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EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING IN THE INFORMATION AGE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Requirements for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Lynne Geissinger Perez
*****
The Ohio State University 1999
Dissertation Committee: Approve Professor Cynthia Uline, Advisor
Professor Brad Mitchell Advisor Professor Phyllis Panzano ^ College of Education DMI Number: 9941407
UMI Microfonn 9941407 Copyright 1999, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Copyright by Lynne Geissinger Perez 1999 ASSTRACl
This individual case study examines the problem-solving practice of an expert
educational administrator and his use of computer technology within that practice. It
aims to understand how the expert finds, creates, interprets, and solves problems, and it
explores the role of intuitive thinking within those processes. The study endeavors to
understand to degree to which the efficiency of the computer, coupled with its capacity to
access information, can assist in the expert's problem solving. And, it seeks to identify
the ways in which this administratofs personal attributes and perceptions about computer
technology influence its acquisition and use.
A qualitative research design and methodology were chosen. Findings indicate
that this expert educational administrator finds and solves problems proactively,
strategically, and collaboratively and employs his intuition as a source of problem-finding and problem-solving information. Further, the study finds that he utilizes his computer
primarily to access and communicate information, to educate self and others, and to cultivate instructional change. Finally, the study reveals a connection between problem solving expertise and the effective acquisition and use of computer technology. Dedicated to Ray,
Ramon, and Christina whose love, support, and encouragement
have always been everything to me
111 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Nearly four years ago, when I began graduate school to earn my masters in educational administration, 1 had no idea of the journey upon which I was about to embark. Assigned a new assistant professor as my advisor, I started classes and settled in as a full time student. Two quarters in to my graduate career, I received a call that changed my life. At the urging of my advisor, I had been invited to attend an informational tea For students interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in education.
Surprised, but intrigued, I attended the tea and the rest, as they say, is history.
Thanks to my advisor. Dr. Cynthia L. Uline, I have achieved a goal 1 never would have thought possible. Her early confidence and her continuing mentorship have been invaluable. Cynthia, thanks for finding me, for encouraging me, and for pushing me.
Thank you for your patience, your kindness, and for all of the time you have invested in my graduate education and my future. And, thank you, Cynthia, for sharing the tools of your professorial craft with me.
To the real Dr. Mark Davidson, I extend my sincere gratitude for sharing your expert practice so generously, humbly, and kindly. You are truly an expert school leader in every sense of the word. I only hope this account of your practice brings you some sense of what you give each day to your students, staff, and school community.
To my committee. Dr. Brad Mitchell and Dr. Phyllis Panzano, thank you for your
IV contribution to my work. I also wish to thank Dr. Helen Marks serving on my candidacy exam committee.
To Dr. Patti Lather, thank you for sharing your expertise in qualitative research. I learned so much from you. The content and delivery of your coursework provided a strong foundation for my work and challenged me to think in ways I never thought possible.
To my cohort, Roger, Joann, Timm, and Nancy, without all of you, that first year might have been my last. You each enriched this experience, otTering support, humor, intellect, and someone to lean on when things got tough. I wish you all the very best.
To my dear friends, Barbara and George Petzelt, thanks for always being there and offering that get-away I needed so often. And, to Sue Brenner, even though we are separated by miles, you always have been one of my biggest supporters. 1 thank you for your friendship and encouragement.
Finally, to Ray, I give my love and gratitude for your unending faith in me.
