M COMMON HOME MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY COMMON HOME

Via Aurelia, 796 00165 Rome - Italy MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT [email protected] www.caritas.it IN ITALY

This publication was produced in the framework of the MIND project, COMMON which has received financial support from the DEAR Programme of the European Union. The information contained in this publication does HOME not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Union. series Researched and written by Sebastiano Ceschi with the support of Paolo Beccegato, Laura Stopponi, Massimo Pallottino, Oliviero Forti, Giovanna Corbatto (Caritas Italiana) and Andrea Stocchiero (FOCSIV). Contributions and editing by Olga Kadysheva, Patrick Taran, and Piyasiri Wickramasekara (Global Migration Policy Associates - GMPA) and Davide Gnes and Shannon Pfohman (Caritas Europa). This publication is part of MIND (Migration. Interconnectedness. Development.); a 3-year project, financed by the European Commission (DG DEVCO). The aim is to raise public awareness on the relation between sustainable development and migration and the European Union’s role in development cooperation. Led by Caritas Austria, the partners of the MIND project are: Caritas Bavaria (Germany), Caritas International Belgium, Caritas Bulgaria, Caritas Czech Republic, Caritas Europa, Caritas Italy, Cordaid (Caritas Netherlands), Caritas Portugal, Caritas Slovakia, Caritas Slovenia and Caritas Sweden. For more information about MIND follow the campaign:

This publication was proofread by Mauricio Ruiz and Richard Tuffs Graphic design by Vanden Broele Group with the support of Leticia Lozano (Caritas Europa) Layout by Francesco Camagna Cover illustration by Jean Bernard Boulnois Published by Caritas Italiana, via Aurelia 796, Rome, Italy, May 2019.

This publication was produced in the framework of the MIND project, which has received financial support from the DEAR Programme of the European Union. The information contained in this publication does not necessarily reflect the position or opinion of the European Union.

Caritas reserves the right to not be held responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided in this publication. Liability claims regarding damage caused by the use of any information provided, including any information which is incomplete or incorrect, will therefore be rejected.

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD 5 6.2 Work integration policy 33 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6 6.3 Education policy 34 6.4 Policy related to citizenship, social - CHAPTER 1 - and political rights 34 THE COMMON HOME VISION AND VALUES ON MIGRATION, 6.5 Cooperation policy 35 DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS 8 a. Migration 9 - CHAPTER 7 - b. Development 9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 37 c. Migration and development 10 7.1 Conclusions 37 7.1.1 Human mobility as an element - CHAPTER 2 - of transformation: INTRODUCTION: DICHOTOMIES AND CHALLENGES controversies and representations 37 ON MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY 12 7.1.2 Re-establishing the ground - CHAPTER 3 - for the common good 40 ITALY’S NATIONAL MIGRATORY CONTEXT 15 7.2 Recommendations 44 - CHAPTER 4 - - CHAPTER 8 - REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS CONTRIBUTE REFERENCES 48 TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT 19 4.1 Towards places of residence/destination/transit 19 4.1.1 The contribution of migrants to the economy 19 4.1.2 The contribution of migrants to welfare and social security 21 4.1.3 The contribution of migrants to society and culture 22 4.2 Towards places of origin 23 4.2.1 The contribution of migrants to the economy 23 4.2.2 The contribution of migrants to society and culture 25 - CHAPTER 5 - OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE MIGRANTS’ FULL CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 27 5.1 Obstacles and barriers in Italy 27 5.2 Obstacles and barriers towards countries of origin 29 - CHAPTER 6 - CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 32 6.1 Reception/integration policy 33

3 FOREWORD

et us briefly pause to consider what is happening to our are heavily limiting the possibilities of migrants to integrate and “L common home” is the warning invitation addressed to us by work legally through the use of increasingly restrictive controls, Pope Francis in the first chapter of Laudato si. The environmental thereby creating a growing number of irregular migrants on the theme is the heart of this encyclical and it is the starting point for margins of society. The two policies, the first aiming to increase co- drawing attention to issues that are closely related to the dimension development strategies, and the second limiting immigration and of human mobility. On the other hand, the growing flow of integration, are contradictory. migrants on a global level is the result of poor management of environmental resources that are the basis of “expulsive processes” Today, more than ever, a work of reflection and advocacy is that force millions of people to abandon their lands. “It is tragic the needed to provide all stakeholders with the elements to rethink increase in migrants fleeing poverty exacerbated by environmental the phenomenon of mobility in concrete and proactive terms; to degradation, who are not recognized as refugees in international mitigate the climate of mistrust, to propose solutions that involve conventions and carry the weight of their abandoned life without migrants in the social, political and cultural life of the destination any regulatory protection.” country, and to highlight, finally, the necessary role that migrants play in the economy and culture of the countries of origin as well Therefore the issue of migration, linked to development, or rather as those of transit and destination. to non-development, is crucial in current social, political and economic dynamics, both nationally and internationally. What Despite the economic impact of migrations in the host countries we are witnessing must question us because it challenges our being the subject of numerous studies, which often underline their future. To imagine a society without migrants means to imagine positive outcomes, poorly informed public opinion feeds a climate a world that does not exist. Laudato si reminds us that the lack of of tension and widespread antagonism towards migrants to the reactions to what is happening is a sign of the loss of that sense of point that they are seen exclusively as a burden on the economy of responsibility (...) on which every civil society is based. the countries that receive them.

To combat the indifference that pervades transversally modern The real challenge at European level is therefore to implement societies, it is necessary to react, stimulating politics and institutions migration and development policies capable of maximizing the to face these phenomena with seriousness and foresight. It is therefore positive effects that these can have in the countries of arrival and in no coincidence that this Report, Common Home, is presented at the the states of origin of the migration. Human mobility today represents next European elections, which are seen as an important test for the a great opportunity for the development not only of the EU but also of maintenance of our common home. The project of a space for the well- the poorest countries where migrants come from. Such an opportunity being and freedom of citizens now seems to waver under the blows of cannot be seized by building barriers around Europe, but only through sovereign tensions that are widely recorded in various countries of the awareness of the possible benefit brought by immigrants and the old continent. The Report, promoted by the European project MIND, application of policies based on the migration / development binomial. is an opportunity to reflect on how the theme of migrants and, more generally, that of development, are helping to define a new Europe. This is why Caritas supports an integral human development that places the well-being of individuals in various dimensions, Numerous international and supranational organizations, including economic, social, political, cultural, ecological and including the European Union, recognize the importance of spiritual, at the centre of the development processes, placing the making migrant participants active through co-development migrant himself at the centre of the debate. Development is not strategies, with a role in the development of communities in reduced to simple economic growth. To be authentic development, the countries of origin and host countries. At the same time, the it must be integral, which means aimed at promoting every migration policies of the member countries of the European Union individual and the person as a whole.

5 on sustaining our pension system. Despite data and statistics pointing to the opposite, migrants are often perceived as free riders and a burden on the public purse. All caveats notwithstanding, the economic contribution of migrants through remittances represents an important development EXECUTIVE SUMMARY opportunity for countries of origin as well. However, migrants are not just “workers”. They are also carriers of social and cultural vitality. The growing size of the migrant population and the countless nationalities present on our national territory are transforming Italy into a multi- ethnic society. Recognising this process means being prepared to manage the change and deal with the inevitable tensions, his research aims to contribute to an understanding of the ageing Italian population, often met by migrants, can have in particular by investing in sound integration policies. Those the debate makes it increasingly difficult to bring this idea back T migration as part of a wider phenomenon of change negative repercussions on family stability in the countries of origin. policies must take into account the concerns and discomfort in the public discussion. Certain politicians have even adopted and development, both locally and globally. In this report, we In addition, remittances sent to the homeland are not always used of the most vulnerable strata of the Italian society, both at the xenophobic and securitarian positions and have actively discuss data on size, characteristics and impact of migration in a “socially productive” way, sometimes contributing themselves economic and socio-cultural levels. To pursue this goal, we contributed to weakening the reception and integration in parallel with an analysis of public perceptions and policy- to increasing in-country inequalities and/or social tensions. need universalistic (i.e. aimed at all) and “active” policies. policy frameworks, even when the latter had clearly showed making on migration and development. The relation between their added value and sustainability, including for the local those three levels is complex and problematic, since public The growth and stabilisation of the migrant population, In terms of social and cultural changes, foreign communities residents of many Italian. A decentralised reception system, opinion is not necessarily responsive to fact-based arguments, particularly in conjunction with a persisting economic crisis, in Italy can play a positive role in the development processes with individually tailored integration projects, had created while policy itself does not always follow criteria of effectiveness has triggered profound social tensions in Italy. A more and of countries of origin. During the 2000s, the activism of a virtuous model of labour inclusion, moreover positively and adherence to values. Despite the still relatively limited more pervasive narrative of “us versus them” is mobilised by the diaspora associations attracted the attention of various addressing important issues such as labour exploitation in number of foreigners in Italy (around 10% of the population), politicians and opinion-makers to divert attention from the development NGOs, thus bringing to the fore the concept of sectors such as agriculture and construction. our country has seen the highest relative growth of its migrant fact that migrants and Italians alike, in reality, face the same co-development and revitalising the sector. population amongst all European countries, with a five- structural barriers, inconveniences and inefficiencies that Policy-makers should pay particular attention to all those fold increase over the last twenty years. The fast pace of this perpetuate an unequal society. As a matter of fact, the growing The current social and political context, however, hinders the social contexts where there social interaction is most likely to transformation has undoubtedly contributed to influencing precariousness, vulnerability and inequalities affect everyone. maximisation of the developmental potential of migration. lead to constructive and generative relationships, starting from public perception, moreover giving some political actors the The lack of political and trade union representation, the schools. Schools are the playground for the generations that opportunity to justify an increasingly aggressive rhetoric. In such a tense context – moreover affected by ongoing difficulties in accessing high- level or specialized education, will constitute our society of tomorrow. We must ask ourselves international conflicts that force many people to migrate, often the erosion of social solidarity - sometimes even amongst the following questions: what kind of society do we teach our It is therefore crucial to approach migration by looking at the in the direction of Italy as a country of first landing towards migrants themselves – deeply affect the capacity of migrants to students to envision? And what kind of society are we creating broader picture. Whether a so-called “economic migrant” or Europe – local politics have identified migration as the source contribute to Italian social, civil and economic life. with our educational system? Second-generation students will a refugee, welcoming a person who migrates poses a variety of every problem experienced in our country. More and more be the Italian citizens of tomorrow. of challenges, including at the social, economic, ecological, restrictive entry policies have drastically reduced the entry It is important to raise more awareness of how socio-economic political, cultural, and spiritual levels. She invites us to move quotas set by government decree. Paradoxically, in addition processes and transformations often affect indiscriminately The migration-security nexus has been integrated in our gaze beyond our borders, in order to understand on the to being a country of destination, Italy is still very much a citizens of every country, migrants, and residents. These government development cooperation policies as well, as shown one hand the root causes of migration and, on the other hand, nation of emigrants. Ironically, data on Italians residing abroad transformations require a governance of capable of accounting by the numerous planning and programmatic initiatives aimed how to approach migration and mobility from the perspective show that the number of Italians who have left the country is for social complexity. We should not sweep tensions and at addressing the “root causes of migration” This strategy, of global citizenship. substantially equal to the number of foreigners residing in Italy. conflict under a carpet, but rather acknowledge that we can which views human mobility as a phenomenon to control and solve those issues by building an inclusive society for all. limit, is in stark contrast with the co-development approach. From such a perspective, the relation between migration and The current stagnant demographic trend has important It does not align with the objectives of poverty eradication and development appears in all its contradictions and ambiguities. consequences for the national labour market. Our analysis of Such a perspective is but a first step towards changing the inequality reduction either. Just as it would be incorrect to define migration as the root of employment data shows that migrants contribute mostly in narrative, particularly around the link between immigration all existing problems, it is equally impossible to portray it in an those economic sectors abandoned by the Italian population, and (in)security. The mantra of “migration as a resource” We should therefore change the way in which the connection exclusively positive way, as a general catalyst for development. as well as in occupational segments with underemployment showed all its weakness when the economic crisis led to a social between migration and development is defined and For example, the urgent need for personal assistance services by but among the least remunerated and protected. Labour and solidarity crisis. Nowadays, the increasing polarisation of represented. Migration is a structural feature of the world in exploitation and deteriorating working conditions may affect which we live, and a phenomenon that must be governed. the migrant population as much as the most vulnerable However, it must also be acknowledged by Italian society in segments of the Italian population. all its complexity. We need to develop a new vision of Italian society, which includes migrants as part of a societal “we” Those tensions enjoy high visibility in the Italian public where we can collectively engage in a work of recognition of debate. More importantly, they effectively obscure the positive rights, responsibilities and duties. Such work represents the impact that migrant workers have on our welfare system and only possible basis for attaining global citizenship.

6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7 a. Migration a country for short periods such as tourists, nor commercial or transport workers who have not changed their place of - CHAPTER 1 - Migration is a major feature of today’s globalised world. In established residence. Many other persons in temporary, short- broad terms, migration is the movement of people from one term or seasonal employment and/or residence situations are place of residence to another. While the term migration covers not counted in UN and other statistics on migrants when their population movement internal to a country – rural to urban sojourn is less than a year and/or if they retain formal residency THE COMMON HOME VISION AND VALUES ON or from one locality to another in a different jurisdiction – the in their home or another country – even though they may fit MIND project addresses international migration. International the definition of a migrant worker. For an accurate analysis of MIGRATION DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS migration is a distinct legal, political and social category, as the interconnectedness of migration and development, Caritas people move from a nation-state in which they are citizens uses a broad understanding of migration, inclusive of all with the rights and protections citizenship normally confers, those who are refugees and asylum seekers, as well as migrant to other countries where rights and protections of nationality, workers and members of their families. of access to social protection, and of common identity often In his encyclical, Laudato Si’ – On care for our common on the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol; and the do not apply and where social and cultural paradigms may be home, Pope Francis (2015) reminded us that the Earth is International Labour Standards defining principles and significantly different. b. Development “our common home”, and that we need to address economic, rights for decent work. The United Nations 2030 Agenda social, political and environmental challenges together in for Sustainable Development and the New Urban Agenda While there is no international normative definition The pledge to leave no one behind and to ensure human rights an integrated manner (CAFOD et al. 2018). Exclusion are especially relevant global policy frameworks. Catholic for migration, international conventions provide agreed for all is a cornerstone of the Resolution by the UN General and poverty, warfare, global inequalities, climate change, Social Teaching (CST), the doctrine developed by the definitions for refugees and for migrant workers and members Assembly 70/1 “Transforming our world: 2030 Agenda for unsustainable consumption and growth – as well as forced Catholic Church on matters of social and economic justice of their families; the latter applicable to nearly all international Sustainable Development” that contains the Declaration and the displacement and migration – demand our utmost attention and fundamental Christian values are the foundations for migrants. The definition of a refugee in the 1951 Convention 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 119 sustainable and engagement. The encyclical quickly became a reference Caritas’ views and action. and 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees is: “someone who development targets, adopted on 25 September 2015. This document for Catholic social services as well as development is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing document endorsed by all 193 UN Member States expresses agencies worldwide, drawing attention both inside and outside In Laudato Si’, Pope Francis (2015: 12) has argued that “the to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, their shared vision of and commitment to the following: the Catholic Church. With the national and European urgent challenge to protect our common home includes a religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, “[a] world of universal respect for human rights and “Common Home” publications, Caritas draws on this message concern to bring the whole human family together to seek or political opinion”. All EU member states have ratified both human dignity, the rule of law, justice, equality and to explore the complex interconnectedness between migration a sustainable and integral development.” Moreover, the Pope the 1951 refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. non-discrimination; of respect for race, ethnicity and and development with its faith-based ethical framework has called for a collective and inclusive dialogue about “how cultural diversity; and of equal opportunity permitting respecting human rights and dignity. we are shaping the future of our planet” (2015:12), questioning The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights the full realization of human potential and contributing the current model of development and the current condition of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families to shared prosperity. A world which invests in its For Caritas, a human-centred, ethical and rights-based of global society where injustice is commonplace and more (ICRMW) states that: The term “migrant worker” refers to a children and in which every child grows up free from approach is fundamental to law, policy, and practice. and more people are deprived of their fundamental human person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged violence and exploitation. A world in which every Thus, an ethical interpretation of the relation between rights. This means “prioritising the weakest members of in a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a woman and girl enjoys full gender equality and all legal, migration, development and the human person is essential society as a way of measuring progress” (CAFOD et al. national. That convention recognises frontier worker, seasonal social and economic barriers to their empowerment to frame the vision and the objectives of the “Common 2018: 16). Human rights can be defined as the protection worker, seafarer, offshore worker, itinerant worker, and other have been removed. A just, equitable, tolerant, open and Home publication”. Caritas’ vision, actions and views are of individuals and groups, guaranteed under international specific categories of migrant workers as covered under its socially inclusive world in which the needs of the most rooted in legal and political instruments and sources, and law, against interferences with fundamental freedoms and provisions. The ICRMW iterates that all basic human rights vulnerable are met.” fundamentally in Christian and Roman Catholic Church human dignity. Human rights are inalienable and cannot cover family members present with and dependent on migrant values and teaching. These values and teachings have, in be denied or relinquished by any human being, regardless workers. Data from the International Labour Organization The 2030 Agenda has led to paradigm shifts in the perception common with international legal instruments and policy of any reason including legal or immigration status. They (ILO) shows that nearly all international migrants, whatever of development. Development and sustainable development frameworks, an affirmation of human dignity, equality for are universal in that they apply to everyone, everywhere. their reasons for migration or admission may be, end up concern all countries on the planet; protecting the all, and the inalienability of human rights as key moral Human rights encompass civil, cultural, economic, political economically active – employed, self-employed or otherwise environment and tackling inequalities are considered among principles to ensure the peaceful coexistence and basic well- and social rights, and are indivisible, meaning that the engaged in a remunerative activity. key development goals; peace and social justice are seen as being of all persons and peoples on the planet. International different sets of rights are all equally important for the full integral components of the universal development agenda; legal instruments and policy frameworks include: the development of human beings and their well-being. Human Specific definitions and statistical standards to obtain reliable and the need for the commitment and participation of all Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) rights’ instruments and customary international law generate and comparable data on international migrants have been groups within all societies and states is emphasised in order and eight fundamental United Nations human rights three overarching obligations for states, namely: to respect, agreed under UN auspices and are used by most governments. to achieve development for all. The new worldwide consensus covenants and conventions; the 1951 Refugee Convention to protect, and to fulfil those rights. For statistical purposes, an international migrant is defined on development is grounded in the Universal Declaration of as ‘a person who has resided in a country other than that of Human Rights and all human rights treaties; therefore, if birth or citizenship for one year or more, irrespective of the states do not make progress on the actual realization of human causes or motivations for movement and of legal status in rights for all, the SDGs cannot be reached. the country of residence.’ There are an estimated 260 million foreign-born people residing today in countries other than The term development encapsulates the elaboration of those in where they were born or held original citizenship productive means, forces, capacities, organisation and output from. However, this figure does not include persons visiting of goods, services, technology and knowledge to meet human

