurate unit energy cost estimate requires Fuel 5.7 " " considerably more data than is available to AECL at the moment. The following figures are shown as an Operation and Maintenance 4 n • it example only, but should be representative for a 600 Total Unit Energy Cost 9.1 milis/kWh MWe CANDU-PHV/ committed early in 1973. The assumptions are shown. GAS Initial Cost to the Utility $ Thousands It should be noted that the price of gas is likely to increase more rapidly than that of any other fuel in Capital cost (see Topic 4) Incl. D2O 175 500 the future, due to its limited supply relative to First fuel charge 5 400 demand on the continent. An increase of 50% in the Site purchase (allowance) 1 000 cost of gas adds 2.85 milis/kWh to the cost of power, while a corresponding increase in the cost of refined Interest during construction (@754%) 31 600 uranium adds less than 0.2 milis/kWh to the cost of Escalation (@S% for 3*4 years) 38 000 nuclear power. Other utility costs including salaries of operators 3 500 * Initially, power from a 600 MW gas-fired plant during training and commissioning would apparently cost*some $10 million per year 255 000 more than nuclear power. This difference would increase during the life of the plant. Here it is This estimate is for items specific to the unit. The assumed that a natural gas pipeline would be con- cost of "entry" to nuclear power would be about structed to the Island in the most economical $10 million additional. manner. Should this not prove to be the case, the cost of power on Vancouver Island could be increased markedly, and it would be necessary to decide . A capacity factor of 80% for the life of the plant whether this should be subsidized by the ratepayers (30 years) is assumed. Unlike a fossil-fired station, a on the mainland. nuclear plant is likely to be operated at a high Fig. 10 shows iiï the form of a graph the effects óf capacity factor throughout its life because of its low cost escalation at 5% per year on the cost of nuclear fuel cost. power and of natural gas power. This assumes that An interest rate of TA% is also assumed, approxi- once a plant is built, cost escalation applies only to mately the current yield of B.C. Hydro bonds, giving operating expenses and fuel; . •- a capital cost retirement rate over 30 years of about 8.46%. Using these figures, the total unit energy cost -START-UP YEAR- is estimated as follows: ig77 i 4o7Q A loci &* I • t^

MILLS PER. ~t 600 MWe Nuclear Plant- 1979 Start-up 8 —-. i~ KW-HR Capital cost component 5.14 milis/kWh — * Fuelling «.jst'j .91 " " 6 - -- Operation and Maintenance .70 " " 1979 1981 Total Unit Energy Cost 6.75 muis/kWh YEAR; 1974 78 78 ; 80 82 ae as

Fig. 10-Graph showing effects of 5% par vaar inflation on power

-: \ ' • costs. OIK» the plant is complottd, kifl«kxi applies only to fort and optrMing cortj, and the rata of increase *>f the cost of nudaar powar , On the same basis, and assuming the price of gas c delivered to the station to be 65 £ per million Btu, we is much, fest than that of gaf-fu«llad powar, Tha dottad Unas show the affect of'the year of comptation on the initial cost of power. - estimate the total unit energy cost of gas-fired plant This showt the ab*olut» rwcewity of consiclMing the year in which » as follows: s. , !; pl*nt is completed whan comparinf COM*.

18 Difficult to assign a specific cost to are the effects its heat to the atmosphere quite quickly. Just how of vulnerability to damage of power supplies from the quickly depends on local winds and tides. Studies of mainland. The existing undersea cables, and also the the effects of the thermal discharge from a large coal most economical rout« for a gas pipeline to the fired power plant (2,000 MW) on Lake Ontario show Island, lie close to the Roberts Bank terminus for that the temperature increase is generally only a super-freighters. Should cables be broken by a drag- fraction of a degree at a distance of one mile from the ging anchor, repairs could take up to six months, and plant. In the absence of a detailed knowledge of at present would probably involve1 obtaining the winds and tides at the specific site, it would be services of a cable-laying ship from France. expected that at a radius of a quarter-mile from the water outlet the heating effect of the plant would I» HYDRO less than that of the sun on a bright day. This does not kill fish. f In 1962 the published estimated cost of power from the first phase of the proposed Moran Dam was THERMAL ENHANCEMENT 2.74 milis/kWh. If this, is considered for completion In hot climates, as in the southern United States, in 1979, the mid-point of the construction schedule the discharge of waste heat from power plants into would be about 1975. A conservative estimate of cost streams which already are warm has caused local escalation would use 4.6% per year from 1962 to ecological changes that have given rise to the term 1970 (based on Statistics Canada data and 5% from "thermal pollution". For plants located on either 1970 to 1975). This increases the 2.74 milis/kWh in coast of Canada, the effect of the thermal discharge 1962 to about 5.25 milis/kWh for 1979 completion. would undoubtedly be to increase the rate of growth Present transmission costs from. the dam to of practically all species of marine life likely to find Vancouver Island would be about 2.75 milis/kWh, their way into the small area affected. The term and escalating these to 1979 adds about 3.8 mills/ "thermal enhancement" may be more applicable. kWh for a total of about 9 milis/kWh for hydro power de livered to the Island. Conceivably a plant could be located so as to warm the water of a small bay or estuary in order to increase the yield of, say, oysters. However, the economics of such a move would require careful TOPIC 8 -i- WASTE HEAT DISPOSAL study. The warmed water could also be used for a large pond for recreational purposes if desired, Practically all fuel-using power plants waste more though weed control might present a problem. heat than they convert to useful power, whether the In any case, a'power plant on Vancouver Island fuel be coal, oil, gas, gasoline or uranium. Most would not have to resort to cooling towers, which present day nuclear plants waste from 689é to 70% of disfigure the landscape, create dense fog clouds under the heat generated by the fuel; the average coal or oil same conditions, and are costly to install and to burning plant wastes somewhat less, about 60%. An operate. organic-cooled reactor, because of its higher operating The waste heat discharged to the water by a 600 temperatures, would waste less heat than most 'other MWe nuclear power plant would be slightly more nuclear plants, and is comparable to a modem than that from the 750 MWe conventional Burrard fossil-fired plant in this'respect. The heat'Wasted Thermal Generating Station on Burrard Inlet. For cannot be" used to generate more power because the likely nuclear sites on Vancouver Island, the combi- temperature is top low. '' nation of deep water close to the shore and strong For a power plant situated on a large or flowing tides would'result in the effects of the thermal body of water anywhere in Canada, by far the'most discharge from the nuclear plant disappearing within 'satisfactory method of getting* rid of this heat is to a much smaller distance than is the case for the discharge it directly to the water body. A plant of the Burrard plant, yet no serious complaints appear to 1. size considered would heat.; roughly 375,000 gallons have been made concerning the latter. of sea water a minute through' a temperature rise of up to 18°F (10°C)i; Since trie normal temperature of the sub-surface water in Georgia Strait is about 50°F, TOPIC 9 - RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIA- the water would be discharged at a maximum of TION about 68°F, still a Bit cool for swimming by many . .people*''standards. This warmed water tends to stay : ' During the generation of nuclear power »me on the surface of the sea and gives up" a good deal of , effluents containing minute concentrations of radio-

