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Rules and Proce ... Rder in Two--Indonesia.Pdf RULES AND PROCESSES: DIVIDING WATER AND NEGOTIATING ORDER IN WO NEW IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Douglas Lynn Vermillion January, 1986 RULES AND PROCESSES: DIVIDING WATER AND NEGOTIATING ORDER IN TWO NEW IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA Douglas Lynn Vermillion, Ph.D. Cornell University 1986 This study examines the nature of water allocation in two new farmer-managed irrigation systems in the Dumoga Valley of North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The purpose of this research is three-fold: 1) to identify the social and physical aspects of these systems which influence how water is allocated among farmers' fields; 2) to analyze the interplay between rules and 1 processes of farmer interaction; and 3) to examine the equity and efficiency of water use by farmers. Two Balinese subak, or irrigation associations, were selected for comparative study. The two systems differed in age, whether or not they were incorporated into a larger system, and the nature of landform and design layout. Data collection between December 1981 and April 1983 covered two rice cropping seasons. It involved interviews with farmers, field observations, and technical measurements of water supply, demand, and allocation. The basic rule of allocation in these systems was one of proportional shares, based upon the distribution of an equal amount of water per unit of land area. Farmers viewed the water Biographical Sketch share rule as only a first approximation for allocating water. Through interpersonal interactions among farmers, a mutually Douglas Lynn Vermillion was born in London, England on recognized set of criteria emerged to justify temporary but April 21, 1952. Because his father was in the United States Air repeated adjustments in the division of water. Force, he moved repeatedly between locations in the United States Neither differences in system age nor in incorporation and the United Kingdom during his first eleven years. When his into a larger system significantly influenced water allocation. father retired from the Air Force in 1963 the family settled in However, in both systems the topography and design of the systems Spokane, Washington. He graduated from Ferris High School in had a substantial impact on the structure of water allocation; Spokane in 1970. After attending Brigham Young University in the formal roles of the subak and its officers and the inter- Provo Utah for one year, he went to the Philippines for two personal processes in water allocating were similar; and the years as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day observed patterns of adjusting the division of water were directed Saints. He earned a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science from toward reducing variations in water adequacy, study findings Brigham young University 1976. In 1978, he completed a Master indicate that the effective allocation of a collective resource of Arts degree in Political Science, with a major in Public in certain settings can be realized without formal or hierarchical Policy Analysis, at the State University of New York in control. Binghamton. Also in 1978, he began work on a Doctor of Philosophy at Cornell University. His major field was Development Sociology, with minors in Research Methodology and Asian Studies. He married Mickey Paxton in Provo, Utah in 1975. They now have three children, Michael, Christopher, and Rachel. fanners offered much of their valuable time in interviews. Acknowledgements Their help and cordiality is much appreciated. Kelly smurthwaite converted sketches into professional- I wish to thank all those who have helped me complete this looking maps and helped with typing and other graphics work. work. Caroline Rumsey did the final formatting and printing of the Professor E. Walter Coward, Chairman of my Special Committee, thesis. was instrumental in pointing out to me the intellectual challenges My wife Mickey has gone through it all. Without her and practical importance of irrigation development in the Third encouragement and commitment this work would not have been World. He carefully directed my research from beginning to completed. She and Michael, Christopher, and Rachel were end, including helping with the research design, assisting in wonderful partners in this endeavor. I would like also to thank locating funding sources, visiting me in the field, and advising my mother for her constant love and encouragement and my father, on data analysis and writing. Professor Milton Barnett guided who first recognized that Ph. D. stands for "Poor harried Doug." my interests in agricultural decision-making and qualitative research methods and provided valuable and thorough assistance in the writing of the thesis. Professor Randolph Barker gave me important assistance in improving the clarity of the organization and