8 THE COMMON HOME VISION AND VALUES ON MIGRATION DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS 9 needs for sustenance and well-being. It comprises building the c. Migration and development means for: the extraction and transformation of resources; the production of goods, services and knowledge; constructing How development is linked to migration is a centuries old legal, infrastructure for production, transportation and distribution; political and practical question. Vast forced and voluntary reproducing capital as well as skills and labour; and providing population movements from the 17th century onwards for human welfare/well-being in terms of housing, nutrition, populated the Americas, as well as some of the emerging healthcare, education, social protection and culture in its European nation states. broad sense (Taran 2012). Since the end of World War II, migration and development Caritas uses the concept of integral human development, has been the subject of intense discussions among policy- which places the human person at the centre of the makers, academics, civil society and the public. Pope Pius XII development process. It may be defined as an all-embracing dedicated an encyclical on “migrants, aliens and refugees of approach that takes into consideration the well-being of the whatever kind who, whether compelled by fear of persecution person and of all people in seven different dimensions. First, or by want, are forced to leave his native land” (Exsul Familia MIGRATION the social dimension, which focuses on quality of life in terms 1952), reaffirming that migrants and refugees have a right to a of nutrition, health, education, employment, social protection life with dignity, and therefore a right to migrate. IS AN OPPORTUNITY and social participation as well as equality of treatment and TO BUILD non-discrimination on any grounds. Second, the work and Migration became a fundamental pillar of development across economic activity dimension as the means of self-sustenance several regions under regional integration and development A “COMMON HOME” and those of kin, of socio-economic engagement and of projects, namely the European Economic Community direct contribution to development for most adults in all succeeded by the European Union. Since the 1970s, migration WHERE EVERYONE populations. Third, the ecological dimension which refers to has been essential to development through regional free CAN CONTRIBUTE the respect for the goods of creation and to ensure the quality movement systems in Central, East and West Africa. From of life for future generations without ignoring this generation’s the 1920s, large population movements – some forced - in the cry for justice. Fourth, the political dimension, which includes (former) Soviet Union underpinned industrial and agricultural issues such as: the existence of the rule of law; respect for development across the twelve USSR republics. civil, political, economic, social and cultural human rights; democracy, in particular, as a representative and, above all, Spurred by geopolitical events that have greatly affected human a participatory tool. Fifth, the economic dimension which mobility on a global scale, the relationship between migration for development in both countries of origin and of destination. of local people active in the work force, all of which reflects relates to the level of GDP and the distribution of income and and development has become central to contemporary The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration the local population’s ageing and declining fertility. wealth, the sustainability of economic growth, the structure of political, economic and social policy debates. The first global (GCM), adopted at an inter-governmental conference in the economy and employment, the degree of industrialisation, development framework to recognize the role of migration Marrakesh, Morocco in November 2018, and the Global In Caritas’ view, the people who migrate and those who remain the level of high-tech ICT, and the state’s capacity to obtain and its immense contribution to sustainable development Compact on Refugees (GCR) elaborated on those principles – whether in a country of origin or in a country of residence – revenue for human services and social protection, among worldwide was the Declaration and Programme of Action of and proposed ways of implementing them through political have the right to find, wherever they call home, the economic, other considerations. Sixth, the cultural dimension which the International Conference on Population and Development dialogue and non-binding commitments. Both Compacts were political, environmental and social conditions to live with dignity addresses the identity and cultural expression of communities in Cairo in 1994. The overarching contemporary framework adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 2018. and achieve a full life. Regardless of their legal status in a country, and peoples, as well as the capacity for intercultural dialogue is the above-mentioned 2030 Agenda for Sustainable all migrants and refugees possess inherent human dignity and and respectful engagement between cultures and identifies. Development with its Sustainable Development Goals. While Caritas recognises that a growing number of people are human rights that must be respected, protected and implemented Seventh, the spiritual dimension. Taken together, these explicit reference to migration and development was laid out forced to leave their countries of origin not only because of by all States at all times. Caritas calls for a human response of dimensions underpin an integral approach to development in SDG target 10.7 on “safe, regular and responsible migration conflict and persecution but also because of other existential solidarity and cooperation to assume responsibility for integral (Caritas Europa 2010). According to Catholic Social Teaching and mobility,” more than 44 SDG targets across 16 of the 17 threats. These include poverty, hunger, unemployment human development worldwide and for the protection and (CST), social inequalities demand coordinated action from all SDGs apply to migrants, refugees, migration and/or migration- and lack of decent work or good governance, absence of participation of people who have moved from one country to people/ the whole of society and the whole of government in all compelling situations (Taran et al. 2016). The New Urban access to education and healthcare, as well as those linked another – migrants and refugees. Migration contributes to the countries for the sake of humanity based on two premises: 1) Agenda adopted in Quito in October 2015 provides even more to the consequences of climate change. Forced migration integral human development of migrants and of their countries social questions are global, and 2) socio-economic inequalities explicit attention to migrants, refugees and internally displaced for Caritas encompasses all migratory movements where of residence. Such a vision implies the recognition that migration, are a danger for global peace and social cohesion. In this sense, people in its global development and governance framework for an element of coercion exists. People fleeing conflict and regardless of its drivers, is an opportunity for our societies to build development of our own country and that of others must be cities – where most migrants and refugees reside. persecution naturally have a specific claim and right to a more prosperous, global “Common Home”, where everyone the concern of us all – the human community. international refugee protection. Caritas also recognizes can contribute and live with dignity. In 2016, in the wake of severe and protracted conflicts in that the overwhelming proportion of migration into Europe the Middle East and South Asia and the collapse of effective reflects most EU member countries’ objective need for protection for refugees in neighbouring countries, UN Member ‘foreign’ labour and skills to maintain viable work forces States adopted the New York Declaration for Refugees and capable of sustaining their own development. This demand Migrants, calling for improved global governance of migration results from rapidly evolving technologies, changes in the and for the recognition of international migration as a driver organisation of work, its location, and the declining number

10 THE COMMON HOME VISION AND VALUES ON MIGRATION DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN RIGHTS 11 characterised by high levels of female migration – has shown the disruptive effect of migration on family cohesion. The loss - CHAPTER 2 - in terms of care and emotional attachments resulting from migration can affect the psychological well-being of both the family members “left behind,” as well as of those who migrated, not to mention more specific issues of personal development INTRODUCTION: DICHOTOMIES AND CHALLENGES for children and young adults (Kofman et al. 2000; Parrenas ON MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY 2001, 2005; Cortes 2016). The financial crisis of 2008-09, which has dramatically reshaped the character of the global economy and whose effects are still visible ten years later, has dramatically affected the interaction between migrants and the local population Until quite recently, the link between migration and civil society and the market. Others have also observed that, in contexts of destination. On the one hand, high-income them against each other. On the other, careful analysis of the development was indisputably seen as a positive one. Between since the early 2000s, the financial resources mobilised western countries, driven by a spike in unemployment rates Italian social and economic reality suggests that Italians and the 1990s and the 2000s, partly as a response to previously through the M&D agenda have been leveraged by wealthier and poverty levels, have experienced rising social tensions immigrants - as well as all the people in between these two pessimistic views, researchers, policy experts and government states to force countries in the Global South to accept stronger and a growing anti-immigrant sentiment amongst the native categories, such as Italian emigrants and new Italians with a officials began to celebrate migration for its positive limitations on international migration or repatriation of population. Over the last ten years, this dynamic has had migrant background – face in fact very similar issues, barriers contributions across various levels (de Haas 2010). On the irregular migrants (Gamlen 2014). a dramatic impact on European states’ and populations’ and constraints in their lives. For once, they have to confront one hand, they hailed it as a potential solution to poverty, openness to labour migration, including the one occurring the same unequal system of social and economic opportunities unemployment and underdevelopment in the global South, Beside the more abstract ideological debate, a realistic from within the European Union. With respect to Italy, despite and are often excluded from mechanisms of welfare support. recognising the positive impact of remittances and migrant assessment of migration indicates that its impact on global the enormous contribution migrants make to the country by Moreover, they are similarly exploited in the workplace and investment in the countries of origin. On the other hand, development processes has often been limited and ambiguous. helping to sustain its development and welfare – providing a are not protected by existing labour contracts. As a result, they also highlighted the key contribution of migrants to the Migration, especially in countries of origin, may have workforce that fills skill needs and cheap labour for agriculture, both Italians and migrants are in fact forced to migrate to social and economic development of countries of destination, unintended consequences that run against the objectives of construction, care and domestic work – the general public find better chances. The weakness of governmental social and through elements as diverse as labour market participation and sustainable development and integral human development. perception is highly negative and a critical situation is currently labour policy, and the lack of a comprehensive intervention job creation, welfare support, economic and social innovation, Remittances, in particular, may contribute to the worsening being faced. The long-term process of immigrant integration programme addressing poverty and social vulnerability has cultural pluralism and diversity. Over the last years, however, of intra-national social inequalities rather than reducing is, at present, affected by a set of disruptive factors. Those resulted in disadvantaged population groups – working poor, this generally optimistic view has been once again called into them, or may alter consumption expenditures in a way include, among others: the rise of a populist, anti-immigrant unemployed, etc. of every nationality – competing amongst question. that negatively affect local markets. Remittances and other political front all over Europe (with Italy as one of its centres each other for both low and precarious salaries and limited migrant investments may also nurture long-term social and of gravity); a shrinking, saturated national labour market; a welfare resources. Areas where people of different social and Some researchers have suggested that the optimistic paradigm economic dependency, for example by supporting the creation related trend of economic impoverishment affecting both the ethnic backgrounds live together, such as at the outskirts of (M&D) of those years has systematically overestimated the of micro-enterprises proved often to be economically weak Italian and foreign populations (Caritas 2018); a frustrated large urban areas, tend to be amongst those most affected by real impacts of migration on poor countries, especially in terms and unsustainable (de Haas 2009, 2010; Singh 2015; Lartey public opinion that blames foreigners for the worsening of poverty, social vulnerability, degradation of social relations of poverty or inequality reduction (Gamlen 2014; Vammen 2018). More in general, as argued by Datta et al. (2007: 43), the local population’s conditions, and therefore becomes more and of the environment, as well as gender equality gaps. In and Bronden 2012). Critics of the migration and development “it’s inappropriate, unsustainable and unethical to build and more hostile. These elements are dramatically affecting a country where inequalities are constantly on the rise, and paradigm have seen this enthusiasm and public celebration development policy on remittances, because such an approach the degree of acceptance of foreign populations by Italian are much higher than the EU average (Caritas Italiana 2018), of the development potential of migration as a strategy by disregards the plight of individual migrants, and lets the citizens. As notions of immigrants as “other” or narratives of tackling poverty therefore requires a comprehensive and wealthy nation states and international organisations to cover developed world off the hook for addressing global inequalities.” “us versus them” gain more and more traction amongst Italian integrated approach that should shy away from any attempts the failure of mainstream globalisation, and more specifically By uncritically celebrating migrant-led development not only public opinion, therefore calling into question migrants’ claim of dividing the population into opposite “ethnic classes”. of neoliberalism, in bringing prosperity to all and in ensuring do we risk supporting “neoliberalism with a ‘human face’, in to belong, we risk facing a real “cultural emergency” (Caritas- a more equitable distribution of resources (Castles, Delgado- light of growing inequalities and conflict” (Gamlen 2014: 9), Migrantes 2018). In light of these considerations, it should be clear that a Wise 2008; Glick Schiller 2012). They also noted that the idea but also overlooking the issue of what conditions immigrants simplistic approach to migration and development, both in of migration as a tool for development, as well as the promotion have put up within destination contexts, where many of them We live in a historical period where reality and narrative are positive and negative terms, is simply indefensible. A more of “globalisation from below” (Portes 1997), neatly fitted the are increasingly unable to participate in society on an equal- dramatically disconnected. On one hand we witness a strong realistic and pragmatic approach lies in accepting migration neoliberal project of outsourcing state responsibilities for level playing field. In fact, migrants often work there under expansion of a socio-political narrative that distinguishes as a major feature of our contemporary world, while at the addressing poverty and inequalities to migrant communities, exploitative labour-market conditions and can send money Italian citizens from foreign “strangers” and seeks to pit same time considering how migration is linked to a wider set home only with strenuous efforts. Moreover, it has become clear that migration has dramatic social and emotional consequences for households, both for migrants and for the family members who stay behind, and those effects cannot be simply offset by the net advantages of remittances or by the promise of some future migration via family reunification. Research in Eastern Europe, Latin America and Asia – areas

12 INTRODUCTION: DICHOTOMIES AND CHALLENGES ON MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY 13 - CHAPTER 3 - ITALY’S NATIONAL MIGRATORY CONTEXT

of questions, problems and opportunities that concern society policy statements, issue papers and existing literature on The Italian national migration context is particularly complex, issuing residence permits. In 2016, legal entry for employment as a whole. Migration, in this sense, is simply a key issue that migration and integration. Moreover, twelve qualitative characterised by a variety of migratory dynamics as well as reasons accounted only for 5,7% of the total, while family needs to be dealt with, including a view to recreating cohesive interviews were conducted with key informants from faith- socio-political tensions. Already one of the major destinations in reunification was far the main reason for entry (45,1%, and integrated communities of all residents (Censis 2017). based organisations, diaspora organisations, NGOs and the Europe for third-country migrants seeking employment, Italy although 4,4% less than in 2015). The same data also show government. Findings were triangulated with multiple sources has more recently seen a spike both in regular arrivals due to a dramatic increase of humanitarian permits: 77,927 in 2016 Building on these considerations, the following report where possible. family reunification and in irregular entries of undocumented (34% of total inflows), an increase of 6%, 15% and 26.5% provides an in-depth analysis of the current situation, policies migrants and asylum seekers – the so-called ‘mixed flows’ – respectively compared to 2015, 2014, and 2013. According and debates in Italy related to migration and development. The structure of the report is as follows. Firstly, it reviews mainly from sub-Saharan African countries. Within Europe, to the latest Istat3 figures (2018), out of the 262.770 permits The report develops knowledge, evidence and analysis to the complex national migratory context, moving then to a Italy has witnessed the highest relative growth of its migrant delivered in 2017, 101,000 have been issued for asylum and answer the following guiding question: “How, and under development-based framing of migration and underlining population over the last twenty years. Since 1998, the stock of humanitarian protection reasons (38,5% of the total, and what conditions, can migrants contribute to integral human the key contributions that migrants and immigration in its immigrants has risen five times, with an increase of 2,023,317 54,3% of them issued to men). In parallel, over one million development, their own and in/of places and societies of origin, present form bring to the economy, society, labour market, persons between 2007 and 2016 (Istat 2017). Nevertheless, foreigners have acquired Italian citizenship during the period residence and transit?” Data and description of migrants’ culture and people. Secondly, it identifies key obstacles that during the present decade, regular inflows have shrunk, 2007-2017. Such a figure places Italy in the first place among contributions to development will be complemented by an impede migrants’ full contributions to development, as well reflected in the slow increase of new foreign residents (roughly European countries regarding growth in absolute terms of analysis of the evolution of the more general socio-political as opportunities for facilitating and enhancing migrants’ own 33,000 between 2015 and 2017). The contraction of the naturalisations (Istat 2018; Caritas-Migrantes 2018). Italian landscape. The publication will also identify the key development, the contributions of migration to development, Italian labour market and the subsequent high unemployment factors that influence the potential of migrants and refugees and shared responsibility and accountability. Finally, it rate in the country have induced the government to largely According to residency data collected by municipalities (Istat to contribute to development in Italy and in their countries of presents conclusions and a set of recommendations to steer reduce the quota available for regular migrant workers, 2018), foreign citizens residing in Italy as of 1st of January origin. This report follows a critical approach that recognises Caritas and other relevant stakeholders in their future which now amount to only a few thousands1. This limited 2018 amount to 5,144,440. This figure represents 8,5% of the complexity of the relationship between migration advocacy work towards protecting the rights of migrants, cap was imposed in spite of the employers’ opposition, who the total country population (60,463,973), and includes and development, which is sceptical of linear cause-effect promoting migrants’ inclusion in Italian society, and defended the need for immigrant labour and instead asked the 52,3% of women and 47,7% of men. Official residency explanations.It avoids prescribing pre-packaged, ‘one-size-fits- addressing the migration-development nexus, particularly government to facilitate the process to employ asylum seekers is generally considered one of the most reliable statistical all’ solutions. from the perspective of migrants and their contribution to and to re-establish legal entries for work purposes. indicators on migration; however, it can detect only those integral human development. The set of recommendations is regular immigrants who have already registered as residents, The report draws on desk research as well as on qualitative based on the results of the research supporting this publication Since 2012, the Italian government has not launched any thus overlooking other significant components of immigrant empirical material. The desk research involved collecting and the long experience of Caritas Italy in working both with regularisation drive for migrants in irregular status. Prior population. Taking into account the gap between arrivals and relevant data from statistical databases at national, European migrants and refugees, as well as with the local population on to that date, and for at least two decades, regularisation registrations and including an estimate of people still in the and international level as well as from government reports, a variety of issues. programmes had been the main mechanism to ensure the legal registration process, the number of regular migrants (holders integration of immigrants in Italy2. Over the last few years, the of a valid residence permit) present in the country in 2017 Italian migratory complex has diversified. On the one hand, increases the number to 5,359,000 (Idos 2017). In addition, the country experienced new consistent arrivals of migrants the number of migrants without any form of legal status is and asylum seekers from different countries of origin. On the estimated to be around 490,000 people (ISMU 2017). Italy has other, migration in Italy has also stabilised and consolidated recently witnessed the arrival of a large number of migrants and as a result of family reunification, an increase in the influx of asylum seekers via the Mediterranean route. This population minors and Italy-born children, as well as of naturalisation of is seen as part of so-called ‘mixed migration’ flows, those many long-term migrant residents (Caritas-Migrantes 2018). including “refugees fleeing persecution and conflict, victims of This second trend is evident when considering the reasons for trafficking, and people seeking better lives and opportunities”

1 In 2018, the “Decreto Flussi” established 30,850 work entries: 18,000 for seasonal subordinate jobs (in agriculture and touristic sector), and 12,850 for subordinate non seasonal work and autonomous jobs. 2 Regularisation processes (“sanatorie”) in Italy have occurred eight times in 25 years (from 1986 to 2012), according legal status to irregular migrant population already present in the national territory. 3 The Italian national institute for Statistics.