19 nuclides may be released to the environment. The dose is less than 0.005 rem per year. There are also actual amounts of them will depend somewhat on-the corresponding limits to doses to the thyroid. design of the reactor itself but mostly on the auxiliary clean-up systems (which can be included in ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES the design or added later if necessary) for removing unwanted radionuclides from effluents. Present day The releases of radioactivity to the atmosphere technology has had little difficulty in achieving a high and water respectively from all the Canadian power degree of containment so that releases are 'only a reactor sites are accurately and continuously moni- small fraction of the current maximum permissible tored. Only upper limits to the radiation doses to releases. individuals and the population resulting from these discharges can be calculated, however, and the true EXCLUSION AREA doses may be lower by a significant factor, in some cases an order of magnitude. The annual dose rate to By convention Canadian reactors have an exclu- a person standing continuously in the open at the sion area with a radius of 1 km (1100 yards). Reactor boundary fence, due to the radioactive gases released areas where occupancy is continuous throughout the from Douglas Point, is 8 millirem or about 10% of the working day are provided with sufficient shielding so natural background. (1 millirem is 0.001 rem.) The that the exposure to the workers will be only part of annual population dose, rate out to SO km from the the dose permitted annually to them. Zones with site is less than 16 man-rem. higher exposure would have.limited access. With all. The annual dose to an individual drinking only these precautions the individual member of the public station effluent water would be about 1 millirem and at the boundary of the exclusion area is unlikely to if he ate every day 2 ounces of fish which had been receive any significant radiation exposure. reared in the station effluent there would be a further annual dose contribution of 20 millirem. If all these ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT several radiation sources were focussed on a single • individual his dose rate would lie less than 30 What effect, if any, do these.dilute radioactive millirem/year. Needless to say, no such individual wastes have on living things in the environment? exists so that doses to individuals will be about the There have never been.any effects on people, animals same at other sites, though population duses will or plants observed as a result of the disposal of depend on the density of population around each radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors in Canada or site.. elsewhere. The only detectable effect, of any kind, is a slight increase in the natural, pre-existing rádio- nuclklvi content and ïadiation level in some parts of the environment. •-- . . " < TOPIC 10 - HEALTH AND SAFETY Radiation dose limits for members of the public- are set by the Atomic Energy Control Board. The . In 1946 the Canadian government passed the limits conform to those recommended by3 the Inter- Atomic Energy Control Act which declared atomic national Commission on Radiological Protection. The energy a matter of national interest and established criteria which are used to set the maximum permis- the Atomic Energy Controfißoard to administer the sible exposures are: (1) possible, damage to the act. Initially national security was the major concern, individuals and (2) possible genetic ° damage to but the effort devoted to safety has,increased populations. In part, the Canadian regulations state following the growth of the Nuclear power program that individuals in the population shall not receive a and'Jhe development of, uses^for radioisotopes. In radiation dose of more-than Vi rem per year to the 1956, the AECB createdJhé Rlçactor Safety Advisory whole body, which is one-tenth of the dose permitted Committee to advise on all aspects of the safety of for workers in atomic energy installations. This limit nuclear reactors. This committee currently has 10 lies within the' range of human exposure from natural members plus three província] representatives from radioactivity which'varies between 0.1 and approxi- each of Quebec and Ontario, ÚíCfkúfpiomcct tor° mately 2 rem» per year in various parts of the world. date that have nuclear plant». Local Medical Officers A further limit, related to pouible genetic damage to ' of Health -are invited to join the commute« in the population as a whole, is that whole body, doses . discussions of nuclear plants in their areas. The .committee membership includes engineers, scientists fo the population must not exceed ° 10.0GQ man-rem < and medical doctors from various branches of federal pet year, integrated to a distance where the ind&idual

S-' fr/ -" !• and provincial governments. It is assisted by vent the steam pressure in the reactor building from permanent staff of the AECB. increasing enough to force radioactive material out of the building into the environment. LICENSING STAGES OPERATING LICENCE There are two major steps in the licensing of nuclear plants, a Construction Licence and an When construction is completed, the various com- Operating Licence. Discussions are usually held with ponents of the plant ate tested to assure that they applicants at lhe time of choosing a site from which function as intended. Everything is tested except the an expression of site approval may result. At these actual operation of the reactor, which cannot be early discussions, when only the general nature of the started up until an Operating Licence is granted. plant may be known, interest is centred on charac- Assurance of adequate testing is obtained by mem- teristics of the site such as size, geology, usage of bers of the AECB staff at the reactor site during the surrounding land, population density, meteorology construction, testing and commissioning phases of the and water usage. • project. The educational and experience qualifications of CONSTRUCTION LICENCE the key operating staff of a nuclear plant are examined by a Reactor Operators Examination Com- Except for plants wholly owned and operated by mittee. This Committee included experts in reactor the federal government, construction of a nuclear operation and radiation safety as well as represen- reactor may not be started until a licence from the tatives of the provincial licencing bodies for Atomic Energy Control Board has been issued. The stationary engineers. Those designated as Shift applicant for a construction licence must submit to Supervisors or Control Room Operators must write the AECB a description of the proposed design examinations that cover the theoretical and practical together with analyses of possible malfunctions and aspects of operating the nuclear and conventional any hazards arising from them. The design and equipment, and protection against radiation. analyses are reviewed by the Reactor Safety Advisory The Reactor Safety Advisory Committee reviews Committee and by the supporting technical staff of the final design, results of tests and plans for the AECB. During this review, meetings are held with operation. Only when it is satisfied that the plant has the designers to obtain additional information that been designed, built and tested and staffed ade- might be required for a proper assessment of the quately, and that it can be operated safely, does it safety of the proposed nuclear plant. If the commit- recommend to the AECB that an Operating Licence tee is finally satisfied with the proposed design, it be granted. recommends to the AECB that a Construction At least one staff member of the AECB remains at Licence be granted. No licence for a nuclear plant has' the reactor site after start-up until routine operation been granted without a favourable recommendation is achieved, to observe the various start-up tests and from the Reactor Safety Advisory Committee. assess their results, approve or reject, requests for The Committee meets again several times while minor changes in the method of operation, and assure construction is in progress, to consider details of the AECB that the nuclear plant is being operated design that are developed as construction proceeds. It safely. The AECB staff and the Reactor Safety may request additional information, or require that 'Advisory Committee continue their surveillance of certaiiTntests be performed during construction. the operation of the nuclear plant throughout its life. Sometimes it requests design'changes; for. example, the unique "negative pressured containment system" used at the 2,000 megawatt Pickering-Generating TOPICS 11 and 16-CANDU FUEL Station resulted from the Reactor Safety-Advisory CYCLES Committee's insistence on a .very high degree of safety because of its proximity; to Toronto. This . The fuel cycle of CANDU reactors enjoys three major advantages: - Isystèm uses ã large concrete biding that is kept ; under vaèuum connected by a duct to théí contain- — Economy . • ment buildings. If a large failure occurred 4n a piping ' - Simplicity system," the. hot pressurized cooling w*ter from the - Adaptability ,

piping would then be sucked into the. vacuum c The*combination of these factors provides present building through .automatic valves. This would pre- CANDU reactors with the world's lowest fuelling

