Article — Artikel

Use of ethnoveterinary medicinal in cattle by Setswana-speaking people in the Madikwe area of the North West Province of

D van der Merwea*, G E Swana and C J Bothaa

created alienation between traditional ABSTRACT health systems and the more controllable Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) methods were employed to document the use of and predictable effects of orthodox medi- ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in cattle by Setswana-speaking people in the Madikwe cines5. Developed societies, especially area of the North West Province of South Africa. The study indicated that Setswana- those belonging to cultures derived from speaking people in the North West Province have a rich heritage of ethnoveterinary knowl- the dominant western European cultures, edge, which includes all aspects of ethnoveterinary medicinal use. Information was abandoned much of their traditional gathered from informants through individual interviews, group interviews, guided field medical/veterinary practices in favour walks and observations. Ethnoveterinary uses in cattle of 45 plant species representing 24 of what is now viewed as orthodox families were recorded. Plants were used in 84 % of the total number of recorded medicine40. Loss of indigenous culture, in ethnoveterinary remedies. These plants were used alone (64 %) or in mixtures (36 %) for 29 favour of western European-derived indications. The most important indications were retained placenta, diarrhoea, gallsickness, fractures, eye inflammation, general ailments, fertility enhancement, general culture, is an accelerating process among 40 gastrointestinal problems, heartwater, internal parasites, coughing, redwater and reduc- indigenous people around the world . tion of tick burden. Plant materials were prepared in various ways including infusion, Recently, recognition has been given to decoction, ground fresh material, sap expressed from fresh material, charred and dried. the importance of the cultural and medic- The most common dosage form was a liquid for oral dosing. Other dosage forms included inal resources that are under threat. drops, licks, ointments, lotions and powders. Liquid remedies for oral dosing were always This has led to a renewed interest in, and administered using a bottle. Medicinal plant material was preferably stored in a dried form research into, traditional medicine36. in a cool place out of direct sunlight and wind. Lack of transfer of ethnoveterinary knowl- Traditional medicine forms a valuable edge to younger generations puts this knowledge at risk. RRA was found to be a successful resource for the development of new method of investigation for the study of ethnoveterinary medicine. pharmaceuticals8,13,23,27. Compounds de- Key words: cattle, ethnobotany, ethnoveterinary medicine, EVM, herbal medicine, rived from plants were reported in 1993 Madikwe, North West Province, Rapid Rural Appraisal, traditional medicine. to be used in approximately 25 % of 27 Van der Merwe D, Swan G E, Botha C J Use of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in cattle by orthodox drugs in clinical use . Setswana-speaking people in the Madikwe area of the North West Province. Journal of the South Africa is home to more than South African Veterinary Association (2001) 72(4): 189–196 (En.). Department of Paraclinical 23 000 plant species, representing around Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, 10 % of all plant species in the world. The Onderstepoort, 0001 South Africa. country incorporates 1 of the 6 Floral Kingdoms of the world – the Cape Floral Kingdom32. This diversity of flora is a rich INTRODUCTION passed on verbally, by example and some- source of herbal medicines for indigenous Use of medicinal plants to treat various times through writing36. South African people for human as well diseases has been part of human culture Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is as animal use9,20–22,30,34,35,45. since ancient times. Medicinal properties important in animal health care in devel- Traditional medicinal use of plants in of plants were mostly discerned through oping countries10. It has become a recog- South Africa is strongly related to physio- trial and error, but were also influenced nised field of research that includes logical and pharmacological activity of by the belief systems of the people in- traditional veterinary theory, medicines, active plant ingredients15. Active constitu- volved and often became entangled with surgical methods, diagnostic procedures ents were found in 81 % of plants tested religious and mythical practices36. Medici- and animal husbandry practices36. Veteri- when traditional medicinal use was used nal plant use evolved into an art and a nary aspects of ethnobotany are included as the basis of plant selection. Nine science, practised according to the experi- in the field of EVM. Ethnobotany can be percent of medicinal plants tested have ence, traditions and disease theory of the defined as ‘the scientific investigation of potentially harmful toxic effects15. healer. Treatment of animal diseases plant use by indigenous cultures for food, Publications that deal specifically with developed in parallel with the treatment medicine, pesticides, clothing, shelter and EVM in South Africa include studies in of human diseases. This knowledge was other purposes25. northern KwaZulu-Natal10 and central Traditional medicine is part of indige- Eastern Cape Province35. One publication 5 aDepartment of Paraclinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary nous peoples’ cultural heritage . Most cul- on Lesotho, which has relevance for Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, 41 Onderstepoort, 0001 South Africa. tural information in Africa, including South Africa, is available . Published data *Present address: Animal Health for Developing Farmers traditional medicine, is contained within are incomplete and inadequate compared Division, ARC - Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, oral tradition. Its absence from written to the data available on human traditional Private Bag X05, Onderstepoort, 0110 South Africa. records adds to the fragility of cultural medicine. Most South African ethno- The article is based on a MSc dissertation titled ‘Use of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in cattle by Setswana- knowledge in Africa22. veterinary data is found in publications speaking people in the Madikwe area of the North West Province’ by D van der Merwe. In developed countries, the success of where records of EVM plant use are inci- Received: March 2001. Accepted: September 2001. commercially-produced medicines has dental to the main aims of the publica-