14 INTRODUCTION: DICHOTOMIES AND CHALLENGES ON MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN ITALY 15 (Mixed Migration Hub 2019). Most of those who lodged an asylum application are still waiting for a response or for the Nationality Total Females Males % females Share in total foreign population result of the appeal. According to UNHCR, in Italy there were 186,600 asylum claims still pending at the end of 2017 Romania 1,190,091 684,130 505,961 57,5 23,1 (2018). Table 2 presents data on different categories of migrant Albania populations, which roughly totals six million (Eurostat 2018). 440,465 215,362 225,103 48,9 8,6 Morocco 416,531 194,599 221,932 46,7 8,1

xxxxxx China 290,681 144,231 146,450 49,6 5,7

Ukraine 237,047 184,780 52,267 78,0 4,6 Foreign residents (Istat 2018a) 5,144,440 Philippines 167,859 95,260 72,599 56,8 3,3 Holders of a permit to stay (Istat 2018c) 5,359,000 India 151,791 62,042 89,749 40,9 3,0 Non-EU residence permit holders (Istat 2018c) 3,714,137 Bangladesh 131,967 35,543 96,424 26,9 2,6 Refugees and people in refugee-like situation (UNHCR 2018) 167,335 Moldova 131,814 87,505 44,309 66,4 2,6 Migrants with no legal status (estimate) (ISMU 2018) 490,000 Egypt 119,513 39,119 80,394 32,7 2,3 Asylum seekers lodging a claim in 2017 (Ministry of Interior 2018) 126,500 Pakistan 114,198 34,705 79,493 30,4 2,2 Total pending claims in 2017 (UNHCR 2018) 186,648 Sri Lanka 107,967 50,444 57,523 46,7 2,1 Total foreign population (Eurostat estimate 2018) 6,053,960 Nigeria 106,069 43,419 62,650 40,9 2,1 Number of immigrants naturalised in the last 10 years (Istat 2018c) 1,081,000 Senegal 105,937 27,400 78,537 25,9 2,1 Table 2. Estimates of different categories of foreign population in Italy in 2017. Source: personal elaboration of various sources Peru 97,379 56,667 40,712 58,2 1,9 Poland 95,727 70,487 25,240 73,6 1,9 The geography of migration in Italy has markedly changed Italy is of European origin, due to the strong presence of over time. While African migrants were predominant in the Romanians, Albanians, Ukrainians and Moldovans. The Tunisia 93,795 35,497 58,298 37,8 1,8 1980s and 1990s, migration significantly “Europeanised” African and Asian population amount to approximately Ecuador 80,377 45,887 34,490 57,1 1,6 during the 2000s. Although 72,5% of residence one million each, 20% and 19,5% of the total respectively, permit holders in 2017 were issued to non-EU citizens while North and South Americans combined amount to Macedonia 65,347 31,403 33,944 48,1 1,3 (3,714,934), the 52% of the total foreign population in 376,000 (7,4%). Bulgaria 59,254 37,359 21,895 63,0 1,2

Other countries 890,691 479,721 410,970 53,9 17,3

TOTAL 5,144,440 2,672,718 2,471,722 52,0 100,0

Table 3. – Foreign born citizens: First nationalities as of 1st of January 2018. Source: Caritas and Migrantes 2017/2018. Elaboration on ISTAT data.

The migrant population is unequally distributed across the residing abroad. Based on registrations kept by Italian country. More than half of it, or 57.4%, is located in the Consular registers (AIRE), a total of 5,114,469 Italians resided northern regions: 33.6% of the total settled in the north-west abroad as of 31st December 2017 – a number that has grown regions (Lombardia, Piemonte and Liguria), while 23.8% significantly over the last decade as a result of the persisting in the north-east regions (Veneto, Trentino Alto Adige and economic crisis. Since 2006, when Italians living abroad were Friuli Venezia Giulia). The central region accounts for 25.7%, just above 3 million, Italian emigration has grown by 60.1%. while the southern region and the islands (Sicily, Sardinia) In the last 2 years this trend has intensified: while returnees account for only 16.9% of the total migrant population are about 30,000 per year, the population abroad increased by (Caritas-Migrantes 2018). 124,056 persons in 2016 (+15.4% with respect to 2015) and 140,527 in 2017 (Migrantes 2017; Idos 2017). Worryingly, the Ironically, but unsurprisingly, the resident foreign population majority of those who emigrate are young: 39% of the new in Italy almost perfectly matches the number of Italians emigrants are between 18 and 34 years old, 25% between 35

16 ITALY’S NATIONAL MIGRATORY CONTEXT 17 and 49 years old (Istat 2017). The number of qualified Italians residents. Moreover, between 2016 and 2017, for the first leaving the country has increased by almost 25,000 in 2016 time, the number of permits declined by 217,000 units5 (Istat (9% increase over 2015), but the sharpest increase concerned 2017). Should this slowdown continue in the coming years, - CHAPTER 4 - medium and low-skilled emigrant workers (56,000, +11%). immigration would be unable to compensate for the negative The main destinations of Italians are: Europe (2,770,175, natural dynamic of the Italian population, which is at an all- 54.1% of the total with 40.8% in EU member States and time low (Idos 2017), as well as for the consequent decline in 75.3% in European countries); South America (1,596,632, workforce. REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS and 31.2%); North and Central America (461,287, and 9%); Oceania (154,375, and 3.0%); and Africa and Asia with about The situation at the moment is quite fluid. On the one hand, CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX 66,000 people each (1.3% respectively) (Migrantes 2017). in 2017 Italy issued 262,770 new residence permits, a 16% increase compared to 2016 (226,934). During the same AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT At present, Italy’s population is shrinking. This is due to year Italy also received 126,500 new asylum applications a combination of different factors: the emigration trend (compared with 123,000 in 2016), which confirmed the highlighted above, the demographic ageing and low fertility country as the third-largest EU recipient of asylum claims. On In 2017, the foreign population within the working age (15- rates of the Italian population as a whole, as well as the growth the other hand, as a result of joint Italian-Libyan measures to 4.1 Towards places of residence/ 64 years) in Italy represented 10.5% of total employment, slowdown of the foreign population4. The number of total block migrant departures from North Africa and the closure destination/transit reaching slightly less than 4 million people. In addition to residents has decreased by 97,000 units in 2016 – a drop of Italian seaports by the Ministry of Interior, arrivals via the 2,422,864 employed people, the total included 405,816 job which was only partially mitigated by 33,000 new foreign Mediterranean sea dramatically dropped in 2018 (Table 4). seekers (-7% compared to 2016) as well as 1,149,281 inactive 4.1.1 The contribution of migrants to people (Ministry of Labour 2018). At a more detailed level, the economy the Italian labour market of foreign workers seems to be split 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 in two: non-EU foreigners show better performance than EU 31th of October Migration is a feature of social and economic life across many ones regarding increased employability (respectively +1.3% Migrants 42,925 170,000 153,000 181,436 119,000 22,031 areas of the world, with up until 2015 an important impact and 0.1%), new hires (13.7% against 1.6%) and unemployment on both host and country-of-origin societies. According to reduction (-3.6% against -0.5).9 Minors 13,026 12,360 25,846 15,731 3,330 an OECD (2014) report which focussed only on economic aspects, migrants perform several roles: fill important niches A more in-depth analysis of the data reveals remarkable Table 4. Number of asylum seekers arrived by boat in Italy during the period 2013-mid-2018. both in fast-growing and declining sectors of the economy; discrepancies and gender gaps among different communities. Source: Ministry of Interior contribute to labour market flexibility; boost the working-age In fact, the female employment rate is very high for some population; and, contribute with their skills and determination nationalities such as Filipinos (79.3%), Chinese (72.7%), Since its swearing-in in the spring of 2018, the current humanitarian protection, and has significantly limited the to the human capital development and technological progress Peruvians (72.0%), Moldovans (67.9%), Ukrainians (67.3%)10, Italian coalition government, comprised of the populist conditions for granting international refugee protection. We of the receiving countries. However, other facts also need while the highest rates of unemployment occur among 5-Star Movement and the right-wing, xenophobic League can therefore speculate that this new Law, if not revised, may consideration. Ghanaians (22.1%), Moroccans (22.1%), Tunisian (21.5%), Party, has promoted a political agenda that is profoundly have a long-lasting impact on the Italian migratory context, Albanians (17.5%), Ecuadorians (15.6%). As reported by the anti-immigration. For once, government officials have specifically by reducing the relative weight of asylum seekers. As shown in the presentation of the migratory context, Ministry of Labour annual report, female rate of unemployment repeatedly questioned European search and rescue operations Since 2014, when migrant and refugee pressure began to migrants play an important role in Italy by offsetting the and inactivity of extra-EU immigrants is much higher than in the Mediterranean, in particular those conducted by non- increase considerably, Italy has received around 700,000 effects of negative demographic trends such as workforce that of men, and represent a problematic feature, especially governmental organisations. Moreover, they have also called into asylum seekers. In 2017, they were overwhelmingly men ageing and decline as well as more general depopulation. for some national groups. If the women from Tunisia, Ghana, question Italy’s moral and legal commitment to receiving and (88.9%), mainly coming from Nigeria (17%), Guinea (9%) This is all the more visible in the economy. According to Bangladesh, Egypt and Pakistan show an unemployment rate hosting asylum seekers arriving from the sea. The government’s and Côte d’Ivoire (8%); minors of both sexes accounted for the annual report on foreigners in the Italian labour market between 51% and 43% (the medium average is 14.9% for non- decision to close Italian ports to ships carrying several rescued 14.7% of the total, and the vast majority of them – more produced by the Italian Ministry of Labour (2018), “over the EU women), the inactivity rate is very high for women coming migrants has sparked international controversy, exposing Italy than 90% - were unaccompanied (UNHCR 2018; Save the last few years, the foreign component in the labour market from Pakistan, Egypt and Bangladesh (more than 80% against to widespread criticism and to potential legal consequences.6 Children 2018). It remains to be seen if the strong reduction in has become key in the Italian economy, not only because of the average rate of non- EU women of 43.9 %). These results On another level, the recently approved “Decreto Salvini” 2018 shown in the table above – respectively an 80% and 86% the importance that foreign workers have had and continue are likely to depend on a combination of different factors: socio- (by the name of the current Interior Ministry), or Security drop compared to 2017 and 2016 – will be only temporary or to have in the performance of specific tasks, but also by cultural orientations (religious beliefs, family relationships), Law (Decreto Sicurezza)7 has practically eliminated access to if it will continue over the longer term. virtue of the compensatory effect they have determined: job market preferences and opportunities. Moreover, given […] up until 2015,8 [both] the EU and non-EU labour force the prevalence of nationals of those same countries in small have been able to offset the contraction of employment that business activity, women may be actively involved in the family 4 The average age in Italy is 45.2 years, a reflection of a structure by age in which only 13.4% of the population is less than 15 years, 64.1% between 15 and 64 years and 22.6% is 65 and older. Fertility is in sharp decline: the average number of children per woman went down to 1,32, compared to 1,46 of 2010 (Istat 2018b). affected the Italian component” (Italian Ministry of Labour business without being registered as employees, and thus be 5 This decrease was due to a new procedure of identification of expired documents. In reality, the drop likely occurred over several years, but it was revealed only recently. report 2018: 2-3). invisible for the official data. 6 See for example the case of the Acquarius, a vessel which carried 600 migrants on board and was left for weeks stranded in the middle of the Mediterranean before it was finally allowed to disembark in Valencia by the Spanish government. 7 In November 2018, the new Decreto Legge 113 (Law Decree No. 113) on migration and security was passed by the Italian Parliament. The Law radically modifies the rules governing the organization and funding of the Italian asylum reception system. The measures of greatest concerns are the following: 1) elimination of humanitarian protection (which applies to more than 50% 8 This trend only changed from 2015 onwards when, for the first time, the rate of growth of Italian employment was greater than that of foreign employment taken as a whole. of accepted asylum requests); 2) replacement of existing first-reception centers (CAS – Extraordinary Receipt Centers and now CAT – Temporary Receipt Centres) – which are key in supporting 9 primary integration of immigrants through medical and psychological care, Italian language and civic norms courses, sharing of knowledge and information, facilitation of interaction with the local The latter figure may be explained by the willingness of non-EU workers to accept low income labour intensive jobs and/or less protected work contracts, rather than by a conscious choice based on community – with more rigid and closed structures; 3) the weakening of the decentralised SPRAR refugee reception system (managed by municipalities on a voluntary basis), which has long been a actual qualifications or real capacity. The issue of skills mismatch was highlighted by a recent report produced by Focsiv (2018). successful example of local integration; 4) introduction of additional procedural and administrative limitations concerning the timing and conditions regarding asylum requests and appeals. 10 Thesetop nationalities for female presence are strongly linked with the employment of those women as domestic workers and caregivers (“badanti”).

18 ITALY’S NATIONAL MIGRATORY CONTEXT 19 Nevertheless, notwithstanding sectorial variations, the complementarity” between native and migrant workforce is importance of foreign workers is evident in various economic still prevalent (Cozzolino et al. 2018). Sector Number of immigrant Total number % of immigrant enterprises of enterprises enterprises domains. Migrant workforce is particularly concentrated in low-wage service segments such as the domestic and Within this model of “subordinated inclusion” in the Agriculture, forestry, fishing 14,666 729,996 7.4% care sectors, the hotel and restaurant sectors, agriculture, national job market, the confinement of migrant workers Manufacturing activities construction, manufacturing, small-scale urban services and in some specific sectors is already evident when considering 28,479 236,077 12.1% commerce. Foreign workers are overwhelmingly employed self-employment. Nevertheless, if dependent work provides Construction 132,376 823,584 16.1% as employees in someone else’s company, and generally several examples of jobs no longer performed or sought after concentrated in low-skilled jobs – more than 70% are hired as by Italians, the situation is less clear-cut in independent work Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles 209,556 1,543,307 14% manual workers (Ministry of Labour 2017; 2018). According and business activities (Chiesi 2011). If, in some niches of the Transportation and storage 12,365 161,993 7.6% to Fondazione Moressa, workers with a foreign nationality economy, migrants replaced the local population - such as in account for 74% of the total labour force of domestic workers, the case of ethnic urban small trade, domestic and care work or Activities of accommodation and catering services 46,594 444,690 10.5% 56%1 of total caregivers, 51.6% of street vendors. In contrast, secondary industrial processing and subcontracting – in other the presence of foreign workers in leadership and managerial sectors (construction sector, cleaning companies, commercial Rental, travel agencies, business support services 30,494 151,607 20.1% roles is extremely limited: managers represent only 0.4% of the non-ethnic activities etc.) migrant enterprises coexist and Other services (services for the person) 21,086 238,534 8.8% total migrant workforce while executives 0.7% (compared to compete with local enterprises. Emerging migrant enterprises 1.9% and 5.8% respectively among Italians). In professional have also transformed certain economic sectors, implementing Real estate activities 5,802 286,281 2.0% and highly-skilled jobs such as scientists, professors and important changes in the nature of the product and in the Professional, scientific and technical activities 4,039 64,867 6.2% teachers, technicians or other ‘white-collar jobs’, Italian structure of the market, such as when Chinese entrepreneurs citizens account for 99% (Fondazione Moressa 2017). in Prato and Carpi revitalised the declining Italian textile Information and communication 3,627 10,795 33.6% sector by converting the sweatshops to produce ready-to-wear Italy is therefore characterised by a sharp professional fashion clothing (Barberis, Bigarelli, Dei Ottati 2011; Dei Other 34,810 207 0.6% segmentation of its labour market when it comes to Italian Ottati 2013). In many others, even if usually from a position of TOTAL 587,499 6,090,481 9.6% nationals versus foreign nationals. The data also indicates a weakness within the productive relations of the supply chain, marked waste of human capital, that of foreign citizens, who migrants’ autonomous activities have played and still play an Table 6. Main sector of presence of immigrant companies in Italy at the end of 2017 are often employed in professions for which they are either important role in keeping Italian economy afloat in spite of Source: Unioncamere/Movimprese overqualified or overeducated. This mismatch is made worse the economic recession or of the structural difficulties faced by – and is often linked to various degrees of labour exploitation specific sectors. In the case of goldsmith district of Arezzo, for It is however important to nuance the picture regarding the Last but not least, we have to mention the remittances’ inflow – in the context of the peculiar Italian economic structure, instance, the presence of a niche of immigrant subcontractors contribution of those companies to the Italian economy. Most towards Italy. In 2017, the incoming flows were of 9,809 where a significant portion of the economy is informal or who is able to provide highly competitive prices has been of these migrant-led business activities are limited in their scale millions of USD compared to the 9,355 millions of USD that unregulated, if not altogether linked to illicit or criminal crucial to ensure the survival of this segment of the local and capacities as well as in the skills required, and are often in a left the country (+3% compared to 2016). Italy once more activities.11 economy, even if at the social cost of pricing Italian contractors subordinated subcontracting relationship with a larger Italian became a net receiver of remittances, a situation that lasts out of the market (CeSPI 2018). firm. Such companies often reveal precarious forms of self- since 2015, when for the first time since 1998 the incoming The phenomenon of salary degradation is particularly evident employment put up for survival purposes or administrative flows were higher than the outgoing flows (with the exception in disadvantaged areas of the country, where social tensions Contrary to the general trend, which has seen the steady needs, and may actually mask forms of dependent work for the period 2005-2007). In 2018, the incoming flows are and immigrant bashing have grown most acute12. In these decline of Italian companies over the last decade, immigrant (Codagnone 2003; CeSPI 2018). Unsurprisingly, the estimated to be around 9,770 million of USD (World Bank). areas, the large number of migrants employed in low-skilled companies have continued to grow even during the worse geographical distribution of immigrant enterprises reflects (and often underpaid) jobs may enter in competition with period of the economic crisis. At present, 9.6% of total the different social, institutional and productive areas of the Italian workforce into the segment of unqualified work, companies and 16.5% of those with sole proprietorship belong the country. All in all, a realistic assessment of migrant self- 4.1.2 The contribution of migrants to as reported for some agricultural areas of the South (FlAI- to foreigners. The main nationalities involved are Moroccans employment reveals that, depending on the specific situation, welfare and social security CGIL 2018). However, even if in the academic literature (14.7%), Chinese (11.3%), Romanians (10.6%), Albanians immigrant enterprises may either provide overall positive there’s no general consensus on whether the migrants (6.9%), Bangladesh (6.7%), Senegalese (4.3%), Egyptians economic and human development outputs or rather the Concerning migrants’ contribution to the welfare system, a produce a downward pressure on average salaries or cause (4.0%). Each national group tends to be present in particular opposite. Furthermore, often the general and local socio- recurring question in the international and national debate on the worsening of contractual conditions (Milanovic 2018; sectors, which may reflect ethnic segmentation (see table 6): economic relations and the existing productive hierarchies immigration in Europe asks whether migrants are a support Hassell 2018 ; Peri 2014), the prevailing results and most trade and retail is largely prevalent among Senegalese (89.2%), within specific sectors induce migrant enterprises to adopt or rather a burden for the national system of social security. of the evidence are different. Within a general phenomenon Moroccans (73.3%) and Bangladeshi (66.8%); construction the workforce exploitation “model” of the Italian enterprises. The prevailing opinion is that migrants not only contribute of wage growth stagnation and worsening of working activities are preponderant among Albanians (72%), This is particularly evident in agriculture, where we witnessed more in taxes and social contributions than they receive in conditions in Western countries over last 2-3 decades, the Romanians (64.4%) and Egyptians (42%); manufacturing a number of cases of migrant entrepreneurs exploiting co- benefits, but also that migrant workers have the most positive presence of immigrants in the Italian job market increases represents a core activity for more than one third of Chinese nationals or other migrants through forms of bonded labour impact on the public purse (OECD 2014). According to (even if slightly) the native wages, while the “model of companies (CeSPI 2018). in order to ensure their own survival (Carchedi, Mottura, the data provided by INPS13 (2018), the amount of GNP Pugliese 2003), often utilizing the typical mechanism of produced by migrants is 130 billion of euros (8.9% of total 11 Theso-called “non-observable economy”, which includes all non-formal activities, is estimated to account for 22.9% of the national GDP, and up to 29.8% of the GDP in the South of the country “caporalato” (Omizzolo, Sodano 2015; FLAI-CGIL 2018). Italian GNP); 11 billion are the social security contributions (SRM 2018). 12 At the same time, these peripheral areas can also see the emergence of solidarity initiatives and positive collaborations between Italian and migrant population, as shown by the positive experiences of local immigrant reception and integration in the South of the country. 13 INPS is the Italian Institute for Social Security and is the main body charged with the distribution of social provisions and pensions to the subordinated workers.