21 Fig. 11 — This fuel bundle, 1954 inches long, had raised more steam than 25 carloads of coal when the picture was taken.

costs and ensures that they will remain competitive enriched uranium. Additions to this simplest of all indefinitely into the future. fuel cycles would be adopted only if they were to Present CANDU reactors use natural uranium, of further decrease the total unit energy costs. which Canada has an abundant supply. After mining and refining, the uranium is converted to the dioxide, PLUTONIUM UO2, without ever having to be reduced to the metal. UO2 pellets are sealed into zirconium alloy tubes The spent fuel contains a valuable fissile material, which: are assembled into bundles. In all, only six plutonium, produced by reactor-irradiation of ura- different components are required to fabricate a nium. Indeed, CANDU reactors produce more pluto- bundle, the unit of fuel for a CANDU reactor. Thanks nium than most power reactors. Up to now, the to the use of natural uranium and simple bundle world market price for plutonium has been suf- design, the fuel supply costs only about 0.08 (í/kWh. ' ficiently high that the spent fuel from CANDU Thé lbw fuel costs mean that the fuel-inventory reactors has been.sold to other countries for recovery charges are also low. of the contained plutonium. This arrangement not only removes the storage charge from the fuel cycle but also provides a substantial credit only slightly less REPROCESSING UNNECESSARY than the fabrication cost for replacement fuel. After irradiation the spent bundles can be stored • ' In the long-term future, if fast breeder reactors under water indefinitely in a pool at the reactor site. become commercially viable, they will constitute a Both the VO3 and the zirconium alloy are highly good market for CANDU plutonium. In the mean- resistant to corrosion and serve to retain the poten- time, there is likely to be a glut of plutonium. tially dangerous fission products in a secure condition Canadian R & D laboratories are therefore busy under supervision. Provision of the spent fuel storage determining just how to recycle plutonium in facility contributes less than 0.001 fi/kWh, and, this CANDU reactors and how much extra it would cost completes the present CANDU fuel cycle! Using^ to fabricate fuel containing plutonium. This program natural uranium, the CANDU cycle is not forced to will provide the owners of CANDU reactors with the reprocess the spent fuel to recover any expensive information needed to decide it any time whether to

22

- -it employ natural uranium or plutonium-containing the uranium dioxide. Natural uranium would still be fuel; whether to store, sell or recycle their spent fuel. used and any changes in the fuel cycle would be Although reprocessing of natural uranium is not minor. essential, it could prove economically attractive, depending on the domestic and foreign markets for plutonium. Canadian R & D laboratories are investi- THORIUM STRETCHES FUEL SUPPLY gating a reprocessing method that can extract the plutonium from spent fuel without having to separate CANDU reactors could use fuel containing slightly the uranium from the fission products. The simpler enriched uranium, should changing economics make this course attractive. However, the ability of process would result in a plant that would have an CANDU reactors to operate on the very simple economic advantage over existing plants of the same natural uranium cycle protects them from the cost capacity that have to recover enriched uranium. uncertainties that beset other systems, e.g. enrich- A possible future variation of the CANDU reactor ment and reprocessing charges. Only large increases would use an organic liquid (based on terphenyls) as a Ç>100%) in the cost of uranium would seriously primary coolant. The fuel for such a reactor would affect the natural uranium fuel cycle for CANDU look no different than present fuel and the only reactors, and thermal reactors using enriched uranium significant difference would be the substitution of would be affected to a much greater extent. Fortu- uranium carbide (with a higher uranium density) for nately, the thorium fuel cycle protects CANDU

FUEL PREPARATION Fig. 12 — Natural uranium fuel cycle as used in Canadian heavy water reactors.

REFINED NATURAL URANIUM 0.7% U-235

Fig. 13 — Enriched uranium cycle as used in light water reactors, typically in NATURAL URANIUM FUEL CYCLE the United States.

Pu RECYCLE (OPTION) Pu SALE I 1 FUEL REPROCESS PREPARATION FUEL

RECOVERED URANIUM - 0.5% U-235

PROCESS »STORE URANIUM CONVERSION 1^1 REFINED NAT. U| ENRICHMENT TOUFg |^ | 0.7ÄU-236 HIGH ACTIVITY WASTE T UF6 TAILINGS '0,3*U-236 ' ENRICHED URANIUM CYCLE

23 reactors against this future eventuality. Thorium TOPIC 12 - FUEL FABRICATION dioxide is very similar to uranium dioxide so that one. can be substituted for the 'other in fuel bundles. Under reactor'irradiation, the fissile uranium isotope The importance of the Canadian nuclear fuel U-233 is produced in the thorium. Reprocessing industry can be app eciated when it is realized that would remove the fission products and separate the over a period of 30 years, the nominal life of a power thorium and U-233 for recycling. In a CANDU reactor, a single 600 MWe plant will consume more reactor the (thorium) fuel cycle would be very nearly than $115 million of nuclear fuel, based on an self-sufficient in fissile material, i.e. the reactor is a average of $50,000 per tonne (1971 dollars). Less "near breeder" but some fissile material from another than half of this is attributable to the contained fuel cycle would be required to prime the cycle. The natural uranium. characteristics of CANDU reactors operating on a The major contracts that have been negotiated for thorium fuel cycle, together with the great abundance fuel fabrication in Canada are summarized in Table of thorium, are such that low cosf power could be II. supplied to meet all the world's needs for hundreds of • A forecast of the future demand for power reactor centuries. A further advantage of the thorium fuel fuel, given in Table HI, shows that to the year 1990 cycle in CANDU reactors, now being explored, is its demand is expected to double every five years. potential for increasing the power density and At present Canada has two nuclear fuel fabricators thereby decreasing capital cost. whose investment in plant of about $6 million has An emotional appeal of fast breeder reactors is given them a combined annual production capacity of that they appear to offer something for nothing, like 200 tonnes uranium. No major expansion of capacity perpetual motion. In reality, their hope is that will be needed until after 1973, after which invest- breeding more fissile material than they consume will ment in plant, until 1980, will be made in response to allow a net fuel cycle cost comparable to that already specific orders. achieved by CANDU reactors.