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 189 tions. A comprehensive database of EVM in South Africa is needed to bring it into mainstream knowledge and expose it to research. This study aimed to document plant species used in ethnoveterinary medi- cine, the indications for their application and the methods of collection, prepara- tion and administration. A secondary aim was to assess the suitability of the Rapid Rural Appraisal approach to the investi- gation of EVM in southern Africa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area Fig. 1: Location of the Madikwe State Veterinary Area. The Madikwe State Veterinary Area (Fig. 1) is situated in the northern part of Formally-arranged group meetings, medicinal plant material, signs of impact the North West Province of South Africa. such as farmers’ days and community on natural plant populations and artificial meetings at tribal offices, as well as infor- propagation of medicinal plants. Infor- Survey procedure mal group meetings with farmers at mants were asked to demonstrate certain The Rapid Rural Appraisal approach to state-held brucellosis survey days and aspects of ethnoveterinary plant use not data collection was used2. Ethnoveterinary communal dip tanks, were attended. The adequately explained during interviews. information was collected using 3 tech- research aims were explained at these Plant samples were collected and pho- niques, namely interviews, observations meetings. Informants who were willing tographs taken during field walks with and guided field walks. Permission to and able to contribute to the research informants. Plant names were verified conduct research in the study area was were identified and arrangements for during field walks. Informants were also obtained from traditional leaders (kgosi) more detailed discussions were made. asked to point out medicinal plants from at the start of the study. Field work was Two group interviews with selected in- dried plant samples and photographs. conducted during the summer months of formants were held, but individual inter- Plant samples were identified with the 1998 and 1999. Winter months were views were generally more practical. help of the Department of Botany, Uni- unsuitable for data collection owing to the Incidental interviews were conducted versity of Pretoria. Plant specimens were seasonal occurrence of some plants and with farmers or herdsmen encountered pressed, dried and stored in a herbarium the lack of reproductive organs and while travelling through the study area. cabinet at the Department of Pharmacol- leaves needed for plant identification. To provide structure to interviews and ogy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Setswana-speaking people in the study to ensure that important aspects of animal Science, University of Pretoria at Onder- area who were involved in livestock health were not omitted, questions were stepoort. Specimens were protected from production and/or had information on asked around specific disease topics such insects by applying insecticides and current or historical ethnoveterinary as different organ systems, generalised con- placing them into plastic covers. plant use were included in the study. ditions, diseases related to nutrition, plant Participants, henceforth referred to as poisoning and other forms of poisoning. RESULTS informants, included farmers, extension The topics served as a guide and were officers, traditional healers and other adapted to accommodate the perceptions Informants knowledgeable individuals. Farmers and knowledge of the informants inter- Information was recorded through 28 were divided into commercial farmers viewed. Informants were not only asked detailed interviews with individuals, 2 and small-scale farmers. Commercial to name diseases, but also to describe the group interviews, field walks and obser- farmers were defined as farmers who symptoms associated with those diseases vations. Informants were from 14 locali- earned their income primarily from farm- and to correlate this with the indications ties distributed throughout the study ing and who owned more than 30 head of for medicinal plant use. This was needed area. They represented 11 occupations of cattle. All-small scale farmers owned to more accurately determine the proba- which small-scale farmers, commercial fewer than 30 head of cattle. The study ble aetiological diagnosis of disease con- farmers and traditional healers were aimed to record data on ethnoveterinary ditions described by persons without the majority. Informants were mostly medicines used in cattle, but other ethno- formal veterinary training. middle-aged and older men. No infor- veterinary information was recorded The nature and perceived causes of dis- mants were women. when encountered. eases in animals, the role of plants in ani- Kgosi were requested to suggest suitable mal health, husbandry and production Indications for medicinal plant use interpreters. Respected persons with a and the method and incidence of plant Forty-five plant species, representing 24 good knowledge of the study area were collection and use were also discussed. families and used for 29 indications, were sought. Interpreters suggested by the kgosi Notes on plant use included indications, recorded (Table 1). The most important were used initially, but some were found plant parts used, collection and storage, indications were retained placenta, diar- unsuitable due to time constraints and/or preparation, administration and dosage, rhoea, gallsickness, fractures, eye inflam- lack of enthusiasm. Alternative interpret- contra-indications, side-effects and toxic- mation, general sickliness, fertility ers, who were acceptable to the kgosi, ity, therapeutic success, rapidity and enhancement, general gastrointestinal were then used. When informants were extent of recovery and monitoring of problems, heartwater, helminthosis, able to communicate adequately in either therapy. coughing, redwater and tick burden English or Afrikaans, no interpreters were Observations were made on the collec- reduction. There was considerable varia- used. tion, preparation, use and storage of tion in the number of different ethno-