20 REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT 21 structural and permanent phenomenon capable of radically objectives. While some ethno-communitarian organisations transforming its society. Thus, for a long time, politics and are mainly concerned with social cohesion and reproducing 4.2 Towards places of origin mass media have continued to overlook or downplay this traditional cultural identities, other organisation have epochal change, persisting in treating the issue as a novelty, adopted a more open, hybrid and cosmopolitan identity. The a peculiar situation, or as an “emergency”. Moreover, the latter are often able to attract multi-national constituencies, 4.2.1 The contribution of migrants to peculiarity of the Italian “low cost immigration” model members and volunteers (including Italian nationals), as the economy (Pastore, Ponzo, Salis 2013), which incorporates migrants in a well as migrant professionals, second generation migrants spiral of downward integration, has contributed to the creation (people with migrant background) and students. A mapping Financial and economic remittances – money and in-kind of a public image and a common-sense perception of migrants research conducted in 2015 identified about 2,100 migrant transfers made by migrants directly to families or communities as economically useful, but not really a precious resource in associations in Italy, showing a significant concentration of in their countries of origin – are generally considered to be one social and cultural terms. These factors slowed down, not organisations in the Lombardia region and in the cities of of the main resources to promote development processes in and 7.2 billions of euros are the contributions of IRPEF only in practice but also in public perception, the emergence Rome and Milan17 (Idos 2015). In a more recent in-depth the countries of origin of migrants. Experts and policy makers (equal to 7.5% of total IRPEF), an income tax due to the of people of migrant background in public and visible roles research project, CeSPI and other partners investigated the have highlighted their role in combatting poverty, their anti- State. In contrast, the costs incurred by the Italian welfare (politicians, intellectuals, writers, TV characters etc.). number, characteristics, activities/objectives and perspectives cyclical features and the fact that, for a large number of are between 6 and 7 billion, a number definitively lower of migrant associations in the urban agglomeration of countries in the Global South, remittances account for a larger than the amount contributed14. In a recent public debate, As a matter of fact, it is at the local level that the social and Rome (CeSPI-Focsiv 2018). The findings of the report are money flow than official development aid (ODA) and foreign the Italian President of INPS, Tito Boeri, has re-affirmed the cultural exchange between migrant and local population ambivalent. On one hand, the study indicates that some direct investment. Yet, the role of such financial transfers in importance of migrant contribution for the sustainability has been the most fruitful. In small cities and towns, associations were able to reinforce their organisation and actually triggering sustainable local and national development of the whole pension system. He clearly condemned the the migrant population has been able to promote socio- competencies and get access to financing and (more rarely) has recently been questioned (Kapur 2004; Sorensen 2012, restrictive policy towards migration, affirming that: “Italy cultural events, intercultural (and sometimes inter-religious) collaboration agreements with local public and private Brown, Connell 2015). On the one hand, the economic crisis needs to increase regular immigration due to the fact dialogues as well as social and economic initiatives, to build partners. On the other, a majority of organisations are still that has hit many high income countries led to a contraction of there are many jobs Italians no longer want to perform”15. relationships with local authorities and civil society, and to struggling to consolidate their structures, membership and remittance flows towards poorer countries, while on the other, He added that, even if Italy elevated the age of retirement, carve avenues of political participation through consultative mission, as well as to strengthen their project development research has nuanced the extent to which migrants’ private increased productivity as well as women’s activity rate, a forums. To an extent, the impact of migrants was also valued and management skills. These shortcomings seem to be financial flows actually contribute to creation of productive high number of immigrant workers would still be necessary in urban contexts, where many neglected and run-down due to the fact that there are no specific national and local enterprises and virtuous development processes. to maintain a balanced relationship between those pension neighbourhoods were revitalised thanks to the presence of policies supporting the professionalisation of organisations holders and those who work. Notwithstanding the overall foreign communities’ shops, markets, products and social life. or their political inclusion in consultative bodies and civil Nonetheless, financial remittances remain an important source economic and financial advantages provided by migrant Of course, it is also at a local level that many tensions arose, society structures. of income for families and communities in the countries of origin contribution to the Italian State, there is a widespread social both at the level of policy (as in the Lodi case described in and are amongst the clearest evidence of migrants’ persisting and political perception that migrants exert great pressure footnote 16) as well as in daily interaction, but it is generally The full potential of migrant contribution to the socio- transnational attachments, engagement and moral obligations. on social services and welfare provisions. This is all the more within such small “communities” that the migrant population cultural development of local and national communities is According to the World Bank, remittances to low- and middle- debated at the local level, especially with respect to social may be able to integrate more effectively. still to be fully exploited in the public sphere. Nevertheless, income countries rebounded to a record level in 2017 after two housing rights and priority lists, access to kindergarten there is a serious risk that even such sporadic and fragmented consecutive years of decline. An estimate of officially recorded and school meals services – services that the local migrant This more dynamic local arena of integration and of contributions may be lost as a result of the current political remittances to low- and middle-income countries reached $466 population is formally entitled to access. In certain cases, contribution of the migrant population to the social, economic and social climate. A nationalist, populist discourse billion in 2017, an increase of 8.5 percent over the $429 billion in municipalities have addressed tensions by trying to set up and cultural life is particularly evident when considering affirming the primacy of national/cultural identity over all 2016. Global remittances, which include flows to high-income discriminatory mechanisms barring migrant families from diaspora trajectories and organisations. At the national level, the other possible social affiliations (such as class, gender, countries, grew 7 percent to $613 billion in 2017, from $573 accessing particular services.16 also due to the lack of policy and public initiatives in this work and professional categories and so on) is particularly billion in 2016 (World Bank 2018). regard, diaspora groups have never succeeded in creating solid aggressive and noisy at present. Such political discourse and persistent aggregate forms of organisation. Instead, at the not only produces a negative narrative about the migrant – According to Eurostat (2018), Italy shows a similar amount of 4.1.3 The contribution of migrants to local level, a galaxy of associations has soon proliferated, trying a narrative connected with negative emotions such as fear remittances in and out. As above mentioned, in 2017, flows to society and culture to play a central role in helping the migrant population adapt and insecurity, where migrants are identified as the sole Italy totalled 9,809 million USD compared to 9,355 outgoing to the Italian context, in supporting its integration processes, responsible for the ills of Italian society – but also promotes a (+ 3% compared to 2016), which means that Italy has once Italy is on its way to becoming a truly immigration society, in establishing relations with local institutions and society, and worldview organized around the divisions between “Italians” again become a net recipient of remittances. However, the assuming progressively the features of a multi-ethnic country. in promoting transnational interchange and co-development and “strangers”, between legitimate citizen and illegitimate. definition of “remittance” utilized by Eurostat, as well as by Although the rest of the Italian society may not fully realise initiatives (Carchedi, Mottura 2010; Boccagni, Pilati 2015). Such a discourse reduces the space available to migrants for the World Bank, is built upon different aggregation levels: the implications of this fact, migrants have de facto become contributing both to the destination and countries of origin. not only “personal remittances” (the transfer of household a social and cultural component of the country. Italy has only Over the last two last decades, in addition to increasing in Moreover, if pushed to the extreme, this nationalist discourse funds in cash or kind and household assets to a non-resident recently grasped the idea that immigration would become a number, migrant organisations have diversified in mission and threatens to entirely derail the process of integration, household, usually situated in the migrant’s home economy), undermine mutual co-existence, and tear apart the very idea but also the net income being generated through employment of an open and pluralistic society. in other economies, and social benefits, which were acquired 14 However, those who hold opinions against immigration put forward the argument of the cost of the receipt system: 4.3 billion in 2017 and estimated between 4.6 and 5 billion of Euros in 2018. 15 See Huffington Post 2018. 16 TheItalian media widely reported what happened in Lodi, a small city in the Lombardy region, where the local municipal administration, headed by the League party, sought to prevent foreign 17 The“PortaleIntegrazione” website, set up by the Italian Ministry of Labour, contains a section entirely dedicated to immigrant communities and immigrant organizations, including those involved residents from accessing school lunch provisions. The strong solidarity mobilization of private citizens and associations and, above all, the Milan Court ruling of December 13, 2018, which deemed in activities together with the Ministry. See: http://www.integrazionemigranti.gov.it/Pagine/default.aspx; Concerning the mapping of migrant association, see: http://www.integrazionemigranti.gov. the regulation discriminatory, forced the municipality to withdraw the proposal. it/Areetematiche/PaesiComunitari-e-associazioniMigranti/Pagine/mappatura-associazioni.aspx

22 REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT 23 by the above mentioned economic activities of households first level (transfers among physical persons between different Since the early 2000s, development studies and policy At the Italian level, there is no comprehensive research in other economies (e.g. pension rights). Instead, the data of countries) and are likely to better represent the real amount of recommendations have highlighted the importance of directing on migrants’ investments in countries of origin; however, the Bank of Italy, shown in the Table 7, considers only the remittances strictly speaking. remittances to ‘productive’ purposes (direct investment in a few qualitative studies provide us with a number of business activities, job creation, etc.). However, this view has important insights on the quality and scope of this neglected the role that remittances play in boosting material migrant activity. CeSPI’s study, conducted every two Year Amount (millions of Euro) Remittances to China Remittances without China consumption – and therefore in producing more economic years over the last decade, is the most extensive in terms exchange, which can revitalise the local market – as well as in of sampling and depth. The 21% of those involved in the 2005 3,901,380 Delta 947,54 2,953,840 Delta supporting “deferred consumption” that enables access to key study declared having invested in their country of origin 2006 4,528,130 16.1% 700,51 3,827,620 29.6% socio-economic opportunities (such as education and health as follows: 75% invested in real estate, 20% in productive expenses, house equipment, new migrations or mobility of activities and 5% in financial investments. A more 2007 6,039,990 33.4% 1687,56 4,352,430 13.7% members of the family, emergencies…). These remittances-led detailed categorisation of remittances’ use by migrants opportunities may have a long-term impact on the integral and their families, immediate consumption excepted, is 2008 6,377,890 5.6% 1541,05 4,836,840 11.1% human development of individual households. shown below (table 9). 2009 6,748,890 5.8% 1970,78 4,778,110 -1.2%

2010 6,572,920 -2.6% 1816,33 4,756,590 -0.5% Emergencies Home Purchase Cars/motor- Medical Education Productive Social projects cycles purchase expenses activities 2011 7,395,040 12.5% 2537,08 4,857,960 2.1% 30% 21% 4% 14% 15% 3% 13% 2012 6,833,066 -7.6% 2674,457 4,158,609 -14.4% Table 9. Main typologies of remittances’ use. 2017. 2013 5,546,063 -18.8% 1097,859 4,448,204 7.0% Source: CeSPI 2014 5,333,614 -3.8% 819,129 4,514,485 1.5% CeSPI’s findings show how remittances are used for a wide small-scale business without managing to connect to other 2015 5,251,656 -1.5% 557,343 4,694,313 4.0% range of purposes. As already discussed above, this type of migrant investors or as part of larger economic projects. Surely, consumption may play an important role when we consider lack of extensive and consolidated ties to highly skilled people 2016 5,073,632 -3.4% 237,538 4,836,094 3.0% a notion of development that goes beyond direct wealth or professionals, as well as to business communities negatively 2017 5,075,116 0.03% 136,487 4,938,629 2.1% creation and GDP growth. However, it is also important to affects the capacity of expatriates to really have a development note that, in line with the international academic literature, impact in their country of origin. Partnerships between Table 7. Migrants’ remittances outflow from Italy (Euro millions). Period 2005-2017. those findings confirm that only a very small fraction of migrant and Italian entrepreneurs, potentially an enabling Source Bank of Italy remittances is directly channelled towards “productive development factor, is so far a rather sporadic phenomenon investments” (less than 5% of the total). While it would be (CeSPI 2015). In conclusion, except from a very limited In Italy, following a period of continuous growth during the According to some estimates, the quota of informal nonsensical to expect every migrant and their families can or number of successful, larger-scale productive investments, early 2000s and up until 2011, remittances apparently started and non-registered transfers corresponds to 30% of the should be entrepreneurs, as much of the academic literature diaspora contribution from Italy to their countries of origin to decline from 2012 until now. Nevertheless, we need to look total. Based on an investigation developed in 2017 and seems to assume, we can also identify some particular barriers is most visible in migrant-sponsored community-oriented better into the data, considering the amount of total remittances involving a sample of 1,400 migrants in Italy19, the that constraint this activity both in the country of origin and projects – both social (education, health, social services) and from Italy without taking into account the “remittances” medium remitting frequency is 4.3 times per year (but the country of destination. With respect to the country of infrastructural ones (water reservoir, irrigation systems, solar going to China, which should instead be truly classified as for the 19% of the sampling it is once per month). The origin, migrants often have to face considerable financial, energy) – as well as in income-generating initiatives, such “commercial flows”. If so, we observe that, from 2012 onwards, medium amount remitted is 448 euros, while the yearly institutional, social and cultural hurdles that make it harder as social gardens, handicraft products, sustainable tourism the amount of migrants’ financial flows has started again to amount sent back is on average 1,600 euros (CeSPI 2108). for them to undertake income-generating activities. Those (CeSPI-AICS 2017a, 2017b; CeSPI 2015). increase, as shown in the data provided by the Italian National The main channels of transfer as identified by the study may include high financial transaction costs, complicated Bank in 2018, reported by the table here below are shown below (table 8). bureaucracy prone to corruption, as well as strong family pressure dictating appropriate use of money. Despite the 4.2.2 The contribution of migrants to creation of ad hoc institutions (ministries, departments, 5.1.2. society and culture Bank Post Money Debit Perso- Relative Informal Internet Mobile Paypal councils etc.) in many African and Asian countries, relations transfer cards nally /friend payment phone bitcoin between diasporas and home country government remains In the Italian case, spontaneous forms of transnationalism difficult, and the issues of remittance channelling as well as devoted to development initiatives at home are quite common Privileged channel 16.6 6.4 61.9 3.3 7.0 11.4 2.2 0.5 0.4 0.5 migrant return and re-integration are yet to be addressed in a among migrants’ groups residing in Italy. These initiatives Secondary channel 5.5 3.8 9.1 1.9 5.8 11.2 1.3 0.2 0.8 0.1 comprehensive manner (Ceschi, Coslovi 2012; Medao 2013). are led by and involve individuals, groups and networks, Regarding more structured migrant financial activities, we as well as more formalised associations. In the early 2000s, Table 8. Main and secondary channels (%) for remittances in 2017. note that (physical and virtual) investments in migrants’ the activism of diaspora and migrant groups attracted Source: CeSPI countries of origin are generally small and channelled at the attention of various Italian stakeholders involved in the family level, therefore outside of more structured joint international cooperation, producing a number of joint or consortium investments (Ceschi 2017; Beauchemin et al. and correlated initiatives falling under the umbrella of a 19 Theinvestigation was conducted by CeSPI in 2017 as part of the programme “Financial inclusion of migrants National Observatory” and was based on a survey of about 1,400 migrants living in different areas of Italy. For more information, see: http://www.cespi.it/en/ricerche/vi-rapporto-sullinclusione-finanziaria-dei-migranti-italia 2013). As a matter of fact, individual migrants often start their newly created policy sector, “migration and development”.