TABLE II. MAIOR ORDERS FOR CANADIAN FUEL FABRICATION

Reactor Total Order Completed end-1970 tonneU No.of Bundles tonne U No. of Bundles NPD 16 1200 16 1200 Douglas Point 59 4400 59 4400 RAPP 24 1800 24 1800 aReplacement fuel; 40 3 000 40 3000 KANUPP all others first charge. Pickering 380 19 000 280 14 000 Gentilly 69 3 300 63 3000 NPD* 13 1000 13. 1000 Douglas Pointa 56 4 200 45 3 400

TOTALS 657 37900. 540 31800

TABLE III. CANADIAN FUEL PRODUCTION AND PLANT SIZES

Year Fabrication Demand Max. Plant Size ;i (tonne U/year) (tonne U/day) 1970 198 0.7 1975 493 ,1.6 1980 1 177 • If • . 1985 „ 2 735 5.0 1990 5 065 8.9 i TOPIC 13 - REACTOR CONTROL SYS- absorbing rods and poison injection into the TEMS moderator takes place in a fraction of a second should a major pipe break, or if the neutron power of The provisions for changing fuel under power in the reactor exceeds a safe figure or a safe rate of CANDU reactors permit normal operation with very increase. On the other hand, if, for instance, the little excess fuel. This is an inherent safety feature temperature of the coolant leaving one of the and contrasts with the practice of adding about a pressure tubes exceeds a set limit, the power of the year's supply of fresh fuel at a time to enriched light reactor is merely reduced until the condition water reactors. The drawback of the system is that disappears. the ability to decrease power rapidly beyond certain limits is restricted, as for enriched reactors towards RELIABILITY A MUST the end of their fuelling cycle. However, the rate of adding fresh fuel provides the basic, slow-acting Great attention is paid to the reliability of the means of control of the power output. control and safety systems. Both are installed in triplicate, and arranged so that the power will be ABSORBER RODS reduced if any two channels of either system call for this. The arrangement permits any single channel to Two other methods are used for the normal be tested in its entirety without shutting down the minute-to-minute control of power, and for rapid reactor, and this is done for all channels in turn on a shutdown if necessary. One of these consists of regular schedule. Should a component fail in any inserting into the core materials which will absorb channel so that it calls for different action from the neutrons, hence will reduce the power output. These other two channels of the system, it is automatically may be in the form of rods which are moved cut out and an alarm signals the operator, helping to mechanically by remote control in and out of the prevent unnecessary shutdowns. Hundreds of less reactor; or a "poison" dissolved in heavy water can be important fault detectors are generally installed in injected into the moderator in an emergency, duplicate, requiring both to indicate before action is requiring 24 hours or more for removal. taken, to permit regular testing. For all nuclear stations accurate records are kept BOOSTER RODS of every fault that is detected. These are analyzed statistically each year by a team of experts who The second method involves the temporary inser- calculate the probable overall failure rate of the tion of small amounts of enriched fuel, by means control systems, and demonstrate to the Atomic generally similar to those used for thé insertion of Energy Control Board that the safety standards are neutron-absorbing rods. The enriched fuel increases being met. So far, the probability of a severe accident the power output, and helps to reduce the restrictions as calculated from these records, dating back to 1962, on sudden reductions in power. While it is generally has been less'by orders of magnitude than that economical to install these "booster" rods, some considered acceptable. circumstances render them unnecessary, and they are not fitted in the four Pickering units. Where fitted, the consumption of enriched uranium depends on the TOPIC 14 - CONTAINMENT amount and frequency of load changes and is likely to be a few kilograms per year. For most purposes we can say that the function of The control rods are normally moved in and out òf containment is "to contain radiation releases", the reactor automatically by means of a digital although this somewhat oversimplifies the situation. computer, which adjusts the reactor output to main- It is more longwinded but more accurate to say "to tain the desired steam pressure in the boilers and reduce radiation releases to acceptable levels". ensures that power changes are made at pre- As to levels of acceptability, why not zero? It is determined safe rates. simply a question of cost versus benefit. The radia- tion releases from nuclear plants can in principle be SAFETY SHUT DOWN SYSTEM made as low as desired, but there is a cost. The cost will be reflected in the cost of energy, whether it be A completely separate safety system reduces the power from the nuclear stations (by reason of making power output or shuts down the reactor if an unsafe the station more expensive), or whether it be in the condition develop*. Insertion of rapid-iction neutron- cost of power from alternative but higher cost sources. It should be noted that the problem of safety of nuclear stations, and because of this they objectionable emissions is not peculiar to nuclear are engineered and maintained to very high standards. stations (though nuclear has' always been in the Besides careful construction and inspection, the forefront of those doing something about it). Almost systems are designed in such a way that they cannot all industrial activities have emission problems. Few be made inoperable by the failure of a single can achieve levels approaching as small a-fraction as sub-system or component (valves, switches and the can nuclear plants. like). (We don't put all our eggs in one basket.) The term used to describe this is "redundancy". It has not ICRP-NCRP-MRC-AECB been invented by nuclear power station designers but is rather an application of a principle widely used in The acceptable levels of radiation releases have other engineering endeavours. The dual braking . been chosen on the advice of tens, perhaps hundreds, system in late model automobiles is a familiar of specialists in the field of radiation effects. Their example. views have been assembled and published by several The containment buildings are large, reinforced bodies: the International Commission on Radiological concrete structures. The size varies from station to Protection, the National Council on Radiological station but typically the volumes are of the order of Protection for the United States, and the Medical 2,000,000 cubic feet. These buildings are substan- Research Council of the United Kingdom, to name a tially airtight, so much so that it is hard to compare few. In Canada the government through the Atomic them to anything in everyday experience. The Energy Control Act assigns responsibility for the vacuum building, for example (which is one of the licensing and regulation of nuclear installations to the "leakier" buildings — the leakage is inwards rather Atomic Energy Control Board. This body determines, than' outwards and does not, therefore, release amongst other things, the circumstances and degree activity), can hold its vacuum for several days.. of radiation release that may be permitted. The water spray (dousing) systems contain typically 2,000 tons of water, sufficient to absorb several times the energy stored in the cooling circuits. CONTAINMENT SYSTEMS The emergency core'cooling systems and shut- The containment building is only the most visible down systems cannot easily be described, since there of all the provisions made to "reduce radiation is nothing in common experience with which they releases to acceptable levels". The pressure suppres- can be compared. Suffice it to say that these systems sion system provides the means to reduce the steam require only conventional pumps, valves, motors, pressure that would appear in the reactor building relays and the like; they do not depend on any new following a rupture in any of the high-pressure, frontier technology; nor do they require any sophis- high-temperature piping systems. (Internal pressure ticated engineering techniques. causes the leakage.) This is accomplished by cold In a plant as large as a modern power station one water sprays (dousing) in single-reactor stations. In might think the accident possibilities are endless, or multi-reactor stations a vacuum building may be at least if not endless that they increase propor- provided to reduce the pressure for which the reactor tionately to the amount of equipment contained in building must be designed, and hence their cost. The the station. This is approximately true, but the emergency core cooling system provides coolant to engineering of'defences against accidents does not the fuel when for any reason both the main and increase anything like proportionately. Any accident auxiliary cooling systems are unable to do so. This falls into one of four categories, and appropriate preserves the integrity of the fuel and retains the defensive actions are taken in each case: radioactive material at the source.