190 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 Table 1: Plant species used in ethnoveterinary medicines, their Setswana names, indications and plant parts used.

Species Setswana name(s) Indications Plant parts

Acacia karroo mooka fractures bark diarrhoea Acacia tortilis mosu diarrhoea branch tips Aloe greatheadii var. davyana kgophane burns leaves and A. zebrina general ailments roots blood cleansing whole plant internal parasites eye infections Aloe marlothii subsp. marlothii mokgopa gallsickness leaves internal parasites external parasites diarrhoea constipation retained placenta dystocia maggots Asparagus laricinus and A. suaveolens lesitwane sores tubers redwater uterine infection general ailments umbilical cord inflammation Boophane disticha matubadifala abortion bulb scales Cassine transvaalensis mojelemane diarrhoea bark Croton gratissimus var. gratissimus moologa pneumonia leaves tonic roots fertility enhancement Dicerocaryum eriocarpum and makanangwane retained placenta roots D. senecioides makangwane dystocia whole plant general ailments to ensure strong calves rigida morobe fractures roots Elephantorrhiza elephantina mosetlhane Diarrhoea root-stock heartwater coughing pneumonia Englerophytum maglismontanum motlatswa fertility enhancement roots Grewia flava moretlwa fertility enhancement roots Harpagophytum procumbens lematla retained placenta fruit sengaparile Hypoxis hemerocallidea and H.rigidula tsuku-ya-poo fertility enhancement corms general ailments heartwater abortion Nicotiana tabacum motsoko eye infections leaves Ozoroa paniculosa var. paniculosa monokane diarrhoea bark redwater rootbark sweating sickness Peltophorum africanum mosetla tonic bark diarrhoea rootbark Phyllanthus burchellii and P. parvulus lentsane eye infections aerial parts Plumbago zeylanica masegomabe pneumonia roots Pouzolzia mixta mongololo retained placenta roots bloat leaves vaginal discharge Rhoicissus tridentata subsp. cuneifolia ntagaraga heartwater tubers redwater internal parasites general ailments abortion Rhus lancea moshabele diarrhoea roots gallsickness bark Ricinus communis mokhura constipation seeds internal parasites Schkuhria pinnata santhloko eye infections aerial parts lefero pneumonia diarrhoea heartwater

Continued on p. 192

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 191 Table 1 (continued)