24 REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT 25 It is above all within this domain that diaspora groups were dedicated to multilateral programmes, such as the Regional able to gain recognition by the Italian government and Development and Protection Programme (RDPP) for North to develop their own distinct identity. Rather than as an Africa or the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa. These - CHAPTER 5 - organised and consolidated expatriates’ lobby attempting to programs aim to improve socio-economic conditions as well influence the political and institutional landscape of their as protection structures in countries of origin and transit of countries of origins – e.g. democracy promotion, peace- migrants with the ultimate goal of reducing international building or post-conflict resolution – diaspora groups in Italy migration to Europe23. But it is also visible in the continuous OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE MIGRANTS’ presented themselves as an actual development actor in the risk of diverting funds from development purposes to sending contexts. Italy therefore witnessed an interesting migration deterrence ones, as in the case of the recent trend FULL CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT and lively period of co-development initiatives, particularly of Italian cooperation to tackle the “root causes” of migration, at decentralised level as well as at third sector and civil an ambiguous term under which it can fall any action society level (Ceschi, Mezzetti 2012). At the national level, addressed to keep the people at home by creating new jobs co-development programmes directly financed by Italian and life opportunities in parallel with the struggle against Cooperation, and mainly managed by the Italian branch of irregular migration. Also, Italy is actively participating in the and even political ideological affiliation (Censis 2018). The the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), have militarisation of Sahel aimed at better controlling borders 5.1 Obstacles and barriers in Italy development of such an attitude is all the more worrying since the early 2000s supported social and entrepreneurial irregular migration, as shown by the sending of a military since it is likely to fuel, both at the institutional and societal actions proposed by (mainly African) diaspora groups and contingent to Niger in 201724. This section focuses on the range of obstacles and barriers that levels, exclusion, intolerance, and discrimination towards directed to the latter’s countries of origin.20 NGO’s, civil impede migrants’ full contribution to the development of the immigrants. In such a context, the narrative of migrants as society organisations, bank foundations as well as local The recent government promotion of return migration country of residence. We begin by reaffirming the key role that “agents of development” faces considerable challenges. authorities and regions have jointly participated in several co- through targeted Voluntary Assisted Return Programmes is the mainstream public discourse on migration has on the actual development initiatives engaging local diaspora and migrant equally problematic. While the economic crisis in Italy has possibility for migrants to be considered a development actor In this chapter, mindful of the complex context described associations21. Local institutions such as the Municipality certainly made return – but also secondary migration towards in Italy. In recent years, social representation of migrants has above, we list and describe different types of barriers that of Milan, the Tuscany, Emilia Romagna and Friuli-Venezia other European countries – more appealing for particular dramatically worsened, and it is now extremely hard to escape constrain migrants’ ability to contribute to development in Giulia regions, together with bank foundations,22 were segments of the migrant population, the government’s policy the media-driven image of migrants as an indistinguishable the Italian context. involved as donors and strategic project managers, while seems to be far more concerned with getting rid of migrants mass of poor and miserable people reaching Italian coasts on Italian civil society and NGOs drew on their development than with promoting sustainable return as an opportunity makeshift vessels. Public views have progressively shifted, as . Persisting downward labour inclusion and segregation in cooperation and social work expertise to support the capacity- for the development of the country of origin. The proposed descriptions of immigrants depicting them as hardworking the low-wage, unprotected sectors of the labour market. building of diaspora groups. As a result, diaspora associations measures and incentives are in fact insufficient to sustain and respectable workers seeking a future for their families in a The great majority of immigrants are still confined to were able to benefit from important coaching opportunities migrant reintegration following return (Balata 2012; Dedhiou dignified manner have been replaced by accounts portraying low-wage and menial occupations. The Italian model and to learn the basics of international cooperation through 2014; Focsiv-Cespi 2014). As a result, unsurprisingly, the them as desperate and cunning free-riders abusing the national of downward labour inclusion has hampered, or at least their involvement in these multi-stakeholder partnerships. VAR (RVA in Italy) programme has so far had only a very reception system and people’s hospitality. limited, migrants’ access to better paid, more protected These partnerships coincided with the most fruitful period limited impact, considering that the number of migrants who and more qualified jobs (e.g. managers, department of the “co-development era” along the 2000s, during used it to return was only 919 in 2014, 435 in 2015, 136 in In the past, migration was considered a fact of life in an head, white-collar jobs, technicians and professionals). which a number of migrant organisations were able to 2016, and 930 in 2017 (Ismu 2018). increasingly globalised world, and considered a necessary In addition, migrant entrepreneurs often have no other significantly strengthen relations with stakeholders on both (although not necessarily welcome) development needed to option than to enter into poor niche or already saturated sides (including with Italian government bodies), promote Migrant associations and diaspora networks have rarely sustain the Italian economy (less for the society). In contrast, economic sectors – placing their business activities into their organisation goals, and strengthen their individual engaged on the issue of return and reintegration. Except for as shown in recent surveys, present Italian public opinion a position of weakness and dependency. While there are and collective management skills in the field of international a few exceptions, where a limited number of migrants was shows a high level of concern about immigration. The majority of course successful exceptions to this rule, immigrant development cooperation. Since then, however, the scope and returned in the context of co-development actions, in Italy of the population thinks the impact of immigration on the independent workers, as well as dependent ones, generally ambition of “migration and development” has declined. At there is no enabling “social environment” supporting such country (57%) has been negative, and for several reasons: the face several visible and invisible barriers in their path of present, the development agenda has been partly replaced kinds of actions. At present, return migration remains an effect migrant workers are supposed to have had on overall social and economic affirmation. by migration control and migration prevention concerns individual and family affair rather than a collective one, salary and employment conditions; the widespread perception (as highlighted by interviewees at AICS and the Italian and the above-mentioned barriers prevent return migration that migrants are primarily a burden for the country; the . Lack of migrant political representation and upward Ministry of Labour). This shift can be evinced from the from being a positive factor in the overall development of the perception that migrants make Italy less safe (Ipsos 2018; social mobility. Migrant communities still lack abundant amount of money and great political attention now migrants’ countries of origin. CeSPI-Ixè 2018). Today, newly arrived asylum seekers – and influential leadership, while organisations representing with them also longer-term residents – are portrayed on one diaspora and migrants are still not fully integrated hand as poor and worthless “victims” fleeing violence and at the Italian political level. Migrants and people of chaos in their home countries, while on the other they are foreign background are still excluded from the political 20 Examples of such actions are: MIDA-Italia Senegal and Ghana (2004-2007), WMIDA (Migrant Women for Development in Africa (2009-2011) MIDA Somalia (2009-2010) and more recently MIDA Women Somalia II and Migraventure. The programme A.MI.CO is intended to support capacity building of migrants’ associations in Italy. See: https://italy.iom.int/; http://www.etimos.org/ depicted as a threat to Italy’s social order, cohesion, cultural and economic establishment. They are denied access to progetti/archivio-progetti/migraventure/. values and moral integrity. The political and media discourse powerful, influential, visible and prestigious positions. 21 A recent review of co-development experiences in Italy, produced in the context of the National Diaspora Summit, a process financed by Italian Cooperation Agency, can be found in CeSPI-AICS 2017a and 2017b. has clearly played a crucial role in shaping and feeding these Until now, there have been only a handful of journalists, 22 Themost important co-development initiatives financed and managed by bank foundations are Fondazioni4Africa Senegal and Acri-Burkina (www.fondazioni4africa.org/). negative social perceptions and representations, contributing TV hosts, commentators, experts, intellectuals, scientists, 23 For example, the Trust Fund allocated at least 46 million Euro used to finance training and border management activities of the Libyan coast guard (Bodeux 2018). A detailed analysis of Trust Fund objectives and resources is provided by Concorde Europe (2017). to forging a widespread anti-immigration sentiment regardless writers and artists, administrators and politicians 24 On recent processes of border militarization in Africa see Gabrielli 2016; Gaibazzi et al. 2017; Prestianni 2018. of geographic area, social class, educational level, profession, with a foreign background. Only recently has Italy

26 REALITY ON THE GROUND: HOW MIGRANTS CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT IN A COMPLEX AND PROBLEMATIC CONTEXT 27 and new comers (“them”). With all the funds and the “Decreto Sicurezza” (Security Law), contrary to its stated political and media attention (negatively) given to the purpose, has so far resulted in tens of thousands of people latter, the former – those once hailed as the “agents of being forced to leave the reception centres – such fate development” – feel now unfairly scapegoated by Italian applying to both holders of humanitarian protection and public opinion. This dynamic, in a context of growing rejected asylum seekers in the process of appealing the vulnerability, risk fuelling divisions and conflict within decision. Such policy will dramatically affect the physical the migrant population that would only be disastrous.26 and psychological conditions of those categories of migrants, moreover increasing their social vulnerability . Lack of access to political and citizenship rights. Third- and marginalisation. From a political perspective, the country nationals still have very limited access to political disruptions produced by the Law Decree are perversely and citizenship rights. The right to vote at national level likely to generate further demand by the general public implemented the European directive allowing people is granted only to Italian citizens, and only citizens of for additional “security” measures, and therefore in a comprehensive fashion): weak and under-developed without national citizenship to get access to public and EU member states are entitled to vote in local elections. consolidate the grip of populist and anti-immigration financial systems; lack of an enabling social and productive state jobs/positions. When it comes to migrant upward The extremely limited political participation of migrants parties on political power. environment for investments; the inadequacy of physical and social mobility and skills recognition, Italy is far behind impacts priorities in national politics. Political parties IT infrastructure; presence of non-democratic regimes and many other Western Europe countries. To make matters and politicians have no interest in gaining the support In conclusion, the threats and barriers outlined above poor governance; environmental crises and disasters; political worse, the population itself has yet to get used to dealing of a population that has no voting powers, and rather adversely impact the capacity of migrants to contribute to instability, conflicts and violence; lack of incentive-oriented with professionals of migrant origins, as shown by the prefer to give in to public fears and to the social unease the social, economic and cultural life of the country. While policies; the high cost of remittance transfers and the limited recent case of an old woman refusing to be visited by a of the Italian lower classes. The current Citizenship migrants themselves will play a crucial role in defining the control migrants have over the use of remittances. All these black doctor.25 law, last amended in 1992, incorporates a conception conditions for their empowerment and self-affirmation in elements can dramatically affect the capacity of diasporas to of nationality based on a “right of blood” or parentage, Italy, the success of this process will also crucially hinge impact home country development. . Persisting barriers to education and specialised and therefore strongly penalises foreign residents as on the will of Italian society to make room for people with training. Migrants face a series of structural barriers well as persons born in the country from third-country a migratory background. This will not be an easy task, This section will instead focus on the elements within the and problems in accessing the educational and academic nationals.27 particularly in light of the structural problems the country Italian context that can hamper any kind of development system. Recognition of diplomas, certifications and is facing at present: a weak, segmented and stagnating action towards the countries of origin. This will be done by skills gained abroad remains complicated. Schools, . Emergence of a xenophobic and nationalist discourse job market; a welfare system in retreat and less and less paying particular attention to the role of African nationals in teachers and the educational system more in general are targeting migrants. It is still early to assess the real sustainable; an economy weakened by years of steady decline; the context of Italy’s peculiar geo-political position and its not well equipped to manage multi-ethnic classrooms consequences of the anti-immigrant campaign run by growing social resentment, frustration and disorientation; role in European-African relations. In that respect, we have and pupils, and they struggle to deal with issues linked political forces such as the League Party and (to a lesser an enduring weakness of Italian state institutions; a highly identified three different types of obstacles. to multiculturalism. Foreigners only have very few extent) the 5-Star Movement. Over the last few years, unstable and volatile political scene with a complete lack of opportunities when it comes to accessing high skill the “Italians first” rhetoric preached by Italian right- vision. Yet, achieving mutual co-existence will require the . At the migrant individual level, his or her potential qualifications, specialised training courses or grants. wing populist parties has struck a cord in many northern Italian population to engage in a real conversation with the contribution is held back by the general difficulty in In general, most young migrants or second generation municipalities, with the result that migrants are more migrant population in order to find common solutions on saving funds to send back to the family or to invest. pupils struggle to get access to high schools (Licei) that and more often discriminated with respect to access issues such as improvement of life conditions, social justice The problematic relation between the high cost of life prepare students for a university track; instead, they are to social housing, family benefits, maternity support, and cohesion, as well as re-distribution of wealth and and the median wage of people - an issue that concerns often “confined” to technical and training institutes. among others. Since the League Party has become part of reduction of inequalities. The following chapter addresses evensome Italian workers - is particularly noticeable for In such a context, the integrative potential of the the new Italian government, the situation seems to have those challenges. the migrant population, whose salaries are on average educational system for the migrant youth population escalated. Discriminatory actions barring migrants from 30% inferior to those received by Italians (ISMU 2017). therefore remains limited. social services and provisions are now institutionally The migrant workforce is more likely to be employed, not legitimised, while Italy’s international protection 5.2 Obstacles and barriers only in unqualified and 3D jobs (Dirty, Dangerous and . Erosion of solidarity among the migrant population. commitments – as shown by the ongoing conflict with towards countries of origin Demeaning), but also to fall into precarious and irregular There is a growing presence of marginalised migrants international NGOs over search and rescue operations contracts as well as differential and discriminatory and asylum seekers hosted by the disorganised and in the Mediterranean – are routinely challenged and This section focuses on the range of obstacles and barriers treatments (ISMU 2017). Moreover, if it is established sometimes corrupted Italian reception system. This is questioned. It is not by chance that hate speech and that impede migrants’ full contribution to the development that migrant contributions (largely not returned to problematic for various reasons. On the one hand, this racist acts and behaviours towards immigrants have since of their countries of origin. Since sharp differences exist them) hold an important role in sustaining the whole very visible migrant population encourages the Italian multiplied, and now fill the pages of newspapers almost between the different origin countries, it is not possible social security system (INPS 2018), the impossibility population to lump old and new migrants together daily (Lunaria 2019). to identify specific factors that relate to each context. of redeeming their paid contributions at the time of into a single stigmatised population. On the other, the However, the international literature on the subject has departure, is a real obstacle for the return of migrants28. migrant population itself is driven to buy into a discourse . Disruption of the Italian refugee reception system highlighted a number of issues across different developing Before the Bossi-Fini Law (2002), the amount of distinguishing between “integrated” migrants (“us”) due to the new Security Law. The recently approved and migrant-sending countries. These include (by no means contributions redeemed constituted essential savings to

25 Many Italian newspapers gave attention to this episode. See Avvenire 2018. 26 We already directly know of cases of longer-term migrant residents who oppose new migrations and tend to share the same anti-immigration views of particular segments of the Italian population. 28 In Italy, the “Bossi-Fini” Immigration Law (2002), still in effect, eliminated the right to redeem social security contributions paid by migrants to INPS for their pension. Migrants therefore have 27 At present, a young foreigner cannot apply for Italian citizenship until after turning 18 years old of age and having met some required conditions, among which having resided continuously in Italy to wait until retirement age before returning to their countries of origin, since leaving Italy earlier would mean surrendering those social benefits. This provision represents an important obstacle to during his or her life. migrants’ long-term financial planning and, at a general level, to migrant-led development initiatives in their countries of origin.

28 OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE MIGRANTS’ FULL CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 29 and the entrepreneurial African immigrant diaspora remain very limited.

. At collective/associational level, migrants face two major obstacles. Migrant organisations still lack advanced skills and competences in the realm of administration, finance, project planning and management, external relations and fundraising. The relation they built with Italian Stakeholders appears to be one of dependency in relation to coaching, mentoring and technical support. While this asymmetric relation with civil society/NGOs address the reintegration needs of the immigrants or to and institutions played an important role in legitimising transform it into a “capital” to be invested in a productive diaspora co-development initiatives in the past, it now activity. Concerning remittances, we witnessed a sizeable risks undermining the organisational self-development reduction of the cost of remittances in Italy, now of migrant associations. A related issue is the drastic representing the 5,6% of the total and very close to the reduction in funding available to support this multi- MORE THAN 70% 5% recommended by G20 (Cespi 2018). Nevertheless, stakeholder co-development model, including its capacity migrants still face the issue of quality of transfers, that building and coaching activities.29 Such trend threatens OF FOREIGN is, the possibility to channel savings towards reliable to undermine the (already limited) achievements with WORKERS ARE financial products and services in the country of origin, respect to the organisational self-development of migrant as well as the capacity to monitor and control the use of organisations. HIRED AS MANUAL remittances remotely from Italy. WORKERS . At the policy level, a virtuous approach to “migration and . At the business/investments level, present and future development” – characterised by participatory approach migrant investors cannot count on a real country of origin of migrant communities and local stakeholders, as well business community at Italian level. In a similar fashion, as a focus on sustainable development – is threatened by they lack the support of Chambers of Commerce or a gradual shift of Italian government priorities from co- entrepreneurial associations with a specific geographical development to migration management and control. As migrants (or refugees) in contributing to development and 8th largest exporter of arms and munitions for focus, nor can they benefit from wider investment stated by an Italian Development Cooperation Agency of their own countries. The idea of policy coherence for several decades. Saudi Arabia, Turkey and UAE have initiatives and business corridors to participate in. This (AICS) representative, the positive nexus between sustainable development is behind the Agenda 2030 for been and remain large purchasers of made-in-Italy arms is because such opportunities either do not exist or development and migration is now more and more framed Sustainable Development (OECD 2016), and widely and munitions. While specific data is hard to come are not well-consolidated and affordable, or are rather through the “root causes approach”, whose ultimate applies to issues related to migration and development. by, published documentation shows that Italian arms uninterested in reaching out to migrant entrepreneurs objective is to reduce migration through job creation An important example of this kind of interlinkages is the have ended up being used in considerable quantities and investors. While the Italian banking system is open in countries of origin and transit. While traditional one related to the fact that Italy’s huge arms production in warfare in Middle East countries, notably Syria and to granting financial loans to migrants for investment international cooperation interventions are still possible and exports have to be challenged as contributing Yemen, conflicts that have killed tens of thousands of in Italy, it generally does not do the same in case of under the new approach, in countries characterised by directly to producing refugees and resulting in forced people, displaced millions and left millions more on the transnational investment, depriving migrants of key high emigration projects deterring would-be migrants displacement in a number of countries. Italy’s exports verge of starvation. A New York Times video report in financial resources that could be invested in the countries are being prioritised. Migrant diaspora engagement in arms, munitions and military equipment and 2017 graphically documents how bombs manufactured of origin. The lack of appropriate financial instruments in particular countries of origin is equally encouraged technology transfers have consistently ranged in value in Sardinia –some shipped via Bari to Saudi Arabia-- connecting the economies of countries of origin and for the (more or less explicit) purpose of helping the between 750 million and nearly one billion US dollars ended up being dropped on – and killing -- civilians in destination has therefore contributed to undermining Italian government “keep would-be migrants at home.” since 201030. In 2017, exports just of military weapons Yemen.31 the productive use of remittances. The key role of the In practical terms, Italian financial and operational by Italy were valued at 660 million US dollars in African diaspora in fostering geopolitical and economic engagement on the “root causes” approach is so far limited constant to 1990 dollar prices. This figure excluded All these different obstacles are linked to the wider discussions relations between Italy and the African continent has to participation, mainly within the framework of RDPP transfers of other military equipment such as small arms regarding the role of migration in our contemporary society been repeatedly highlighted over the last few years. and Trust Fund Programmes, in development projects and light weapons, trucks, small artillery, ammunition, and, more in general, to the state of society as a whole in terms Nevertheless, cooperation and synergies between Italian in origin areas or in community development actions in support equipment, technology transfers, and other of rights, democracy, justice and equality for all, regardless of entrepreneurs active or interested in investing in Africa transit countries or refugee’ camps (AICS 2017). services. Italy has consistently been between the 7th nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, culture or legal status.