The reader will observe that these three systems Category (1) act to reduce the radiation release after an accident has taken place. This is a good thing to do, but one No Safety Hazard — The "nuisance" accidents fall in might ask about the prevention of accidents in the this category. Consequences are economic but no first place. This has been done. The reactor is turned hazard to life and limb. off automatically by the shutdown system/ This system monitors the reactor behaviour quite indepen- Category (2) dently of the main reactor control system and shuts it down on detection of system malfunction. Operator Hazard Only — This category includes not ' 'These systems are each obviously important to the only radiation spills but also industrial hazards

"X" TURBINE/GENERATOR BUILDING REACTOR BUItOING

ELECTRICITY GENERATOR I STEAM TO TU«IINES

STEAM TURBINE STEAM GENERATORS

SERVICE IUIIDING

"EKSÄÄ™ 'UMfH0USE

Fig. 14 —Cut-away drawing of Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station. The domed building contains the reactor and steam-producing equipment.

(leakage from high pressure systems, electrical shock to establish that it has not deteriorated significantly and the like). These are essentially an industrial safety, relative to its installed condition. problem, and industrial safety measures are applied The foregoing is somewhat oversimplified, because (warning systems, protective clothing, eye shields and there is a certain amount of overlapping (the cate- the like). gories are not mutually exclusive). For example, the safety and containment systems have been designed Category (3) to contain the consequences of rupture of a reactor inlet header (the design basis or "maximum credible" Public „Hazard from Non-Inspectable accident). This puts such an accident in Category (3). Equipment— This category includes the conse- However, these headers happen also to be inspectable, quences of rupture or malfunction of equipment so that one might put the accident in Category (4). In which either cannot be inspected because of its 'short, measures are taken to prevent such accidents as location or by reason of lack of technology. For this well as to contain the consequences should they category of hazard a safety system is provided which occur (prevention and remedy). This is another wilí either prevent the accident, or eliminate the example of, redundancy; it provides extra safety consequences, or reduce the radiation release, if any, (though it complicates the explanation). to acceptable levels. An important consequence of redundance of - . ,\ defences against accidents should be mentioned. GrtefOfy(4) - Since we do not depend totally on the correct operation of every defence in any accident, mis- Public Hazard from Inspectable Equipment - The operation of one is tolerable. That is, failure of any equipment in this category is inspected periodically one system affects only the amount of the release. The systems have been designed so that amounts even owned and operated by the Canadian General Electric under these circumstances are "acceptable". Company Limited, at Port Hawkesbury, N.S., is in It goes without saying that the safety and contain- production and should soon reach its rated capacity ment systems are themselves inspected to make sure of 400 tons per year. The second, owned by AECL that they are working. and located on the Bruce Peninsula northwest of Toronto, should start production this year and will have an eventual capacity of 800 tons per year. The TOPIC 15 - HEAVY WATER third, at Glace Bay,N.S., after a financially disastrous start, is being rehabilitated by AECL for the Nova The initial charge of-heavy water for a 600 MW Scotia government, and should begin production in power plant is about 550 short tons; a few tons per 1975. year will be required to make up unavoidable losses. The supply situation is such that there will be a Its value is about $27.00 per pound, or $30 million severe shortage of heavy water at least until 1974 due per reactor. The world's first commercial heavy water to the failure of-the Glace Bay plant; then a possible production facility was built in British Columbia temporary surplus; then new production facilities will (Trail) during World War II, but most of the heavy be required to be in operation not later than the very water now in existence 'in the Western World was early 1980s. produced in the United States. As the U.S. no longer has a heavy water reactor program, their production plants are gradually being phased out; one is still METHODS OF PRODUCTION operating with a capacity of 200 tons per year. Well over 150 methods have been investigated for There are three heavy water production plants separating heavy hydrogen from ordinary hydrogen operating or under construction in Canada. One, to produce heavy water; but all large existing com-

Fif. 15 -Tha Bruce Haavy Watar PUnt under conitructton. It mil ba supplied with proca* staam from th» Doujglaa Point Nuctaar G& in tha foraground, with an'oil-f irad boiiar for stand-by purpotw. Production of haavy watar from this plant ihould commence in 1972. In tha distance it the site of the 3,000 MW Bruce Nuclear G^Jht fint unit of whichshould »tart up in 1975.

28 mercial plants use the same ("G.S.") process. The a matter for agreement between the reactor supplier minimum economic size for a plant of this type may and the station operating org?~ization. be as much as 400 tons per year. Its capital cost is, currently, about $135 million, and the value of its TOPICS 18,19 S. zO - P PATÏON OF output is about $25' million per year, in round B.C. FIRMS numbers. It would employ some 200 people to operate it. The steam and electrical energy required These topics are considerec' pettier because of accounts for about one-quarter of the cost of the their close interrelation. The type of basic contract product, so low cost power should be available. The with the B.C. Hydro and Power Authority has not Bruce plant will use steam from the Douglas Point been discussed yet, but it is assumed that AECL prototype nuclear power plant and electricity from would supply the design and specification of the the nearby 3,000 MW Bruce nuclear power plant now nuclear equipment and would advise B.C. Hydro under construction. concerning special requirements for the balance of The raw material for this type of plant is ordinary plant. In this case, Hydro might use its subsidiary, fresh water. This varies in its heavy water content by International Power and Engineering Consultants over 10%, leanest to richest, depending oi. location. Limited ("IPEC"), to design the balance of plant with Rain precipitated directly from ocean moisture pro- whatever assistance it required from outside con- vides the richest raw material, and systematic sulting engineers and architects. Purchasing, sampling has shown Vancouver Island streams to be inspection and expediting services might be supplied almost as rich in heavy water as any in Canada. If, by both Hydro and AECL, possibly but not neces- towards the end of this decade, British Columbia is sarily on the same split as their engineering committed to a nuclear power program, there would responsibilities. Procurement of building supplies be good reason to consider sites west of the Rockies might be done by a prime civil contractor rather than for the next heavy water production plant. Hydro. As a federally owned company, AECL must in general invite bids from all competent Canadian Other methods of producing smaller quantities of suppliers for any major contract and must then heavy water at competitive costs are available or accept the lowest evaluated bid. Provincial organi- under development, but so far they must operate in zations may have somewhat more flexibility under conjunction with some other process such as the large some circumstances. scale production of ammonia, or distribution of liquefied natural gas. Improvements to the G.S. process are also being investigated. Availability of a B.C. FIRMS CAPABLE new or substantially improved process in a few years could affect choice of site, optimum output and . The capabilities of a few representative B.C. engineering and manufacturing firms were investi- many other factors concerning a new plant. gated superficially recently by an AECL represen- tative and two or three firms were visited. Even this TOPIC 17-ASSESSMENT OF POSSIBI- extremely brief investigation showed that without LITY OF ISLAND DEVELOPMENT PRO- doubt B.C. firms could make a major contribution to GRAM FOR FUELS, COOLANTS, REAC- the first nuclear power plant in the province if they TOR MATERIALS, ETC. ._ were able to meet the terms of the competition. For The introduction of a nuclear power plant of an instance, several engineering consultants and established type does not normally1 bring with it a architects are directly associated with groups that requirement for any significant development pro- have already contributed to the engineering of gram.' If the objective of the plant is to produce . nuclear plants in the east. One of Canada's two major electric power, it is usually considered undesirable to nuclear pump manufacturers is located in the use it for experiments. At most it may be used to . Vancouver area. There would be no problem in obtain statistical data on the performance of, say, a fabricating the steel structures; carbon steel piping . new type of fuel after prior successful testing of small and weldments required. Probably stainless steel pipe quantities in a research reactor. : fabricating and welding equipment and skills would If, on the other hand, a prototype of a new reactor be adequate for^ a good deal of the stainless piping. system is to be built, then some development work The kinds of wiring skills required in shipbuilding are would be likely to bt associated with the project-' generally applicable to nuclear power work. A great Such work would probably be limited, and one guess deal of the "balance of plant" installation would be is that it might directly involve 10 to 20 persons in.., very similar to the corresponding work in the Burrard . addition to „the normal operating staff. This would be thermal generating plant.