Species Setswana name(s) Indications Plant

Sclerocarya birrea morula diarrhoea bark fractures Seddera sufruticosa thobega fractures roots Senna italica subsp. arachoides sebete gallsickness roots general intestinal diseases heartwater anthrax pneumonia Solanum incanum tolwana sores roots Solanum panduriforme mohato diarrhoea fruit sap Spirostachys africana morekhure sweating sickness wood Terminalia sericea mogonono diarrhoea roots Tribulus terrestris tshetlo retained placenta whole plant bloat aerial parts Triumfetta sonderi mokuku retained placenta rootbark Urginea sanguinea sekaname general ailments bulbs general intestinal diseases internal parasites blood cleansing gallsickness heartwater redwater sores retained placenta Vitex zeyheri mokwele eye infections leaves Withania somnifera mokukwane diarrhoea roots Ximenia americana var. microphylla seretologa internal parasites roots Ziziphus mucronata mokgalo fertility enhancement roots sores leaves burns Ziziphus zeyheriana sekgalo-fatshe diarrhoea root-stock internal parasites general ailments veterinary medicines reported per during the growing season of grass. High in cattle. A pupa, found within a ‘shell’ indication and in the report rates of milk production in cows was also associ- made from small twigs held together with different indications. Indications that ated with freely available green grass and silk, was also widely perceived to be the were related to problems with easily excessive ingestion of milk was seen as the cause of acute deaths in cattle. Toxic distinguishable features, such as retained cause of diarrhoea in calves. Treatment plants, including Urginea sanguinea, Lan- placenta and fractures, tended to have therefore involved limiting milk intake by tana camara, Solanum kwebense, Sarco- less variation in the type of ethno- affected calves. Informants usually did stemma viminala, Kalanchoe spp., Cotyledon veterinary medicines used for their treat- not attribute diseases to microorganisms. spp. and Acacia nilotica, occur in the area ment. Indications such as helminthosis A notable exception was the use of sap and were pointed out to informants and general ailments, which were more from unripe Solanum panduriforme during field walks. Although the plants difficult to diagnose owing to variation reported by 1 informant to kill the unseen were familiar to most informants, they and subtlety of symptoms, and variations microorganisms that cause diarrhoea. were not perceived to be the cause of of what informants considered typical Ticks were perceived to be the direct poisoning in animals. symptoms, tended to have more variable cause of diseases such as heartwater, Two informants classified diseases into treatments. The accuracy of diagnoses sweating sickness and gallsickness. No 2 categories: diseases that are part of the made by informants was not verified. informants attributed these diseases to natural phenomena of the animal’s life; microorganisms or toxins transmitted by and diseases that are caused by the actions Perceived causes of disease the ticks. Large calves, small birth canals of evil people (boloi). They stated that Natural phenomena were universally or abnormal presentation of calves were diseases caused by boloi were uncommon. accepted as causes of some or all diseases recognised as causes of dystocia. in animals, even when informants could Informants readily diagnosed tissue The perceived mechanism of action not explanation disease mechanisms. damage due to external parasites, trauma of traditional medicines Diseases with typical seasonal patterns and burns. External parasites were per- Most informants attributed the action of were often related to factors in the envi- ceived to be an important cause of teat medicines to a physical mechanism that ronment with similar seasonal patterns. damage, but internal parasites (dinogana) they could not explain owing to lack of For example, fresh green grass was were regarded as an unimportant cause knowledge. They expected a dose-related perceived by some to be the cause of of animal health problems. Dichapetalum response to medicine use. Most farmers gallsickness (gala) and diarrhoea because cymosum (mogau) was considered to be the perceived the fundamental mechanisms their incidence tended to be higher most important cause of poisoning deaths of action of traditional herbal medicines