. A further element to be considered is that of other policy clusters that indirectly, but visibly, introduce tensions with a fair and sustainable development path, thus inducing migration flows, and hindering efforts of

30 29 As stated by a representative of the cooperation office of the municipality of Milan, local authorities are at present no longer able to act as donors mainly for lack of resources (but also for the weakening See SIPRI 2018 of a political will, and have reinvented their role as “quality controllers” and “facilitators” (interview n. 6) 31 New York Times 2017. See Beccegato, Pallottino (2018)

30 OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE MIGRANTS’ FULL CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEVELOPMENT 31 the instability and volatility of national and local political - CHAPTER 6 - institutions. Fifth, both Italians and migrants now consider, or have considered, migration outside of Italy as the only solution to this situation.32

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES As a result, developing migrant capabilities needs to be linked to similar actions that seriously take into account the situation of the most vulnerable segments of the native population. The challenge of supporting migrants’ contribution to development is therefore intrinsically linked to the one of ensuring the local population can do the same. Such policy perspective would see the goal of enhancing migrants’ contribution to development as intrinsically connected to As mentioned in previous chapters, Italy is currently facing of the population that are most threatened by economic and the wider socio-political project of promoting an integrated, enhance recognition of their qualifications; 4) fight against what has been termed as a “cultural emergency” (Caritas social degradation. Such failure may be due to the fact that solidary and more equal community. As a matter of fact, unemployment, social desertification and, in certain contexts, 2018), a political and social hysteria that seems to have taken both discourses share in fact the same approach: they consider it would also ask of policy-makers to to promote and keep even depopulation. In brief, such an approach, making the hold of the whole country. The image of the ‘stranger’, which immigration as if it were an “external” element imposed on those two objectives together, while at the same time paying most of the resources mobilised for the refugee reception now refers to migrants and asylum seekers from non-EU Italy from the outside, and which is held responsible for all attention to the specific issues, vulnerabilities and sensitivities system, would tie together human development concerns for countries who are now routinely stigmatised and excluded, the societal ills for some, and for all of its progress for others. that characterise each group. The development of such a both migrants and local actors, promoting a new model of target of both physical and symbolic violence perpetrated and To escape such dichotomy, we therefore suggest considering comprehensive approach will require extensive efforts in the social inclusion for various vulnerable groups. legitimised by institutions, the media and ordinary citizens. migration as an important element that impacts the economic, near future and cannot be the subject of the present report. More in general, the liberal and cosmopolitan views, often political, social and cultural life of the entire country but However, for the purpose of this publication, we identify associated with globalisation, are currently under attack in which, at the same time, is now an enduring and embedded below a few strategic policy clusters and sketch their potential 6.2 Work integration policy the Italian context, replaced by a nationalist political project component of Italian society. orientation in the context of the proposed approach. advocating for “Italians first” and socio-cultural retrenchment. According to the OECD (2018a), the Italian job market, But are those forms of nationalism really the best antidote to Keeping this in mind, we suggest reconsidering how we speak dominated by precarious contracts and characterised by a the ills and issues affecting our societies? Is closure of physical about migration, particularly when we do so in relation to 6.1 Reception/integration policy high level of unemployment and informality, is now one of and cultural borders really the best way to deal with challenges social and economic exclusion. Since such issues affect a the most markedly insecure among OECD countries. In this such as global insecurity, environmental degradation, erosion significant segment of the Italian population as well, it is We have already highlighted how the new Security Law context, migrants are often employed in segregated niches and of social rights and labour protection, deterioration of of the outmost importance to discuss them inclusively and (“Decreto Sicurezza”) seriously risks disrupting the Italian sectors of the Italian economy prone to labour exploitation, social cohesion and community solidarity? And even more to ensure progressive policies are perceived as benefitting refugee integration and reception system. This system, while and they face considerable barriers in accessing the mid- and worryingly, why has there been no strong political reaction everyone in the country. It is not by chance that, during those mainly emergency-driven and not always efficient, was higher-segments of the labour market due to factors such as to the proliferation of such views? Why do left wing parties, years of economic decline, hate speech and intolerance have nevertheless a success story and a constant source of good discrimination, skills-mismatch, or lack of skills recognition public opinion, civil society, as well as migrants themselves not only targeted migrants, but also other minority or socially practices. When it functioned at its best, such reception system (Caritas 2018; FLAI-CGIL 2018; Campo Antico 2018; seem to be completely incapable of countering such narrative vulnerable social groups, including LGBTQ individuals, also positively impacted the local host community in several CNEL 2012). and propose an alternative way forward? women, people with disability, the unemployed, homeless, ways. For example, it led to employment of young Italians beggars, etc. Such change in the narrative on migration is all in reception centres, therefore valorising and promoting Policy in this field should be framed in terms of integrated and The main challenge is, therefore, to disconnect migration from the more important since the migrant population and Italian the former’s professional competencies. Moreover, centres’ universalistic objectives, but also remain flexible enough to current narratives that present it as a security emergency and nationals share similar sets of problems and grievances. First, consumption contributed to boosting local economy as a adapt to the specific typology of workers. On the one hand, job a dangerous threat to Italian identity, welfare and social order. both Italians and foreigners face difficulties in accessing result of goods (food, clothes) and service (laundry, catering, market dynamics should be addressed through universalistic At the same time, the opposite should be avoided, that is, to the labour market and in fully enjoying their social rights social and medical provisions etc.) provision. In addition, such measures that protect workers and tackle vulnerability, for propose a counter-position uncritically presenting immigration (from the pensions to nurseries and social housing). Second, infrastructure incubated new forms of solidarity, social ties instance by facilitating rapid work reintegration of dismissed and a multicultural society as advantages and net gain per se. both groups struggle to cope with the rising cost of living and social utility initiatives promoting community cohesion workers or extending unemployment benefits to all workers. Such naive pro-immigration vision - usually assumed by the and are at risk of falling into poverty. Third, both have at the village, town or city levels. The best way to capitalise In that respect, the recent creation of the National Agency For more politically left-wing sectors of the public opinion - has seen deterioration in the life conditions as a result of labour on this still fragmented but promising phenomena would be Policies on Active Work (ANPAL) and the reinforcement of so far not succeeded in countering the current anti-immigrant exploitation, weakening of social policies, degradation of the to strengthen the good governance model of decentralised national employment centres (Centri per l’Impiego), which discourse, nor in establishing a dialogue with those segments school and educational system. Fourth, both are affected by reception promoted by the SPRAR system. This should be resulted in the strengthening of connections to the Italian done in order to pursue the following objectives: 1) promote autonomy and empowerment of hosted migrants via a process of interaction with the local community; 2) promote and valorise receipt processes as an occasion to enhance local social, economic and cultural development; 3) use the experience of reception centres to sustain the process of integration of young 32 Almost 285,000 Italians have emigrated in 2017 (Idos 2018). people, both foreigners and Italians, in the job market and to

32 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 33 market – overlap with other issues that specifically affect development cooperation with a new legal and organisational foreigners, such as recognition of diplomas acquired abroad, operational framework. At the organisational level, the new delay in the school cycle, scarce presence in university-track law led to the creation of new institutional bodies – i.e. the high schools, and limited access to qualifying educational revamped Italian Agency for Development Cooperation paths (Ongini 2018; Miur 2018). These two sets of obstacles (AICS), and the Consiglio Italiano per la Cooperazione, a council add up to produce the exclusion of a significant component bringing together different public and private stakeholders, of tomorrow’s adult Italian citizens, further exacerbating including one representative of diaspora communities33 – with social tensions, “ethnic” conflicts and the marginalisation financial and operative tasks. Beyond institutional make-over, of youth. Yet, it is important to remember that most issues the reform contained two important additional elements. On affect migrants and local population alike, and depend the one hand, it formally recognised diaspora organisations more on broader factors such as geographical location and as actors of development cooperation, and therefore their refugee reception system (SPRAR), are all very promising surrounding socio-economic conditions rather than on We believe that an open and inclusive country should eligibility as direct recipients of public funds; on the other, it steps that nevertheless require to be supported by further nationality. Dropping out of school, confinement in less develop an inclusive model of citizenship open to all those encouraged the involvement of private and for-profit actors in investments (OECD 2018a). qualified technical and training institutes, gender differences who share the same political community and territory and development cooperation. Current opportunities at policy level in attendance rates and school performance are conditions who adhere to the same set of right, duties, contributions and for facilitating and enhancing migrant-driven development On the other hand, dynamics of segregation and discrimination shared by both migrants and disadvantaged Italian students benefits. While no such proposal is likely to be put forward mainly revolve around those two points34. affecting migrant inclusion in the job market call for targeted (Ongini 2018). As a result, educational policy should first under the current populist coalition government, a more policy interventions, with the aim of progressively creating counter the long-standing decline in political attention, realistic and pragmatic assessment considers the situation Even though particular technical issues (at the financial, equal conditions of access for both migrants and locals. Such public investments and appreciation of education, and rather in terms of substantial citizenship, that is, the dimension organisational and individual level) still remain, AICS an approach would entail a number of interventions: facilitate aim at improving its effectiveness, and promoting the added of citizenship that goes beyond formal entitlements and and DG Cooperazione (the government department for recognition of formal and informal qualifications and skills value of public education. Such policy should promote, considers actual enjoinment of different citizenship rights. international cooperation) have since 2016 worked on of migrant workers; provide recruitment services able to once again, the inclusive, public and universalistic vocation This is an important element for migrant socio-political including migrant organisations in the roster of OSC (Civil overcome gaps and barriers, as well as specialised and targeted of the education system, leading to the implementation of inclusion, particularly in consideration of the fact that Society Organisations) maintained by the Italian Ministry professional training; protect the migrant workforce from actions targeting vulnerable people or student groups at many migrants see no improvement in their situation after of Foreign Affairs. Following completion of mobilisation formal discrimination as well as labour exploitation, moreover risk (migrants included). On one hand, such policy would obtaining Italian citizenship, particularly with respect to activities in the aftermath of the first National Summit of ensuring that illicit recruitment in agriculture (caporalato) contribute to fostering the social and cultural integration of discrimination. Such dynamic may also explain the trend, Diasporas in November 2017, a second step, including training as well as forms of bonded labour in domestic work and in the foreign student population and their families, while on only apparently contradictory, of naturalised migrants using and coaching activities with a first group of organisations to be the garment sector are criminalised and effectively punished. the other it would provide all the vulnerable populations in the newly acquired Italian passport to expatriate elsewhere in included in the roster, is now under way (Interviews 1, 2 and 5). Moreover, regular channels of labour migration should be need, regardless of national status, with equal opportunities. Europe in search of better opportunities (Ceschi 2018). Rather than trying to achieve the (impossible) representation reopened for migrants with low qualifications, as well as for of all immigrant population/formal networks, such project seasonal workers in agriculture, because those provisions As a result, beyond reforming the Italian Citizenship Law, strives to promote “inclusive leaderships”, that is, to support would also contribute to a better management of the migration 6.4 Policy related to citizenship, it is equally strategic to ensure that civic, social and political the capacity-building of a number of pioneer individuals and phenomena; in parallel, work permits should be granted to social and political rights rights are actually enjoyed both by new Italians with a organisations who will be able to pave the way for the others. asylum seekers who hold a job, as such measure would allow migratory background and by non-naturalised migrants. In that respect, the professionalisation of migrant NGOs will a number of individuals to exit the reception system, which Italian citizenship rules are still regulated by the 1992 Once again, of course, the issue of ensuring equal formal hopefully lead to further valorisation of transnational and would in turn entail less (if not more efficient) spending of Citzenship Law and ius sanguinis principles. That means that and substantial rights applies to the entire population living trans-local interchanges, as well as of development projects public resources (Ambrosini 2018). Italians who emigrated abroad a long time ago, regardless in Italy. Nevertheless, particularly in the political sphere and and ideas proposed directly by diaspora communities. The of whether they maintain any ties with Italy, still retain the in the granting of actual political and voting rights, a great above-mentioned “Summit of the Diasporas”, supported right to hold Italian citizenship, as well as the right to vote at divide exists between Italians and migrant residents. Easier by the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, is one 6.3 Education policy the political elections from abroad. In contrast, the foreign access to citizenship for foreigners, which could result in of the few real opportunities where the migrants’ role in population resident in Italy has to go through a complicated the enfranchisement of as many as five million new voters, development actions, both politically and operationally, is At present in the Italian school system there are 826,000 and tortuous procedure in order to obtain the citizenship. is therefore the one real step that could really revolutionize concretely discussed. It is therefore important that civil society foreign pupils, equal to 9.4% of the total number of students, Discussions to finally incorporate ius soli (right of the soil, or political life in Italy and undermine the popularity of anti- organisations participate actively. and 60% of which were born in Italy (Caritas 2018). birthright citizenship) criteria in the law were recently revived immigrant and nationalist movements. Structural weaknesses of the Italian educational system – towards the end of the previous legislature (late 2017), under a The terms under which for-profit actors will be included in i.e. declining public funds, repeated and ineffective reforms, centre-left parliamentary majority. The proposition was based development cooperation are yet to be specified. The first disconnection from needs and requirements of the labour on the idea of a “tempered” ius soli, stipulating that citizenship 6.5 Cooperation policy challenge is to create a fair framework of rules, codes and would be granted to those who, in addition to fulfilling opportunities, within which the collaboration between the technical requirements for eligibility, could also prove Italian international cooperation has recently undergone a major public, social private and market actors can develop profitably their belonging to the Italian national community through reform (Law 125/2014). The new law aims to provide Italian for everyone involved. The second is to ensure that diaspora their mastery of particular Italian cultural competencies (ius culturae). Nevertheless, the subject proved to be too 33 TheConsiglio has activated 4 working groups. The most active group is the one on “Migration and Development”, which involves many relevant public and private stakeholder and supports the controversial even among progressive political forces, with the activities of the Italian Summit of Diasporas. result that any reform plans were shelved. 34 For a more detailed analysis, see Università di Tor Vergata-AICS 2917.

34 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 35 - CHAPTER 7 - AT PRESENT IN THE ITALIAN SCHOOL CONCLUSIONS SYSTEM THERE ARE 826,000 AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOREIGN PUPILS, 60% OF WICH ARE

BORN IN ITALY of every inhabitant of this planet and provides them with 7.1 Conclusions concrete tools to ensure its respect.

To enact this vision, a process of real ‘cultural reconstruction’, 7.1.1 Human mobility as an element carried out through research, direct action, advocacy and of transformation: controversies awareness-raising campaigning towards the general public, as well as towards private and public institutions, is needed. and representations This vision also requires building inclusive alliances, which give voice to the most vulnerable – including migrant and diaspora communities – and it must express itself in actions Address migration starting from shared values on the ground that have a strong transformative potential.