29 MUST BE ECONOMICALLY COMPETITIVE nuclear units in the province than in the first. On the other hand, there may well be components The actual degree of participation of B.C. manu- of the first nuclear plant which a specialized manu- facturers would depend on a number of factors. In facturer in B.C. could subsequently produce general, it is uneconomical for a firm to set up to economically for the whole of the country. Many manufacture a product much different from its nuclear components are relatively high cost, low normal line until a continuing demand can be volume products, where transportation costs are foreseen. The participation of B.C. firms in the relatively insignificant. Manufacturing management, manufacture of specialized nuclear equipment would skills and ingenuity are more important than proxi- doubtless be greater in the second and subsequent mity to the market.

THIS ISNT BRITISH COLUMBIA, BUT. HERE'S WHAT HAPPENED AT PINAWA, MANITOBA WHEN A 50 MW EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR WAS BUILT FOR THE WHITESHELL NUCLEAR RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT.

HE Whiteshell nuclear research establishment is almost completely T a máde-in-Canada product, Western Canada in particular, and with a special assist from Manitoba-based crafts and skills and professional services!' . -• The;, roster of Winnipeg firms contributing to the big Whiteshell development reads like a who's who of local industry. . Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. awarded the contract to Canadian General Electric and associated with CGE on major facets of the overall project was Shawinigan Engineering Co., who provided the engineering co-ordination and construction management, and whose company' engineers designed the reactor building and, all utility ser- vices. First on the job, Shawinigan Engineering was responsible tò Atomic Energy of Canada for all the services and sub-services at Pinawa. ! Dobush, Stewart & Bourke, were consulting' architects; Moody, Moore and? Partners (Winnipeg), architects for the project did the origi- nal site planning and have assisted as consultants for the housing development at the townsite, and Templeton Engineering Co. (Winni- peg), designed the main project services. Reid, (jírpwther & Partners Limited, of Winnipeg; provided design assistance for several of the research facilities, including the RD-4,- RD-5, WRÍ1L1 andWR-IL2loops. - =-. . ^- , Central ^Mortgage and Housing Corporation had the responsibility for the townsite development and assigned some design and engineer- ing work to »Winnipeg firms including W.L. Wardrop and Associates; Waisman-Ross and Associates;'and Smith, Carter, Searle Associates. Other Greater Winnipeg firms contributing to the development included, well-known Marshall Wells", Ltd., who supplied hardware; Supercrete Ltd., building materials; BACM Industries Ltd. did the concrete paving in the townsite; Dominion Bridge, Canadian Com- stock, Pedlar« People, »Manitoba Bridge, Bird' Constriictiòfi," Ptíole ~ Construction, Dominion Bronze, Earthworm, D., 'Phillips Acoustic, Nuclear Enterprises, StewartEtectric.-Bridge & Tank ^estenuLtd., Pilkington Glass, Subterranean (piling), Lukes Electric (cranes and ; machine tools/, Xelson River Construction (submerged water intake), p Robert Morse »(diesel engines), Caterpillar Tractor "(diesel engines); r Central Scientific (manipulators), J.R. Stephenson (control panels'and " ait conditioning), Lytle Engineering (valves), Mechanical Valve'fir Engineered1 Specialties (control valves), Honeywell Controls, Westetl Rosco, Kipp Kelly, Richaid'Wilcox, Malcolm Construction, Inspiration, "''• Van De Graf Controls, Pile Foundations, Trane Ltd:, Chicago Blower, Dunham Bush, Canadian Vickers, Wamod; flersey, Baldry Engineer-? ing, and many|others h»d a hand in thé development of Western = Canada'« first nijclear research establishment.-:15, - .

-Reprintedirom "Trade and Confngjrce"SçptJ1967. TOPIC 21 -LOCAL EDUCATION two dozen engineers of all types per year. These COURSES FOR STATION DESIGNERS should basically be good mechanical, electrical, AND OPERATORS chemical, metallurgical, etc. engineers with a funda- mental knowledge of the nuclear aspects of power A nuclear power plant can be considered under plants. Engineers and scientists with post-graduate two main divisions: The Nuclear Steam Supply training are unlikely to be required to any significant System (NSSS) and the Balance of Plant (BOP). Their extent by the nuclear power industry, but will be values are likely to be roughly the same, depending needed to the extent that nuclear research work is on what is included. undertaken in the province. The design of the NSSS is necessarily performed by AECL and certain highly experienced or specia- TOPIC22-LONG RANGE ASSESSMENT lized subcontractors. This design is based on data OF NUCLEAR POWER constantly flowing from research and development organizations, primarily AECL's laboratories at Chalk Several factors made it inevitable that nuclear River, Ontario, and the Whitèshell Nuclear Research power will play a fundamental role.in the generation Establishment in Manitoba, and is carried out largely of electric power throughout the world. These factors at AECL Power Projects on the outskirts of Toronto. are associated with technology, power requirements, The staff of the latter numbers about 900 persons resources, environmental effects and economics, and and includes engineers and scientists from all parts of will be examined as they pertain to Vancouver Island. Canada. The construction of the first nuclear power Available technology provides only three routes to plant in B.C. would have no "short-term effect on the the large scale production of electricity: water power, educational requirements óf this group. fossil fuel and nuclear energy. The first two of these On the other hand, the BOP is normally designed are well known but the inclusion of nuclear power, by the utility concerned or by consulting engineers on an equal footing, has occurred only within the or, most likely, a combination of both, working to past decade. The present scale of application of requirements laid down by the NSSS,designers where commercial nuclear power stations makes their con- necessary. A broad knowledge of the nuclear- engi- sideration mandatory wherever large new power neering aspects of the plant, including the effects of requirements arise. This is particularly true in Canada radiation and its control, would be most useful for where our existing technology provides the basis for some of these designers. This might be acquired construction of our own power stations. It is through practical courses aimed at the specific plant extremely unlikely that any further alternatives for as a start, possibly with the help of one) of of the B.C. large scale production of electricity will become universities. í available within the next 30 years, as discussed under Topic 23. OPERATOR TRAINING i CENTRAL POWER STATION SUGGESTED FOR Thorough training of the operating staff is essen- ISLAND tial. This includes both professional engineers and technicians, some of whom should |have prior The present power requirements of Vancouver experience in operating conventional 'thermal Island together with the predicted rate of growth stations. Ontario Hydro operates a reactor operator warrant serious consideration being given to meeting training school at Rolphton, Ontario, using the 22 the requirements through the construction of a MWe NPD nuclear power plant for pracjjicalexpe-' relatively large central power station on the Island. rience. This is primarily to train their owrt operators The existing underwater tie-lines" to the mainland before assigning them to larger stations. In the past, make practicable the use of larger power units than Ontario Hydro has been most helpful iri training would be advisable for an isolated .system, at a operators for Canadian réactprs,buüt outside Ontario. considerable saying in cost, land use and in other _ However, because of the distance involved^ it might ways. But the cost of increasing the capacity of the be desirable to present some of the more theoretical tie-lines several-fold during the next 10 or 15 years is courses in B.C. preparatory to sending the potential not likely to provide an economic solution to the operators to Rolphton. Island's power requirements. .