192 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 and orthodox stock remedies to be similar. The badimo could show a healer a specific rapid preparation of a medicine was un- They used both types of medicine allo- individual plant, a specific area, or just necessary. Fresh plant material was pre- pathically and interchangeably depend- the species to use. Traditional healers ferred. When fresh plant material was not ing on previous experience, cost and preferred to gather plants in areas where available, dried material was used accord- availability. A minority of informants per- there was little human activity. The pres- ing to the same preparation methods as ceived the replenishment of maatla ence of many people would reduce the those used for fresh material. (power) in the diseased animal through power (maatla) of plants. People caused Liquid dosage forms intended for oral the use of medicines as the mechanism of plants to be stepped on (u a gata) in a meta- dosing were used in 83 % of medicines. action. physical sense, thereby reducing the Medicines were dosed by mouth using a plants’ maatla. glass cool-drink or beer bottle of 750-m or Plant collection 1- capacity. One informant dosed liquids Medicinal plant material was usually Medicine storage through the nose, also using a bottle, obtained near towns or close to cattle Medicinal plants were usually not claiming that dosing through the nose grazing areas. Some informants had stored, but were collected and used fresh was easier. Ground plant material was plants such as Aloe marlothii, Asparagus when needed. Most informants stated sometimes mixed with coarse salt (and laricinus, Ziziphus mucronata, Peltophorum that medicinal plants could be stored sometimes molasses) to form licks. All africanum and others growing at their indefinitely as long as they were stored parenteral dosage forms were applied homes. These plants were usually not correctly. Only 1 informant, a traditional topically. Liquids were applied as lotions cultivated, but were not removed if they healer, maintained that plants would lose or eye drops. Powders were used in eye grew around homes naturally. Aloe their medicinal potency even if stored treatments by sprinkling directly into the species were sometimes planted close to correctly, but that correct storage would eyes. Other parenteral dosage forms dwellings to ensure a convenient supply increase the length of time that it re- included ointments and unaltered plant of leaves for medicinal use. Common mained effective. Medicinal plants were material. medicinal plants, such as Senna italica, preferably stored in a dried form. Plant which is a pioneer on disturbed soil in and material was dried by spreading it out on DISCUSSION around towns, was not given special pro- an outside flat surface in dry weather, or tection. The ability or inability of plants to was hung from hooks mounted on walls Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) adapt to garden environments also deter- indoors. Large pieces of plant material There are important similarities be- mined whether or not they were culti- were sometimes cut into smaller pieces tween the results of studies conducted in vated. Species such as Pouzolzia mixta, before drying. Dried materials were northern KwaZulu-Natal10 and central occurred only along rocky ridges. Al- ground to a powder or tied into bundles. Eastern Cape Province35and the current though there was a demand for the plant Medicinal plant material was usually kept study. These similarities reflect factors in towns, people were unable to cultivate dry, in a cool place and out of direct that are likely to be constant in areas of it outside its natural habitat. Plants that sunlight and wind. This was achieved by South Africa where developing black were used infrequently and for which the storing plants in cool parts of a house in farmers are prominent, such as most need was unpredictable were not plastic or paper bags, newspaper and former homeland areas. Ethnoveterinary deemed to be worth the effort involved in glass, metal or plastic jars. medicine was an important part of the cultivation. Most of the plant species used health care of animals in all studies. to treat cattle were collected only when Medicine preparation and dosage Reasons for EVM use included the high the need arose. forms cost of orthodox medicines and the con- Most informants stated that the medici- The majority of ethnoveterinary medi- venient availability of ethnoveterinary nal properties of plants growing at their cines (64 %) used single ingredients, alone medicines. The use of chemicals, ortho- homes and plants that grew further away or with a vehicle for administration. Infor- dox medicines and plants that only be- were the same. They did not consider mants who used mixtures of active com- came available in the modern era nursery-grown plants to be inferior and ponents stated that it made their medi- indicates the dynamic nature of EVM. stated that they would welcome nursery- cines more potent. Non-plant material The way that people understand diseases grown plants as an easily-accessible and material not directly derived from is related to the way that these diseases source of herbal medicines. All traditional plants, used in mixtures, included salt, are treated and the changes in the meth- healers, however, stated that wild plants sodium permanganate, donkey faeces ods of treatment over time therefore were better sources of traditional medi- and orthodox medicines. Plant parts that suggest that disease perceptions are also cines than cultivated plants. They were of were most commonly used in medicines, dynamic. This is not surprising in the light the opinion that cultivated medicinal such as aloe leaves, roots, rhizomes, of the cultural changes that are taking plants could be ineffective or harmful to tubers, bulbs and bark were available place in Africa40. The indications for patients. All informants gathered plants throughout the year.Waterextraction was ethnoveterinary medicines in cattle are themselves. Farmers usually gathered the most commonly-used preparation similar in different areas. The plant plants only for their own use. Except for method. Infusions and decoctions com- species used are, however, usually differ- traditional healers, no informants gath- prised 82 % of the total number of medi- ent. This indicates that locally available ered medicinal plants for commercial cines. In 13 % of medicines, either an plant populations are a major determi- purposes. One traditional healer sold infusion or a decoction could be used nant of the plant species used in ethno- plants to colleagues. Lay persons normally depending on the circumstances. Decoc- veterinary medicines. Liquid dosage gathered specific plant species based only tions were prepared by boiling plant forms consisting of infusions and decoc- on the medicinal indications associated material in water for a few minutes. Infu- tions used as drenches, licks and topical with a particular plant species. Traditional sions usually required plant material to be dosage forms such as powders, lotions healers sometimes applied additional soaked for a few hours or overnight. Infu- and drops are common in all areas that criteria. The ancestors (badimo) would sions were preferred when it was incon- have been studied. These dosage forms show plants to healers in their dreams. venient or impossible to boil water and are easy to prepare without specialised