Always, you encouraged me with love, patience, and support. Without you, this wouldn't have been possible. And, to our children, Ray and Chris, thanks for your love and support. VITA
February 9, 1952 Bom, Coronado, California
1974 B.A. University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO
1985-1995 Teacher, Deer Path Junior High School,
Lake Forest, IL
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Education
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Abstract...... ii Dedication...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv V ita...... vi List of Tables...... xi
CHAPTER 1; INTRODUCTION...... 1 Educational Administration: A Problem-Solving Perspective...... 3 The Work of School Administration...... 5 School Leadership as Problem Solving...... 8 Expert Administrative Problem Solving...... 11 Applying Computer Technology to Administrative Problem Solving...... 16 Purpose of the Study ...... 18 Research Questions...... 18 Basic Assumptions...... 18 Limitations of the Study...... 18 Definition of Term s...... 19
CRAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 21 Leadership of the Educational Organization...... 22 Early Leadership Research...... 22 A Contingency Approach...... 25 School Leadership in Context...... 27 Types o f Leadership...... 29 Transformational Leadership...... 29 Cultural Leadership ...... 31 Leadership as Cognition...... 34 Judgment and Decision Making...... 36 A Cognitive Approach...... 39 Cognitive Perspectives on Problem Solving...... 41 Problem Complexity...... 41 Problem-Solving Processes...... 43
Vll Page Problem-Solving Expertise...... 46 Knowledge...... 48 Expert Processes...... 50 Expert Problem Solving in Educational Administration...... 51 The Origin of Interest...... 52 The Nature of School Problems ...... 53 Central Components of Administrative Problem Solving...... 53 Group Problem-Solving Processes ...... 55 Key Processes in Expert Administrative Problem Solving...... 59 Problem Interpretation by School Administrators...... 59 Values in Educational Problem Solving...... 62 Cognitive Flexibility in Administrative Problem Solving...... 66 Personal Characteristics Associated with Expert Problem Solving...... 68 The Influence of Positive M ood...... 68 Efficacy Beliefs in Problem Solving...... 72 Habits of Self and Collective Reflection...... 76 The Utilization of Computers in Expert Administrative Problem Solving...... 77 Technology in Education...... 78 Computer Technology in Educational Administration...... 81 Administrative Technological Competencies...... 85 Administrative Perceptions...... 88 Educational Administrative Computer Use: A Grounded Theory...... 91 Problem Finding...... 91 Intuition...... 95 Conclusions and Implications...... 99
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY...... 102 Research Design as Informed by a Pre-Pilot Study...... 102 Delineation of the C ase...... 105 Gaining Access...... 105 Data Collection...... 107 Interviews...... 107 Observation...... 109 Grounded Survey...... Ill Document Analysis...... 112 Researcher as Instrument...... 113 Data Analysis, Interpretation, and Representation...... 114 Trustworthiness...... 115 Credibility...... 115 Prolonged Engagement...... 116 Persistent Observation...... 116 Negative Case Analysis...... 116 Triangulation...... 116
viii Page Member Checks ...... 117 Transferability...... 117 Dependabilit}’...... 119 Confirmability...... 120 Ethics...... 121 Significance of the Study...... 121
CHAPTER 4: QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION Administrative Problem Solving as Craftsmanship...... 123 The Craftsman...... 124 Materials of the C raft...... 126 The District...... 128 The School...... 129 The Staff...... 131 The Students...... 133 The Community...... 135 Tools of the Trade...... 135 Gathering and Using Information...... 137 Observing...... 139 Listening...... 141 Inquiring...... 142 Reading...... 144 Intuiting...... 145 Thinking...... 149 Analyzing and Synthesizing...... 150 Strategizing...... 152 Forecasting...... 159 Reflecting...... 161 Communicating...... 166 Verbal...... 168 W ritten...... 171 Non-verbal...... 171 Educating...... 178 Building Relationships...... 188 Relationships with School-Community Members...... 187 Alliances Between and Among School-Community Members...... 189 Connections Between Organizational Members and School...... 192 Cultivating Change...... 196 Collaborating...... 201 Problem Solving...... 203 Shared Leadership...... 213
IX Page The Computer; An External Tool of the Trade...... 219 Gathering and Managing Information...... 228 Thinking...... 230 Communicating...... 231 Educating ...... 235 Cultivating Change...... 237 Conclusion...... 239
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION...... 240 The Study of a Craftsman...... 241 How does this administrator find and solve problems?...... 241 What is the role of intuition in his problem solving and problem finding? 247 How does this administrator use computer technology to support his problem solving and problem finding?...... 248 How do this administratofs personal attributes and perceptions about computer technology influence its acquisition and use?...... 249 Implications for Leadership Preparation...... 252 Foci for Future Research ...... 257 Conclusion...... 260
Appendix A Pilot Interview Protocol...... 262 Appendix B Letter to Staff...... 266 Appendix C Semi-Structured Interview Protocol...... 268 Appendix D Final Questions...... 270 Appendix E Department Chairperson Interview Protocol...... 274 Appendix F Administrative Team Interview Protocol...... 276 Appendix G Obser\ation Guide...... 278 Appendix H Staff Survey...... 280 Appendix I Consent Form...... 285 Appendix J Survey Results ...... 287
Bibliography...... 292 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Expert leadership lies at the heart of educational excellence. Such leadership calls on the educational administrator to effectively manage the operations of the school as well as provide visionary leadership for the organization. For those who view educational leadership as decision making and problem solving, the problem-solving process is the vehicle by which educational administrators steer their organizations toward excellence. With this said, the administrator's ability to understand and solve problems of practice determines how successfully the educational organization will negotiate the course o f reform and school improvement.