FUTURE REQUIREMENTS FOR ENERGY RESERVES In the long run, a »ubstanti»l~nuclear | power Undeveloped hydro resources on the Island are program in B.C. might absorb an average of tone or insufficient to meet the expected growth in demand

31 for more than a year or two at most. However, hydro As with a hydro-electric plant, most of the cost of power can frequently be used to complement nuclear nuclear power lies in the initial capital expenditure. power to the advantage of the consumer. This is determined at completion of construction arid Although British Columbia Is well endowed with is not altered by the long-term effects of inflation. reserves of coal, oil and gas, there are no known oil or Future cost of fuel must be estimated, but in round gas reserves on the Island and the coal is costly to numbers the cost of fuel represents 15% of the cost mine. World prices for both, coal and oil with of nuclear power for Canadian reactors, 30% for U.S. acceptably low sulphur content have been escalating type enriched fuel reactors, about 55% for coal and rapidly and unpredictably. Since fuel accounts for oil-fuelled plants, and considerably more for gas-fired some 55% of the cost of power from fossil-fuelled power plants. The effects of inflation on future power plants, forecasting the economics of such power costs are nearly proportional to these figures, plants over the next two or three decades becomes once the station is committed. Hence a Canadian difficult. nuclear plant is the least likely to be retired due to North American reserves of natural gas are much rising fuel costs (or availability of more efficient lower than for oil and coal. Already distributors in units) and à gas-fired plant the most likely, even parts of the United States are unable to take on new without the additional factor, that the cost of gas is customers because of their inability to obtain likely to rise faster than that of any other fuel. increased supplies. It appears probable that within 10 jr years gas will be manufactured from coal on a large ENRICHED URANIUM REACTORS scale at a cost of at least four times current natural gas prices, and the sale of Canadian gas to the U.S. at The only other proven reactor types that might be something approaching these prices should be highly considered are those widely used in the United States. profitable for so long as the supply lasts. A They use ordinary water for the moderator where Vancouver Island consulting engineer has estimated CANDU reactors use heavy water, but burn enriched that the cost of power, generated by gas piped from u fuel where CANDU reactors operate on natural the mainland could ", close to double the cost of uranium. Enriched fuel can be obtained commercially nuclear power; the ..u ,uracy of this estimate depends only from the United States at present. Cost compari- greatly on the relative effects of escalation of nuclear sons, to be meaningful, must be very carefully done power plant costs as compared to future prices for to make sure they include the same scope of supply natural gas. ' of'equipment, services, financing,, interest during The environmental aspects of fpssü-fuelled power construction and so òn. Since some 70% of a light plants are beyond the scope of this discussion.. water reactor .power plant is, or could be, almost However, it is obvious that the effects of the fumes, identical, to. the,,correspondnig! parts of a CANDU coal piles, ash disposal, oil spillage and other factors plant, and many of the remaining costs tend to on the use of thé surrounding land and sea must be balance each other, the basic capital costs are not considered. The Canadá Department of the Environ- much different. In actual instances, for a plant ready ment and the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries to operate, the cost of a CANDU plant has tended to Commission published, in November 1971, an be a few per cent higher, than that of corresponding interesting report on "Fisheries Problems Related to light water plants, but this difference is recovered in the Moran Dam on the Fräser River", available in an the first few years of operation from the lower fuel abridged ^ edition, which estimates the ecological costs of the Canadian type. damage that would result from this,proposed hydro- - . For a given amount of uranium mined, aCANDU electric development. Practically the, only environ-, reactor produces about twice as much energy and mental effect of a nuclear plant felt "outside its own three times as much plutonium (if the used fuel is boundaries is that of the cooling water discharge, reprocessed) as a light water teactoi. Plutonium is the discussed under Topic &. , . , : ' ' basic fuel for the fast breeder reactors. : In the context of the lifetime of a nuclear plant, ; It is worth noting that, in tfie spring of 1971 the uranium reserves in Canadá are unlimited. -"" -"—•'"-' - - Mexican ?A"tömié^EhëTg^?Cdlfufl^óA"aöalyzéd a. series of international bids for a nuclear power plant EFFECTS OF INFLATION on the basis that the,cost of enriched uranium would , drop steadily. Within weeks of the completion of thè^ What are th; chances of a nuclear plant installed in analysis, the U.S. announced a 14% increase in this , the immediate future becoming obsolete, or too . cost, and the -Mexicans decided not to commit ^expensive to operate?, . ' ' "^ >*?""" themselves for the time being. f ^

32 . AECL is currently developing heavy water mode- of the U.S. breeder program and contacts are main- rated reactors with two alternative cooling systems as tained to ensure the continuous flow of information. mentioned under Topic 1. One U.S. manufacturer is Since their primary fuel is plutonium, any wide- offering a high temperature gas-cooled reactor, but spread commercial exploitation of fast reactors, while full-scale plants have recently been ordered, perhaps in the 1990s, should provide a good market none is yet operating. for the plutonium generated in CANDU reactors, still further reducing the latter's fuelling costs. FAST BREEDERS PRESSURE TUBE REACTORS ARE FLEXIBLE A great deal of effort and money in Europe, the United States and elsewhere is being put into the Since the CANDU concept employs standardized development of fast breeder reactors. (The U.S. has pressure tubes, and no large pressure vessel is earmarked $2.4 billion for this purpose.) Using an involved, it is relatively simple to produce units of initial charge of plutonium, these are supposed to different sizes. Increasing the capacity of a reactor is convert uranium-238, which forms over 99% of largely a matter of designing it to use more tubes. The natural uranium, and is not a fuel, to plutonium, unit cost of energy drops as the unit size increases, at which is a nuclear fuel, at a faster rate than the least up to sizes of 1000 to 1200 MWe. Each plutonium is consumed. If this can be done, it would Pickering unit produces 500 MWe net, the Bruce units permit the generation of a great deal more energy will be rated at 750 MWe, and studies for Ontario from a pound of uranium than can be obtained at Hydro are being conducted on 1200 MWe units. The present, although because of the reprocessing costs maximum size of unit that can be used satisfactorily the fuel cycle cost will be at least as much as for a in a system depends on the system size, its inter- CANDU reactor. However, this type of reactor connections and its rate of growth. While the presents many 'problems, not the least of which stem selection should result from appropriate studies by from the safety precautions required by the large the utility concerned, it would appear that about 600 inventory of concentrated and extremely toxic fissile MWe units would be the maximum practicable on the material. While these problems are not insur- Island for some time. mountable, their solutions increase the cost of the power generated, and already it has been stated that FUSION REACTORS: NEXT CENTURY the first large U.S. breeders will not compete econo- mically with light water reactors. Partly for this : Controlled nuclear fusion is frequently mentioned reasGn, partly because of the tremendous cost, and as a future source of energy. "Taming the H-bomb" is partly because of the great effort elsewhere on fast J a popular phrase. Production of temperatures com- breeder reactors, .Canada is'not'iiow' devoting'any parable to that of the sun for appreciable periods of significant effort to fast reactor development. It time is required, and the significant parameter should be noted that Canada has access to the results involves the product of time and temperature. So far