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 193 equipment and reflect the low level of from A. ferox, A. perryi and A. vera, are reported wide variation in the times taken technological sophistication in EVM. The purgatives21. The purgative effect of from treatment to the release of the apparent lack of transfer of ethno- anthraquinone derivatives is due to the placental membranes – from a few min- veterinary knowledge from older to formation of emodin anthrone under the utes to several days. In normal cows, the younger generations was a cause of influence of enteric bacterial enzymes. placental membranes are usually released concern in all studies10,35. It was indicated Emodin anthrone increases peristalsis between 2–6 hours post partum11. The in the present study by the predominance and limits the absorption of water and usual incidence of retained placenta of middle-aged and older men among electrolytes in the gut4. Aloe extracts in bovine herds is c. 11 %, if retained informants and the concern expressed by inhibit histamine release from rat mast placenta is defined as the retention of some older informants that young people cells, which offers an explanation for the foetal membranes for longer than 12 were not interested in EVM. activity of aloe extracts in inflammatory hours post partum. In cases of retained Metaphysical properties in ethno- conditions21. The leaves of Aloe greatheadii placenta the foetal membranes are re- veterinary medicines were relatively and Aloe zebrina were used to treat burns leased from 2–10 days post partum in most unimportant in the Madikwe area in animals in the study area. They contain untreated cases11. The normal variation of compared to northern KwaZulu-Natal. copious amounts of slimy sap, which may time to release the placental membranes The use of charms or the symbolic use of have a soothing and cooling effect on in- of cows in an untreated population is medicines was almost absent in the EVM flamed skin lesions. Application of the similar to the variation in time to placental practised by farmers in the Madikwe area. leaves to skin lesions may also prevent membrane release reported by infor- The use of charms by previous genera- desiccation and provide a physical barrier mants using traditional remedies. It is tions was, however, mentioned occasion- to wound contamination. The emollient therefore possible that the confidence of ally. This almost total adoption of an effects of the leaf sap are also used in informants regarding the effectiveness of allopathic system of ethnoveterinary humans for skin irritations, abrasions and their remedies is not due to the pharma- medicine by modern farmers in the burns39,44. A. zebrina proved ineffective in a cological effects of their medicines. This is Madikwe area is in accordance with the test for antibacterial activity45. The ratio- not to say, however, that these plants are findings of Coertze7. He found that nale for its use is therefore unlikely to be devoid of biological activity. Saponin- contact with and pressure from white prevention or treatment of bacterial infec- containing plants are widely used medici- settlers led to a gradual transformation of tion in skin lesions, but rather the hydrat- nally and have several known biological the Tswana cultural pattern through ing, insulating and protective effects of effects. These include antibacterial, adoption of western customs7. glycoproteins contained in aloe leaves44. antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, No use of ethnoveterinary medicine by The use of Senna italica to treat constipa- anti-oedema, analgesic, antitussive and women was recorded. This marked tion may be explained by the purgative expectorant effects4. Not all saponins gender bias reflects the limited involve- effects of oxymethylanthraquinone, demonstrate all the listed effects, and ment of women in cattle production and which have been isolated from other specific saponins have their own specific herd health in Madikwe. Senna species4,45. The laxative effects of range of effects4. Studies to evaluate the Ricinus communis are due to ricinoleic biological activities of saponins contained The rational basis of ethnoveterinary acid, which is released in the small intes- in plants used for retained plancenta in plant use tine through hydrolisation of castor oil. It cows are needed. Plants containing high levels of tannins, stimulates intestinal secretion, promotes Two species used to treat redwater, including Acacia tortilis, Sclerocarya birrea, motility and decreases glucose absorp- Rhoicissus tridentata and Urginea sanguinea, Senna italica, Rhus lancea, Peltophorum tion31. Unprocessed seeds contain the have reddish-coloured underground africanum, Elephantorrhiza elephantine, toxalbumin ricin, which can cause severe parts. This is possibly an example of the Ziziphus zeyheriana and Ziziphus mucronata purgation and is highly toxic24. ‘doctrine of signatures’28, where the red- were commonly used as ethnoveterinary The use of plants to treat retained pla- dish colour of the urine is linked to the red medicinal plants21,44,45. They were used for centa in cows was recorded throughout colour of the plants. diarrhoea, burns and blood cleansing. the study area and showed a high degree Withania somnifera, used in the study Tannins are naturally-occurring phenolic of uniformity between informants, as area to treat calf diarrhoea, is chemically compounds of plant origin, which can indicated by an unusually high number complex. It contains more than 80 com- form cross-linkages between macromole- of informants using a limited number of pounds and has been the subject of cules such as proteins18,29. The pharmaco- remedies. The sap of most plant species numerous studies. Its biological effects logical effects of tannins, which include used in remedies for retained placenta include antibiotic, cytotoxic and anti- astringent, antibacterial, antifungal, can be described as slimy or soapy. Plants inflammatory activities4,44. These effects mucoprotectant and antioxidant effects used to treat retained placenta with a could be used to rationalise its use in some and enzymatic inhibition4, support the soapy sap are Dicerocaryum eriocarpum, types of diarrhoea. use of these plants to treat diarrhoea and Dicerocaryum senecioides, Pouzolzia mixta Splints made from sheets of bark, cut burns. and Tribulus terrestris, while Aloe marlothii from Sclerocarya birrea and Acacia karroo Aloe marlothii was a very important leaf-sap is slimy. Use of these plants may were used to treat longbone fractures due ethnoveterinary medicinal plant in the have its origin in the belief that plant to the bark’s tough, fibrous structure. study area. Aloes of various species were characteristics can be transferred to A. karroo bark is applied in many situa- extensively used as panaceas since ancient patients42. Previous reports also indicate tions where a tough material is needed, times in many parts of the world. Aloe still the use of D. eriocarpum for retained such as the making of roof frames, ropes forms the base of a large commercial placenta in cows and in women33,45 and and baskets12,45. This is an example of a industry in health-care products44. The as an aid to parturition in cows45. The physical rather than a pharmacological genus has been extensively studied and is Vhavenda use it as a soap substitute33. effect. known to contain a number of biologi- Informants expressed a high degree of A number of plants that were used cally-active substances. Anthraquinone confidence in the effectiveness of their medicinally in the study area have poten- derivatives, emodin and resins, isolated remedies for retained placenta. They tially dangerous toxic effects. They