writing of the thesis. Funding to conduct this research was provided by three sources: the Resource Systems Institute of the East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii; the Ford Foundation; and the USAID Strengthening Grant Program administered through the Program in International Agriculture at Cornell University. Staff of the Dumoga Irrigation Project, Jan Wind, and neighbors graciously helped our family to have a comfortable stay in the town of Doloduo. I. Wayan Mendera and Yance Assa provided essential research assistance and encouragement. Many iv Page TABLE OP CONTENTS 3 New Irrigation, Land Use, and the Incentive to Page Diversify 60 3.1 Fanner Irrigation 62 Biographical Sketch. ii 3.2 Deforestation 63 Acknowledgements iii 3.3 Reluctance to Make Sawah 67 List of Tables ix 3.4 The Incentive to Diversify . 69 List of Figures x 4 Balinese Socio-Cultural Context 72 CHAPTER 4.1 Social Organization 72 ONE Introduction 1 4.2 Balinese Society Transmigrated 77 1 Evolution of this Study 2 5 The Traditional Balinese Subak. .82 1.1 Objectives 5 5.1 Description of the Subak 83 1.2 Research Design 8 5.2 Critique of How the Subak Has Been 1.3 Data Collection 14 Characterized 85 1.3.1 Interviewing 15 5.2.1 Colonial ethnographies 86 113.2 Field inspections 18 5.2.2 Rule-centered, culture core ecology. ... 87 2 A Sociological Basis for Interpreting Water 5.2.3 A revised rule-centered approach 92 Allocation 20 6 Summary 95 2.1 Rules and Processes 21 THREE Formation and Organization of the Two Systems 99 2.2 Adaptation Through Social Interaction 27 1 Introduction , .... 99 2.2.1 Adaptation as result or process? 27 2 Formation of the Subak in Mopugad 99 2.2.2 Non-optimizing strategies for 2.1 Beginnings 99 adaptation: bounded rationality, "Satisficing," and partisan mutual 2.2 The Landform and the Designing of the System . .102 adjustment 30 2.3 Landholdings and Tenure 109 2.2.2.1 Bounded rationality and 3 Formal Organization and Process in Mopugad 111 "satisficing" 31 3.1 Leadership 112 2.2.2.2 Partisan mutual adjustment 34 3.2 Water Distribution, Planting Dates, and 2.3 Water as Property. 38 Sanctions 117 3 Preview of the Chapters 43 3.3 Membership 124 TWO Physical and Social Context 45 3.4 system Maintenance 127 1 Physical Setting 45 3.5 Ritual and water . .128 2 Settlement 48 4 Formation of the Subak in Werdi Agung 129 2.1 Orang Bolaang Mqngondow. ... ....... 48 4.1 Beginnings .129 2.2 Orang Minahasa 53 4.2 The Landform and the Designing of the System . .139 2.3 Transmigrants from Java and Bali ........ 55 4.3 Landholdings and Tenure .139 2.4 Demographic Changes. 58 Page 5.2.1 Unexplained Cases in Mopugad 244 Formal Organization and Process in Werdi Agung. 5.2.2 Unexplained Cases in Werdi Agung 246 5.1 Leadership 6 Summary 249 5.2 Water Distribution Planting Dates, and Operation of the Systems Over Two Planting Seasons . .254 Sanctions 1 Introduction 254 5.3 Membership 1.1 Issues Addressed 254 5.4 System Maintenance 1.2 Relative Water Supply 255 6 Summary . 1.2.1 Definition 255 FOUR Physio-Technical Aspects of the Two Systems. 1.2.2 EWS and Data Collection 259 1 Design Configurations of the Two Systems. 2 Water Balance Analysis 262 2 Water Sources and Water Losses 2.1 Theoretical Relative Water Supply in 2.1 Plot Sources of Water 160 'Mopugad 263 2.2 Percolation and Seepage Rates 174 2.2 Theoretical Relative Water Supply in 3 Terrace Making and Land Preparation 181 Werdi Agung 267 3.1 Terrace Making 181 3 Description of Two Seasons 270 3.2 Land Preparation 189 3.1 Mopugad 270 4 Padi Cultivation and Irrigation . 192 3.1.1 First season 270 5 Summary 197 3.1.2 Second season 273 Dividing the Water: Second Approximation 198 3.2 Werdi Agung 276 1 Introduction 198 3.2.1 First season . 276 2 The Balinese Style of Social Interaction 201 3.2.2 Second season 277 3 Adjusting the Standard Division of Water 204 4 Systematic Implications of Variations in TENS . .282 3.1 The Standard and the Actual Division 204 4.1 Proportion of the System Covered with Water. .282 3.2 Methods for Adjusting the Division of Water. .210 4.2 TRWS and Spatial Variations in Depth of 4 Interactive Environments. , 213 Water Coverage 288 4.1 Location One: Channels A and B in Werdi Agung. .218 4.3 Intensity of Water Allocation Activity 293 5 Relative Water Adequacy and the Spatial 4.2 Location Two: Channel A in Mopugad 219 Implications of Adjustments in the Standard 4.3 Location Three: Channels C and D in Division of Water 305 Werdi Agung. ... .222 5.1 Relative Water Adequacy 305 4.4 Location Four: Upper Section of Main Canal 5.2 Spatial Biases of Observed Adjustments in Mopugad .224 at Channel Division Points 306 4.5 Conflict, Accommodation, and Spatial 5.3 Spatial Biases of Observed Adjustments at Configurations of Justifying Criteria 231 Plot Intakes 313 Relative Patterns of Frequency of Adjusting the Standard Division of Water 232 5.3.1 Mopugad 313 5.1 A Model of Adjusting the Division of Water .
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