STEAM TO TUMINE STEAM TO TURIINE STEAM TO TUMINE STEAM DKUMj STEAM/WATE« MIXTURE (

;FUEI

kVY WATER „..„„., «••» WAHR FROM MODERATOR MODERATOR CONDENSER BLW OCR ' ° {Moiling Light Wat») (Orajanla Coolaal Raaotor)

Fig. 16 - A feature of *e CANDU syttam it its flexibility and adaptability, w indicated in that» diagram! of three coolant variation« - the wtabliiried praaurizad heavy water system, boiling light water currently being demonetrated in the prototype Qentiliy nation and the organic concept. Common feature» of all three are heavy water moderator and pressure tube reactor.

33 the maximum attained is some two orders of mag- TOPIC 23-ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNA- nitude lower than required. Clearly some major TIVES -TIDAL, WIND, SOLAR, GEO- break-through is needed, some brilliant idea. Equally THERMAL AND NUCLEAR FUSION clearly, the timing of this discovery cannot be POWER scheduled. However, should such a break-through occur during this decade, and depending heavily on Briefly, none of these alternatives appear to have what form it takes, it is conceivable that a demon- any potential for providing acceptable alternatives to stration fusion power plant might be operating by the the more conventional types of power plants in turn of the century. The apparent advantages of British Columbia. Let's look at them in turn. fusion power are the almost limitless supply of fuel and probably a simplification of radioactive waste NO PLACE FOR TIDAL POWER management. If these can be realized at an acceptable cost, it is just possible that fusion reactors might-be Tides in parts of the Bay of Fundy exceed 40 feet available to replace the CANDU reactors built during in height, and have been seriously considered for the 1980s when they reach the end of their useful power development many times during the past half lives. century or longer. The most recent and detailed study was published by the Atlantic Tidal Power Engi- POWER: A CANADIAN MANUFACTURED EX- neering and Management Committee in 1969. Its PORT conclusion was that there is no possibility of tidal power in the Fundy aiea competing with con- A further aspect of nuclear power deserves some ventional power plants, even though many, perhaps consideration. This stems from the very serious and most, of the members of the committee 'were worsening shortage of power in the United States. personally interested in demonstrating the feasibility The provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick are of the idea. There is no large area on the British both planning to export large blocks of power to the Columbia coast with normal tides.approaching half of eastern United States. The situation in the west is those in the Bay of Fundy, completely ruling out different. However, the U.S. Atomic Energy Com- tidal power on an economic basis: mission continues to operate its inefficient 700 MWe Hanford reactor (which was designed to produce WINDMILLS IMPRACTICABLE plutonium) to provide power to the Washington Public Power Services System. This is the result of the In a ten-mile-per-hour wind, which is probably strong representations made concerning the power above average for most parts of the east coast of shortage that would have resulted had it been shut Vancouver Island, an efficient SO-foot diameter wind- down last year as the USAEC intended. Serious mill can generate about 12 kW of electric power. To power problems cannot bë very many years away in equal the power of a single 600 MW nuclear station, this area. Although nuclear plants built to export when the wind is blowing, would require 50,000 such power would presumably be located on the mainland very large windmills. To avoid interfering with each coast, the first nuclear plant in the province would other's wind, they would have to be spaced out at undoubtedly be used for training operators and a least 300 feet from each other, and the installation number of other functions 'related to the export would then cover 160 square miles of land, with at plants. , . least 2,800 miles of transmission cable. Because the Canadian nuclear power represents an export with wind does not blow steadily, each mill would have to over 80% Canadian content, the manufacture of generate direct current electricity to be converted to which has a minimal effect on the environment, alternating current before transmission to the power involving a very small content of non-renewable • system. In addition, a large pumped storage (iam and resources. In fact, as our nuclear plants use much less reservoir would be needed to supply power during uranium than U.S. plants, we can conserve our very ; periods of low wind „velocity. All of this would large reserves of this material by exporting power obviously be economically impracticable. :• -- rather than uranium for the U.S. reactors. The value of the power generated by a single SOLAR POWER NOT FOR B.C. nuclear plant of the size of Ontario Hydro's Bruce Generating Station, at rates expected to apply in the Although no one has yet demonstrated a system of eastern U.S. by the time such a plant could be generating power from the sun which can compete completed, would be more than $250 million a year. economically with conventional power plants, it is

34 conceivable that this might eventually be developed nuclear station, the sunlight collecting equipment for areas close to the equator with 3,500 to 4,000 would cover about 15 square miles of reasonably level hours of bright sun per year. Such areas exist in ground, and the generating equipment would need a northern Australia and some other parts of the world. peak output of at least 3000 MW, associated with a However, the southeast corner of Vancouver Island, dam, reservoir, and pumped storage equipment in spite of being one of the surmiest parts of Canada capable of absorbing most of this output. Again, this (except for parts of the Prairies), has less than 2,000 would not offer an acceptable alternative to nuclear hours per year of bright sun. This, coupled with the power even if the technology were available. effect of latitude (the sun does not shine straight Geothermal power, where practicable at all, is down) would more than triple the cost of generating usually only so in areas of considerable surface solar power as compared to an ideal location. To volcanic activity. This does not apply to Vancouver produce energy equivalent to that of a 600 MW Island •

: . Fig. 16 - Reactor aaambly for tha first of the four reactor« at tha Bruce Nuclear Generating Station ;l " arrive» at tha «ite by barge after an 800-mile voyage from Montreal.

35 A fuelling machine at the face of Pickering reactor r fuelling is a feature of the Canadian nuclear power s

These boys are fishing in the cooling water discharge channel from the Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station, reportedly with good results.

Gentilly nuclear power station on the St. Lawrence River. Gentilly fuel is inspected before being I

36