194 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2001) 72(4): 189–196 include Boophane disticha14,17,44, Croton more readily while walking through the expenditure on animal health should be gratissimus3,19,26,45, Phyllanthus spp.45, . Seeing medicinal plants often re- promoted. Where applicable, intellectual Ricinus communis 24, Spirostachys afri- sulted in informants remembering things property rights must be respected by cana12,16,38,45, Solanum incanum and Solanum about the plants that were omitted during researchers and developers. panduriforme43, Urginea sanguinea21,24,45 and interviews. Withania somnifera1,45. Side-effects or toxic- The establishment of a trust-relationship ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ity associated with the medicinal use of between the researcher and informants The residents of the Madikwe State these plants in the study area were rarely was a prerequisite for the successful Veterinary Area are thanked for their reported. This is likely to be due to the rel- completion of interviews. Trust often friendly and patient involvement in the atively small amounts used in medicines. took time and repeated visits to achieve. project. Funding received from the The concerns of most informants could be National Research Foundation is grate- Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) addressed adequately through discus- fully acknowledged. I thank Dr Koos Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is a data sions of the aims of the project. Profes- Olivier for his invaluable assistance collection approach, used in rural areas, sional traditional healers were generally during initial meetings with community that is aimed at achieving understanding less cooperative than lay persons. leaders, and both him and his wife for of a rural situation relatively quickly and RRA proved to be a successful approach their generous hospitality during my cost-effectively2,6. It is often superior to to EVM research in the Madikwe area. It visits to the study area; the management traditional methods of investigation in yielded information relatively quickly of Madikwe Game Reserve, in particular rural communities6. The main strength of and cheaply. RRA is adequate for provid- Dr Markus Hofmeyer, for facilitating RRA is based on its adaptability. Tradi- ing qualitative information on the extent research in and around the reserve; and tional methods usually rely on question- and variation of ethnoveterinary knowl- Dr M J Manenzhe, state veterinarian at naires that are prepared in advance. A edge. The qualitative nature of results is, Madikwe, and his staff, Mr Kgatlhane and deficiency of traditional methods is that however, an important drawback when Ms Kaotsane, for their assistance. Prof. H all relevant information cannot be known statistical data analysis is attempted. Els and Prof. G E van Wyk are thanked for in advance. 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