Migration is one of the major themes that characterise contemporary times. However, we know by experience Faces of the reality: migrants contribution to organisations are not obliged to compromise on shared values, At the same time, just as it is the case for contributions that there is always a certain degree of misalignment economy and society objectives and missions in order to maintain a working to Italy, the broader political climate is likely to influence between the changing reality and our ability to grasp relationship within this future partnership. Will be they be the degree to which migrants can make contributions to social transformations. Available information and data are How has migration been a part of the transformation of able to maintain their connection to the grassroots, remain sustainable development in their countries of origin. The often perceived as ‘partial’ or biased (consider, for example, Italian society in the last decades? Migration is not a new socially sensitive and politically engaged actors, ensure fairness already mentioned decline in funding for migration and statistics on the actual figures of migrant residents in phenomenon for Italy, and the proportion of foreign residents and share the benefits stemming from development initiatives development actions, as well as the increasing prioritisation Italy37), particularly when they support a narrative in Italy nowadays is far from the peaks of other countries. among community members? Here it is useful to recall the of security and migration control concerns will likely affect fundamentally at odds with prevalent perceptions and However, within Europe, Italy has witnessed the highest example of a partnership established between an association of negatively the developmental potential and capacities of moods amongst public opinion. The populist discourse relative growth of its migrant population over the last twenty Burkinabe migrants and an Italian company in the framework migrant diaspora groups. Even if “migration & development” fed by such perceptions generates political choices that years: the speed of this transformation has undoubtedly of a co-development project in Burkina Faso (CeSPI 2015). remains an important domain of intervention for Italian prove to be effective above all, if any, at the symbolic level. contributed to a public perception only partially backed The migrant association, jointly with an Italian agricultural cooperation,35 such policy field is currently undermined However, in order to promote change and encourage a by facts, but easily instrumentalised by an increasingly machinery company based in the same Italian locality, by the emergence of political concerns – e.g. security different type of social awareness, it is crucial to deeply aggressive rhetoric. developed a pilot programme of rural intervention in the home and border control; fight against irregular migration understand those experiences and perceptions.A different country (CeSPI 2015). This and other examples are promising and smuggling; address root causes of migration – that political agenda is urgently needed. It should be able to As a matter of fact, over the last two decades, migration in the sense that they seem to prefigure a win-win scenario. inherently clash with the objectives of co-development address these concerns, to propose a political vision based has made increasingly important contributions to Migrants benefited from additional funding, technical through human mobility. On a positive note, the Italian on truth, on accurate and sensible understandings of reality, development in Italy. While migrants and persons with expertise and material means, while companies were granted cooperation agency (AICS) intends to positively exploit the and on recognisable and universal values. For a community foreign origin are more and more visible in the social and access to new markets and benefitted from institutional and strategic indications provided by the OECD36, that is, to of believers this idea assumes and integrates a reading of cultural environment in Italy, foreign born immigrants – informal support provided by the diaspora infrastructure. The better identify and select actions that really contribute to human coexistence centred on the idea of relationship, and some of Italian heritage - now comprise more than 10% of pursuit of profitable activities within the realm of this project sustainable development and “put migrants at the centre” therefore on the culture of encounter. Following the logic the country’s workforce, filling skills needs and gaps at all did not prevent the partnership from also implementing co- (Interview 1). To conclude, it is of crucial importance to of a ‘global’ civil community, the search for the common levels. Migrant workers are found in significant proportions development and socially responsible actions. Although such maintain and defend a positive co-development vision good must be embedded in the notion of human rights, in critical sectors of the economy, including agriculture, kinds of projects and practices are still in their infancy and will within Italian development cooperation. The existing including social and economic rights enshrined in the construction, health care, domestic work, among others. need careful evaluation at a later stage, they hold significant migrant potential should be encouraged, and not wasted in UN conventions, as a universal acquisition. Today human Many migrants fill jobs for which Italians are increasingly development potential. favour of an approach that prioritises repression. rights are the key instrument that defends the dignity unavailable due to the country’s ageing and declining

35 Themain lines of interventions are currently four: emergency; education for global citizenship; root causes and M&D. 36 OECD 2018b. 37 In Italy, as repeatedly shown by research and reporting, there is a considerable gap between public perceptions regarding the extent of the migrant population, and the actual statistics.

36 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 37 the diaspora maintain ties with Italy, establish or expand workers. It ratified both of the ILO Conventions on migration trade and commercial activity, buy Italian products or for employment (Numbers 97 and 143). A previous government, invest in Italy. Some immigrate and bring skills back to the with support in parliament, intended to ratify the International country of their fore-bearers. All of this contributes to the Convention on the Protection of Rights of Migrant Workers and development of Italy. their Families, but was thwarted from doing so due to intense pressure from other EU Member States. Having ratified all fundamental and priority conventions of the ILO and most of the A deteriorating societal and policy environment relevant technical conventions, Italy has labour law on the books that should, if enforced, assure decent work conditions for all The Italian “migratory landscape” has changed profoundly in migrant workers – indeed all workers - in the country. However, recent years, both with respect to the reality of the phenomenon the levels of serious abuse, the more repressive legislation adopted workforce, and also as a result of declining productivity. and its public perception and its political-institutional in recent years, and the attitude of national authorities suggests experienced by the foreign population in the labor market. Migrants also provide cheap, unprotected labour in sectors treatment. The political attitude, the social climate and the that actual policy and practice is far from that expected by Italy’s Increasingly restrictive migration and citizenship policies such as agriculture, where Italians typically shun jobs prevailing media representation of migration and immigrants own laws and its international treaty obligations. enacted by the Italian government are completely out of offered with sub-standard and often abusive conditions in Italy has become progressively hostile and alarmist. The touch with the contemporary global reality, where migration and remuneration. However, some enterprises, in fact advent of the current government, with a clear position opposed The big risk of these trends in attitudes, policy, behaviour, and mobility are an inescapable social fact that needs to some sectors would not remain economically viable and to migration, demonstrates a current risk running through our and treatment of migrants is to discourage and prevent be dealt with. In this context, migrants are given less and stay in business – certainly not in Italy -- without low cost society, which results in spreading a negative narrative about the only immediate solution to the declining work force less space to fully and consciously contribute to Italian immigrant labour. migration and migrants of all statuses. This in turn becomes and penury of skills, which in turn already threatens the society in terms of rights, duties and responsibilities based a vicious circle of widespread sentiments and policy responses viability of the Italian economy and sustainability of Italy’s on their individual and collective mobilization and self- The significant dependency on immigrant skills and labour leading to increasingly hostile attitudes towards migrants in own development. Nonetheless, the much more positive realization. The re-surfacing of a populist and nationalist, if is likely to become more significant as the decline of the general, and fearful attitudes about one’s own wellbeing and attitudes, policy and actions by municipal authorities across not openly racist, discourse in the public debate is paralleled local workforce accelerates. By some estimates, the Italian social security. This effectively leads to defensive posturing, the country, as well as several regional governments offer by the growing economic vulnerability, marginalisation workforce is expected to decrease by three million people rancorous behaviours, and the end of progressive societal hope and opportunity both for migrants’ inclusion and their and stigmatisation of the migrant population. This leads by 2030. Academic, business, and OECD literature allude transformations in a pluralist sense. Consequently, migrants contributions to Italy and, more broadly, to Italy’s future to situations where the most disadvantaged and vulnerable to the fact that Italy already faces a huge and immediate are stigmatised, persecuted, and perceived as “different”, rather viability, prosperity and social cohesion. groups are socio-economically segregated, and experience ‘skills crisis’ that will not be resolved by domestic means than valued for their many contributions to Italian society, both legal precariousness and widespread popular and in the short term and is unlikely to be addressed in the economy, politics, culture or otherwise. institutional ostracism that hinder social integration and long term either. Immigrant entrepreneurs have also been Migration without development or development cultural acceptance. starting businesses, mainly family-run, and small and Being conscious of the contradictions that have been without migration? medium enterprises, at a higher rate than local-based expressed until now, the present political and social Migrants are contradictorily viewed, on the one hand, as a start-ups. They are contributing to economic activity and environment in Italy needs to respond to some concrete issues Establishing a positive relation between migration and threat to security and as an object of economic exploitation; sustaining employment, even over the recent recessionary of human mobility with effective and value-based public development in Italy will depend on at least two main factors. and, on the other, as agents of international development period of negligible economic growth, high unemployment policies. The actual treatment of migrant workers in Italy is First, on making the migrant population an active and creative (Sorensen 2012). This simplistic dichotomy alerts us to the fact and significant youth emigration. Meanwhile, the nearly 9 of great concern, especially in agriculture, construction and component of a collective “we”; an ally in the fight against that we need to be careful when we examine the relationship billion euros worth of remittances received annually in Italy other sectors where levels of abuse and exploitation of many exclusion and social injustice that, in practice, concerns between migration and development. Claims about migrants’ certainly represent a measurable economic contribution to migrant workers has been extremely severe, resulting even in everyone. Second, on the desire of Italian residents to engage contribution to development need to be nuanced, particularly the country, resulting from migration. deaths. Such exploitative treatment signifies huge obstacles in more equitable and constructive relationships of exchange if by development we mean participation in social change in recognising migrants’ contributions to development, and reciprocity amongst each other as well with countries in and expansion of societal opportunities for everyone in a While the current estimate of Italians living abroad is to their expectations of minimally decent treatment and the Global South. More specifically, with respect to the issue of progressive sense, and not only mere economic involvement, around 5 million, similar to the number of immigrants remuneration, and even to their lives and physical integrity. migration/migrants as a factor for boosting development, where at low cost and without emancipation, in a declining and in Italy, the country’s diaspora of people elsewhere in the development is understood in its wider meaning of ‘integral dysfunctional socio-economic system. world is said to be in the “tens of millions.” While there Similarly, it is disturbing to observe the significant number of human development’, we face a clear danger: migration without is no reliable estimate of the total number of Italian incidets and levels of physical attacks, intimidation, murders development, and development without migration. On the other hand, the idea of ‘development without emigrants, the US census in 2013 reported more than of migrants, torching of migrant businesses, and other even migration’ appears to be a clear option both for internal 17 million people of Italian origin in that country alone, quasi-official mistreatment of migrants, such as building walls On the one hand, migration without development is a and external policies. In Italy, migrants are more and making up 5.4% of the entire US population. Many among in some Italian towns around immigrant neighbourhoods. All consequence of the occupational and wage segregation more explicitly discriminated because they are seen as an of the aforementioned incidents pose very serious obstacles to migrants’ participation and contributions, and also to social cohesion and human rights in Italy.

Over the past decades, Italy has built up a legal framework appropriate to supporting needed immigration, protection of migrants’ rights and dignity, and decent work for migrant

38 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 39 exogenous and threatening variable in the process of internal 7.1.2 Re-establishing the ground for the The imperative for a new vision and narrative Inclusive, universalistic, non-discriminatory development. According to this view, particularly popular common good policies amongst nationalist parties and public opinion, Italian At times of rising racist nationalism and repressive development does not need migrants, as if - in spite of what government policy, it is necessary to create new narratives To go beyond the security paradigm means transforming empirical evidence shows - human mobility were not an Reframing the policy basis and imagine new ethical-political perspectives that are the social and economic systems that generate exclusion and intrinsic part of the Italian reality already. The same rhetoric capable of combining pragmatic skills and value orientations, marginalisation. Policies need to preserve their universalistic is present in international cooperation, and particularly in How to reconcile facts, perceptions and a genuine upholding knowledge and awareness of the complexities of our current perspective, while specifically addressing the needs of all the use of development aid to control and reduce human of human dignity? Policies, even with their sensitivity towards world. Within this problematic, it is vital to find ways to those in a situation of exclusion and difficulty; they also mobility. On the one side, there is a tendency to decrease the different categories of people and groups, must be able to reconcile the state-centric and universalistic way of thinking, need to restore an ‘equality of possibilities’ where it is lacking Italian investment in development cooperation; on the other, take care of each person and citizen, with his/her distinct the human rights, the ethics of solidarity and security, the (for migrants, but also for poor and vulnerable people due a restructuring of cooperation priorities which now also needs and features, without excluding or discriminating demands of human beings and citizens. to different reasons). This is not to deny the need for ‘active’ include migration management and border control. Legally against any one. There is a need for ‘universalistic’ integration and reception policies; rather, to recognise that speaking, border management (European Union borders, as approaches, because they are able to include and understand First, it is important to elaborate a vision, a narrative and the problem of migration and migrant reception cannot well as internal borders to the regions from which migratory every person as an individual, citizen, and human being. At a political statement that addresses migration not as an be addressed in a vacuum, regardless of the present socio- flows originate)38, should not be part of development the same time, there is a need for focussed and ‘affirmative’ external cataclysm, but as a transnational phenomenon of the economic crisis and of the latter’s effects on the rest of the cooperation policies, which are expected to focus on the policy initiatives that activate and modulate specific actions current globalised and interconnected world of which we are population. protection of rights and on integral human development. for certain groups and social categories, in order to facilitate inevitably a part, as individuals, citizens, consumers, Italians The vision and intentions underpinning today’s international their full integration. and Europeans. For Italian society, it means seeing migration To ensure a more cohesive social fabric, it is necessary to cooperation is reflected in the mantra ‘let’s help them at and migrants not as an exogenous and critical issue ‘per se’, integrate, to include, and to promote wellbeing for the home’, a simplified version of the more refined ‘addressing It is therefore necessary to address the ‘migration issue’ within but as an endogenous fixture of our Italian social, political largest share of the population. When devising concrete the root causes of migration’). This view assumes a number a broader scenario of inclusive policies and integrative actions and cultural life, and as an opportunity for Italy’s future. opportunities for inclusion, particular attention must be of direct causal relationships: more cooperation more targeting the Italian society as a whole, with particular attention paid to spaces of contact where social interaction amongst development of poor countries less migration, in line with to the most excluded, marginalised and disadvantaged groups. Current tensions and conflicts between migrants and migrants and locals is most evident, such as at school. Schools the objective of guaranteeing ‘safe and ordered’ migration, as Therefore, migrant inclusion must be addressed in the context disadvantaged local population, beyond the political are one of the privileged places for defining the society we prescribed in Agenda 2030. of a more ambitious effort to transform society and revive a hype, are rooted in the decade-long economic and social desire for the future. new socio-political pact based on the values of solidarity and crisis, which led to the widening of vulnerable groups, a In such a model, ‘development’ and international human cohesion among citizens, on respect of differences and social gradual reduction of welfare instruments and an erosion Specific attention must also be given to inclusive initiatives mobility are disconnected. The result is the criminalization and political rights, social policies, welfare and personal of effective access to social rights (work, home, education, in the context of local urban and rural planning. It is in such of every person on the move for the sole fact that they are promotion. In this sense, the immigrant population represents health). However, once again, it is necessary to go beyond areas, which suffer from degradation and abandonment not employing the ‘correct’ way of migrating, which has and will represent a powerful litmus test for our society. a sterile “us” versus “them” juxtaposition, and understand but also often incubate positive social change, that a been decided elsewhere. The same considerations apply to the structural reasons underlying the production of strong public policy on inclusion and empowerment of the migrants in destination countries, where they are accepted Fighting against migrant exclusion is not about being ‘good’ exclusion and marginalisation. “Not only of migrants but weakest and most vulnerable classes is needed. The same – or rather tolerated - only as long as they submissively fulfill towards the migrant population; it is not a matter of charity, also”, as Sassen (2015: 9) states, “of workers, of the poor consideration should be paid to combating exploitation in their role within the global machine of value production. assistance or ‘tolerance’, either. Rather, it is a matter of social and marginal (locked up in prisons), of peoples from their the world of work, which affects vulnerable foreigners but justice and foresight for the Italian and European societies lands, of species and ecosystems from the biosphere”. Pope also Italians in difficult situations. The solution to these Only by fully and seriously engaging with migration as both as a whole. Welcoming and integrating migrants as well as Francis in Evangelii Gaudium and in Laudato Si’ clearly problems can only be found in a ‘culture of legality’, namely a challenge and opportunity, we can begin to rethink policies excluded local populations means investing in the future of shows how the causes of the current social and ecological in the application and enforcement of international human in a more inclusive manner, imagine new forms of exchange the nation, providing a societal antidote against hatred and crisis are connected, the result of a system that excludes and rights and labour standards implemented in national law, and solidarity, and ensure that all citizens in a broader exploitation, and the essential element for a more just and produces “waste”.Italian and “foreign” residents share not as well as in the rejection of policies that build bands of sense, both local and migrant, are respected. This is the only cohesive society for all. Embracing such an approach will also only the same life contexts and problems (De Cesare 2017), ‘marginalized people and those without rights’, easy prey available pathway to reconcile migration and development. provide us with the tools to fight against insecurity, which is but also the structural conditions that demand a different for abuse and illegality. the dominant feeling of our times. Insecurity is not purely political approach. Everyone deserves to belong to the same physical nor is it often the outcome of intercultural encounter. legal system, state territory and national social fabric (and, It is instead a structural condition of precariousness, ultimately, to the same human family), through policies, disorientation and uncertainty that affects individuals in relationships and exchanges that are as fair, dignified and our contemporary world, where rights, well-being, fairness enabling as possible for every member of society. A society and respect are questioned daily in the context of neo-liberal that is not divided into separate and monolithic orders globalisation. A more secure society is one where the divides according to a single category of differences (“Italians”, and inequalities between different components of the (local “immigrants”), those relating precisely to national belonging and global) society are taken up as a challenge to which we and to “cultural identity”, but within a much more diverse all have to offer an answer based on values and on a realistic mosaic of identities which needs to be reshaped in multiple understanding of opportunities and risks. and overlapping social affiliations.

38 As analysed, among other sources available, in OpenPolis reports: https://www.openpolis.it/cosa/cooperazione/

40 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 41 and reduced manner within the objectives for sustainable development, where migrants are recognised as deserving protection as a vulnerable group in the world of work39; and as protagonists of a migratory phenomenon that must be made, above all, more ‘... orderly, safe, regular and responsible’. Together with a further reference to the need of decreasing the costs of remittances, these are the sole concerns explicitly related to human mobility within the Agenda 2030 in its most recognisably prescriptive part.

A wider and more complete consideration of migratory Finally, it is necessary to reflect in depth on the structural phenomena within the 2030 Agenda should be based on of security and migration deterrence priorities with the qualifications and competencies of migrant workers; causes that these phenomena of exclusion generate and a more visible connection between different policy areas/ genuine international development priorities reaffirmed that link in particular migrants and employment needs reproduce. It is all the more necessary to ensure that reforms objectives, and the principles expressed in the preamble, in the law. Already tested initiatives, such as the Summit to overcome gaps and barriers, to provide specific and of the current system do not exacerbate the problem. A in particular with the “recognition of the inherent dignity of the Diasporas should be looked at as an example that targeted professional training and that protect the migrant particularly worrying trend in the current context is the and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of shows vital perspectives for the future. Participation of workforce from formal and structural discrimination. In tendency to introduce and justify unfair and indefensible the human family” as the “foundation of freedom, justice migrant associations and civil society organisations in the addition, labour market dynamics need to be addressed discriminatory references to migrants in the legislation, and of peace in the world”. The 2030 Agenda, however, ‘Summit of the Diasporas’, supported by the Italian Agency through interventions that quickly respond to the needs of once again justified by the logic of ‘Italians first’. This still represents a potentially useful tool for its broad scope for Development Cooperation, is one among numerous integration of migrants and unemployed workers, as well case is also reflective of a cultural drift, where such forms and ambition, especially in the context of policy coherence specific opportunities for enhancing the role of migrants in as guarantee unemployment benefits on equal terms to all of discrimination are normalised and become accepted for sustainable development-namely, the idea that it is development. workers, migrants and nationals alike. Specific attention is standard behaviour. Bringing human rights back in is once not possible to conceive a truly sustainable development required to ensure that migrant and diaspora organisations again crucial to oppose such discriminatory tendencies. without migration governance deeply rooted in human Finally, it is very important to maintain the reference to the find support in partnership with social, public and private rights40. This concept would lead us to clearly recognise Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration sector actors without losing their own community ideals, that some of the policies carried out by rich countries, as a tool to improve cooperation among countries of origin objectives, and missions. Migration and sustainable development: a directly or indirectly, cause migration: agricultural policies, and destination to ensure a smooth, secure and orderly global and national approach commercial, industrial, financial and fiscal policies, migration based on the respect for human rights, with the Education policy in Italy also deserves particular attention, environmental, development cooperation, arms production perspective of Italy joining the group of signatory countries building on long-standing public investment and social The clear and inalienable connection between integral and trade, and so forth41. in the near future. appreciation of education, with a dual strategy of serving human development and human rights should provide as an engine of social and cultural integration of migrant the main framework of action on all the most important The need to pay more attention to the motivations behind No emergency situation can ever justify a different approach children and youth and their families, while also providing global development issues The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable policies is even more urgent in the case of development from the one oriented towards the protection of people’s equal opportunities to all populations at risk of social and Development affirms a series of complex commitments. policies which, as already mentioned, prioritise migration rights as it has instead happened in Italy in this period. The employment exclusion. Overall, the educational system must However, the relation between the Agenda’s overall ambition control rather than poverty reduction. The Agenda 2030 difficult objective of harmonising border control activities continue its inclusive, public and universalistic task. and its actual ‘Goals for Sustainable Development’ is not is an important framework but will not suffice alone. In with protection guarantees must always be inspired by the always straightforward, particularly when it comes to recognising the need for a direct development cooperation protection of human rights. It is therefore essential to put More broadly, Italy should develop an open and inclusive anchoring goals in principles and rights. action that does not betray its mandate and raison d’etre in place all the necessary tools to reconcile the need to vision of participation, integration and citizenship, based and actually tackles the root causes of global injustice, it is manage a complex phenomenon with the duty to protect on having shared the same place of residence, territory, This can easily be confirmed by observing how migration necessary to refer to the frameworks of global cooperation people’s rights. political community, as well as common adhesion to rights, issues are dealt with in the Agenda 2030 itself. The opening and to the tools that allow a concerted management of responsibilities, contributions and benefits. Migrants can statement recognises migrants as a vulnerable group, phenomena of this magnitude. Legal, political, and practical measures are needed to expand be considered not as passive assistance objects, but active which may, however, make a contribution to inclusive the channels for regular migration from third countries subjects for sustainable development in Italy and in countries growth and sustainable development, and migration as In relation to the International Development Cooperation and to permit asylum seekers to work in the countries of origin and transit. The underlying key is therefore, the “... a multidimensional reality of great importance for the policy context in Italy, it is absolutely urgent and imperative of destination. Ensuring the application of decent work recognition of dignity, rights and duties, with an investment development of countries of origin, transit and destination, to fully implement the national instruments required by labour standards to all migrants working in Italy, including aimed at building equal and greater opportunities within which requires coherent and comprehensive responses”. the 125/2014 law, including the full operation of the Italian temporary workers, posted workers, and those in precarious, wider public policies aimed at preventing and combating all These concerns, however, are reflected only in a very weak Development Cooperation Agency, avoiding the merging informal and irregular situations is urgent. Specific labour forms of vulnerability and marginality. inspection and interventions of other means are needed to protect migrant workers, just as vulnerable and precarious Italian workers, obliged to accept abusive work conditions and to fight against the illegal employment of agricultural 39 Thisattention is confirmed in remembering the need for disaggregated statistics also based on the migration condition in other objectives and targets. 40 For an analysis of the coherence of Italian and European migration policies with the framework drawn up by the Agenda 2030, see Coresi, Fabrizio, Paolo Pezzati and Andrea Stocchiero. Il governo workers for very little pay, (known as caporalato) and other delle migrazioni nel caso italiano ed europeo nel quadro degli SGD. In Sviluppo sostenibile_ per chi? Una visione critica per la coerenza delle politiche italiane ed europee, by Andrea Stocchiero. Rome: GCAP, 2018. forms of forced or abusive labour. Attention is required 41 See Caritas Italiana’s research for “Il Peso delle Armi”, ediz. The Mill 2018 and the GCAP Report (cit.) For some documented examples. to improve systems that recognise formal and informal

42 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 43 7.2 Recommendations . Strengthen anti-discrimination and equality legislation, . Take specific measures to facilitate early access by . Ensure that labour inspection in Italy has the mandate, public policy, business practices and union action and migrants and refugees to employment in decent work, resources and training to reach all workplaces where 1. Address migration starting from common values: eradicate discrimination in all spheres: particularly in as well as to apprenticeships. Faciliate technical skills’ migrants and nationals are employed to ensure promote a values-based narrative on migrants and refugees. employment, in the education system, and in accessing adaptation to Italian/EU standards, etc. compliance with decent work and occupational safety other resources and rights. and health standards. . Articulate and promote in Italy and beyond a vision of . Ensure that all migrants, refugees and asylum-seekers in migrants and refugees as full participating members of . Break down barriers to education and specialised training Italy have full health care and social protection coverage . Facilitate migrant entrepreneurial initiatives by easing Italian society and as contributors to the development and promote the creation of opportunities for the access as well as access to participation in the national social registration formalities and ensuring fair, equal, and and welfare of Italy in all spheres. to the educational and academic system recognizing the security system. non-discriminatory access by migrant entrepreneurs integrative potential of the educational system. and businesses to financing, in particular by commercial . Root the narrative in the recognition of the rights and . Conduct a review of new rules on residence permits and financial institutions. dignity of the person and, in relation to economic, social . Urge political, social, educational, business, sports, on reception management to evaluate their impacts vis a and political dimensions, promoting and sustaining religious, and community leaders as well as public figures vis security and safety of status and adequacy of level of integral human development. to speak up with strong messages of solidarity and respect, support and interventions. promoting equality of treatment and opportunities and 5. Increase the dialogue and engagement with migrants’ . Ensure that human rights are referred to as a universal condemning all discriminatory behaviour and actions. . Expand legal, institutional and sectoral measures at all organisations and civil society in Italy acquisition, in particular the social, economic, cultural, levels for recognising foreign educational attainment, civil and political rights enshrined in the UN Human . Enhance access to political and citizenship rights. skills qualifications, and work experience. . Create an enabling environment for the participation Rights Conventions. of diaspora and migrant organisations in the process of designing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating . Call for media responsibility in creating awareness of the public policies at national, city and local community rights and contributions of migrants and in disseminating 3. Develop and apply coherent and comprehensive 4. Uphold human rights and labour rights under law levels affecting migration, integration and development. accurate and positive narrative, images and stories on integration policies and fully enforce labour law, decent work standards, and migration, migrants and refugees. occupational safety and health protection for all migrants. . Strengthen dialogue with social partners and civil society . Advocate for proactive communication and policies by and engage with migrants and the diaspora to include . Acknowledge and promote the importance of migrants’ the national and local public administrations to welcome . Promote the ratification of the UN International their input in designing coherent, planned, target-oriented, and refugees’ contributions, recognising the value of their migrants and refugees and encourage integration. Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All tailor-made migration programmes and integration policies economic, cultural and social contributions, including Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (1990) that are effective and that do not contradict other policies. flows of skills, knowledge, ideas and values that migrants . Strengthen the roles and actions of local governments and ensure full implementation of the Italy-ratified ILO – including Italians - transmit from and to their origin in promoting and facilitating migrants’ inclusion and Conventions 97 and 143 on migration for employment . Make financial resources, knowledge and expertise countries. integration, and ensuring that local governments address and ILO Convention 189 on Decent Work for Domestic available to build the capacities of refugee, diaspora and all resident and arriving migrants regardless of status. Workers. migrant organisations, including trainings, informational meetings, guidance on calls for proposals and capacity . Ensure that reception measures for all migrants and . Ensure that all workers, including migrants are fully building measures on development cooperation standards. 2. Develop and promote inclusive, universalistic, non- refugees are based on a common objective of fostering protected from abusive conditions at work and from discriminatory policies personal autonomy and emancipation from need. precarious and unsafe living conditions, irrespective of Guarantee adequate reception support addressing the legal status or nationality. Pay particular attention to . Enable equal access to goods and services. This means needs of people for a reasonable period of time. combating exploitation in the world of work, as it affects 6. Uphold protection for and integration of refugees and that all forms of discrimination are combatted and that vulnerable people, both foreigners and Italians in difficult asylum seekers in Italy those who are marginalised or living in poverty are . Revise citizenship acquisition rules and procedures to situations. empowered to be active in the decision-making processes allow children born in Italy of migrant parent(s) and . Ensure no deportation and forced return of people that affect their lives. young foreigners to acquire citizenship within several to countries in armed conflict and/or experiencing years of arrival, also reducing the time of procedures in a widespread human rights violations regardless of . Coming out of the prevailing paradigm of border reasonable manner. outcome of formal determinations. security, promote policies with an universalistic perspective, creating concrete opportunities for inclusion . Incorporate education on human rights and equality, . Strengthen legal security for all refugees’ residence status with particular attention to frontiers social area. migration, intercultural knowledge and respect, to ensure integration and uphold psychological health of integration, and social cohesion in school curricula at all refugees, in particular by abolishing “temporary asylum” levels in Italy, as a matter of urgency. status regulation.

. Ensure the immediate availability and accessibility . Provide specific, targeted support for labour market of language classes, integration courses and work inclusion of recognised refugees and people granted authorisation for all working age migrants and refugees other protection, as well as ensuring effective access to from the time of arrival in Italy. employment for asylum seekers.

44 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 45 7. Strengthen Italian and international cooperation to Development Cooperation Agency, supporting already address structural factors compelling migration, including tested initiatives, such as the Summit of the Diasporas. absence of decent work, poverty, injustice and armed conflict as well as to support integral human development.

. Promote the implementation of the Agenda 2030 for 8. Enhance international cooperation and regulation for Sustainable Development, as well as the compliance human mobility in line with international law and human with the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in Italy’s rights and humanitarian principles and values. domestic and international policy, rooted in the full realisation of human rights for all. . Reaffirm the principle that international law, policy and practice respond to concrete issues of human mobility . Demand that all overseas development assistance (ODA) with coherent, effective and values-based public policies. strictly supports sustainable development as enumerated in the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. . Promote the principles of the Global Compact for Migration, encouraging the Italian government to . Ensure that budgets for migration and development reconsider the option of joining the group of the are linked only if both of them support the sustainable signatories. development agenda and humanitarian assistance, avoiding any conditionality linked to management of . Adopt common principles and guidelines in Europe for migratory flows and/or funding border of migratory/ the governance and regulation of entry into the European mobility control actions. territory of migrants and applicants for international protection. . Respect international commitments by allocating 0.7% of Gross National Income to Official Development Aid . Ensure that legal and safe entry routes for migrant (ODA) without counting reception costs of asylum workers and asylum seekers are encouraged. seekers as ODA. . Demand that the European Union complies with its . Conduct a thorough review of Italy’s international international obligations for the protection of human agricultural, commercial, environmental, financial rights at its external and internal borders, including by and fiscal, industrial and trade policies, development supporting and reinforcing search and rescue operations cooperation, and arms production and exports to at sea and by suspending immediately actions to deter, determine their impact on situations compelling prosecute and criminalise non-governmental/civil society migration and refugee flight. rescue and landing operations.

. End Italy’s arms exports and stop immediately sales to . Extend humanitarian admission programmes for asylum countries in areas of conflict or whose human rights seekers through greater involvement of all EU Member standards are dubious. States and their shared participation in and contributions to resettlement programmes. . Work together with diaspora and migrant organisations in international development assistance to build on their . Transform mechanisms for meeting and discussing knowledge and understanding of countries and people cooperation on migration between Africa and Europe and serve as bridges between Italy and its development to spaces for real dialogue, in which Europe develops partners. positions of support to intra-African human mobility legal systems and policies, avoiding instead the placement . Fully implement the national instruments required by of obstacles to them, which in the past have included the the 125/2014 law, including full operation of the Italian distorted use of development cooperation instruments.

46 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 47 -Castles S., Delgado-Wise R. (2008), “Introduction”, in Castles S. and Delgado-Wise R. (eds), Migration and Development: Perspective from the South. Geneva, International Organization for Migration, 1-13.

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-Parreñas S. R. (2005). Children of Global Migration: -Singh S. (2015), “The Remittance Effect: Do Remittances Transnational Families and Gendered Woes. Palo Alto: Help Development?”, Inquiries Journal, Vol 15, N. 1, http:// Stanford University Press. www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/983/the-remittance-effect- do-remittances-help-development -Parreñas S. R. (2001). Servants of Globalisation: Women, -Ministero dell’Interno 2018, Cruscotto statistico giornaliero, Migration, and Domestic Work. Stanford: Stanford University -SIPRI 2018, Index Mundi, Italy - Arms exports (SIPRI trend -UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) http://www.libertaciviliimmigrazione.dlci.interno.gov.it/it/ Press indicator values) https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/italy/ 2017. The International Migration Report 2017 (Highlights). documentazione/statistica/cruscotto-statistico-giornaliero arms-exports Retrieved February 6, 2019 from -Pastore F., Ponzo I., Salis E. (2013), L’Italia e l’immigrazione - Ministero del lavoro e delle Politiche sociali (2018), VIII low cost: fine di un ciclo”, Torino, Fieri, -Sorensen N. (2012), “Revisiting the migration-development https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/ Rapporto annuale. Gli stranieri nel mercato del lavoro, http:// nexus: from social networks and remittances to markets for international-migration-report-2017.html www.lavoro.gov.it/temi-e-priorita/immigrazione/Pagine/ https://www.fieri.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ migration control”, International Migration, 50 (3). default.aspx Immigrazione-low-cost_WP_.pdf -UNHCR 2018, Global Trends. Forced displacements in - SRM-Intesa San Paolo (2018), Rassegna economica, www.sr-m.it 2017, UNHCR, Geneva, http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/ -Miur (2018), Alunni con cittadinanza non italiana a. s. 2016- -Peri G., (2014), “Do immigrant workers depress the wages of unhcrstats/5b27be547/unhcr-global-trends-2017.html 2017, MIUR Statistiche e Sudi, 2018, www.miur.gov.it native workers?”, IZA World of Labor, 2014: 42 doi: 10.15185/ -Taran, Patrick. 2012. “Rethinking Development and izawol.42 , May 2014, wol.iza.org Migration; Some Elements for Discussion,” online GMPA -UNHCR (2017), Europe Monthly Report 2017, https:// -Mixed Migration Hub. 2019. “What is mixed migration?” Working Paper by Global Migration Policy Associates, retrieved reliefweb.int/report/italy/unhcr-europe-monthly-report-2017 Retrieved April 11, 2019 from http://www.mixedmigrationhub. -Portes A. (1997), Globalisation from below. The rise of on February 8 from https://www.globalmigrationpolicy.org/ org/member-agencies/what-mixed-migration-is/ Transnational Communities, Priceton University Press, articles/dynamics/Immigration,%20Discrimination,%20 -UNHCR. 2016. What is a Refugee. Retrieved from http:// Princeton. Integration%20Europe%20Policy%20Options%20in%20 www.unhcr.org/what-is-a-refugee.html -New York Times (2017), How Did Bombs Made in Italy Kill 21st%20Century,%20TARAN,%20Brussels%202005.pdf a Family In Yemen?, Video documentary report by Malachy Prestianni S. (2018), The dangerous link between migration, -UN Resolution 71/1. New York Declaration for Refugees Browne, Barbara Marcolini and Ainara Tiefenthäler. 2017. development and security for the externalisation of borders -Taran, P. et al. 2016. “The Sustainable Development Goals and Migrants. Adopted by the General Assembly on 19 Viewed online 7 April 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/video/ in Africa. Case studies on Sudan, Niger and Tunisia, and Migrants/Migration.” online Global Migration Policy September 2016.http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc. world/middleeast/100000005254317/civilian-deaths-yemen- ARCI, https://www.arci.it/documento/the-dangerous- Associates (GMPA) brief document. Revised 2018. Retrieved asp?symbol=A/RES/71/1 italian-bombs.html link-between-migration-development-and-security-for-the- on February 6, 2019 from http://www.un.org/en/development/ externalisation-of-borders-in-africa-case-studies-on-sudan- desa/population/migration/events/coordination/14/documents/ -Vammen IM., Bronden BM. (2012), “Donor country - OECD 2016, Better Policies for Sustainable Development niger-and-tunisia/ backgrounddocs/GMPA_14CM.pdf responses to the migration-development buzz: From 2016: A New Framework for Policy Coherence. Paris, OECD. ambiguous concepts to ambitious policies?”, International Migration 50 (3), pp. 26-42. -OECD 2018a, Employment Outlook 2018, Paris OECD. -World Bank 2018, Migration and development Brief, n. 29, -OECD 2018b, Proposed new purpose code for “facilitation of Washington DC. orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility, DCD/DAC/STAT(2018)23/REV3, http://www.oecd.org/ -World Data Atlas Italy National Defense: Italy - Arms exports officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=DCD/ in constant prices of 1990. https://knoema.com/atlas/Italy/ DAC/STAT(2018)23/REV3&docLanguage=En Arms-exports. (Online database, viewed 7 April 2019).

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52 REFERENCES 53 LIST OF INTERVIEWED STAKEHOLDERSS

1) Tana Anglana, expert consultant on migration and development for the project “National Summit of Diasporas” and deputy member on behalf of Diasporas in the Consiglio Italiano della Cooperazione. 2) Elena Masi, Italian Agency for Development Cooperation (AICS). 3) Daniele Panzeri, responsible for migration and development in IOM-Italy. 4) Tiziana Ruberto, Italian Ministry of Labour 5) Andrea Stocchiero, Policy officer Focsiv (network of Italian NGOS’) and consultant Concorde Italia. 6) Monica Dragone, Cooperation Office of the Municipality of Milan. 7) Mirella Orlandi, Cooperation Office of the Region Emilia Romagna 8) Modou Gueye, President of association Sunugal. 9) Simona Federico, Arci-AICS (Italian civil society network and Italian NGO). 10) Giovanni Sartor, Head of International Cooperation Department, Manitese 11) Farsi Prossimo ONLUS 12) Ndour Mor Talla, President of Senegalese Association of Fossano

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