Problem solving in the context of educational organizations requires the leader to discriminate amongst competing and often limitless information sources. The environment of the school organization "is complex and presents the administrator with a continuous stream of stimuli . . ." (Greenfield, 1995, p. 79). Moreover, as education advances into the information age, the emphasis on data-based decision making in schools will encourage the increased flow of facts and figures. “It is no longer a lack of information that is an impediment; rather it is the abundance of information ...that makes the decision process more and more challenging” (Uline, 1996, p. 29). Given the primacy of information within the problem-solving process, how are administrative problem solvers to identify meaningful information and utilize it so as to arrive at elegant
and efficacious solutions?
Informât:cn-age technology offers educational problem solvers quick access to
pertinent data and the tools with which to retrieve, manage, and report it. Scholars of
educational administration acknowledge "the pervasiveness of computer use in support of
administration of schools" (Kearsley & Lynch, 1994, p. 43). Researchers in the field
have identified required competencies (e.g. Kearsley, 1988), discussed beneficial
computer applications (e.g., Bozeman, Raucher, & Spuck, 1991), explored the
relationship between self-efficacy and administrative computer use (e.g., Jorde-Bloom,
1988; Nash & Moroz, 1997), and analyzed computer training programs for school
administrators (e.g., Spuck & Bozeman, 1991). However, scant research investigates the
role of computer technology within the problem-solving practices of educational
administrators. Does the computer promote problem finding and problem solving within the realm of educational leadership? To what extent does the efficiency of the computer coupled with its capacity to access information assist in generating solutions to the problems administrators face? Are administrators using computers to create knowledge
from information in the name of school improvement? In what ways might computer technology serve as a vehicle for communication and collective problem solving?
This study explores the utilization of computer technology within the problem solving practice of an educational leader. It aims to understand the degree to which the efficiency of the computer, coupled with its capacity to access information, assists in generating better solutions to the problems administrators face. Said simply, this research asks if computers in the hands of expert administrative problem solvers move us closer to educational excellence.
Educational Administration: A Problem-Solving Perspective
Notions of school leadership abound. The theory positions leadership as the
property of an individual and the process of an organization (Hoy & Miskel, 1996); as the
aggregation of specific attributes, behaviors, and skills; and as the application of effective
strategies, models, or styles. Scholars who study leadership as an individual quality tend
to focus their attention on the “traits of leaders, characteristics of the leadership situation,
behaviors of the leaders, and effectiveness of the leader” (p. 376). Such a perception of
leadership grows out of the traditional, technical-rational theory of organizations wherein
individual leaders function to influence "organizational performance and goal attainment"
(Ogawa & Bossert, 1995, p. 233). Within this framework, a variety of leadership styles or strategies (hierarchical, transactional, transformational, and facilitative) may be applied dependent upon the leader's conception of self, his or her followers, and the organizational setting (Smith& Piele, 1997).
For those who study leadership as an organizational quality, leadership becomes a systemic characteristic - a social transaction that “flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations” (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995, p. 225). This conception of leadership adopts an institutional conception of organizations which emphasizes the impact of externally enforced societal rules or theories on organizational structure and explains effective leadership as "social legitimacy and organizational survival" (p. 233).
Embedded within many definitions, theories, and models of leadership is recognition of the importance of organizational context. Whether characterized as culture, clientele, or structure, the context in which leadership occurs mediates the "activities, processes, and effects" of this leadership (Greenfield, 1995, p. 78). Recently, scholars of educational administration have acknowledged the lack of fit between traditional leadership theories, as imported from organizational literature, and the unique context cf school leadership (Duke, 1998; Johnston, 1996: Greenfield, 1995; Sergiovanni,
1996). Greenfield (1995) suggests that
the moral character of the school as an institution, the presence in the school of a highly educated, autonomous, and practically permanent teacher workforce, and a school milieu characterized by continuous and impredictable threats to its stability distinguish the environment of school leadership from that o f other nonschool contexts (p. 62).
Past and current leadership theories contribute to our understanding of educational administration. However, their limited capacity to effectively model leadership in the school milieu implies the need to search for more suitable ways of thinking about school leadership. Sergiovanni ( 1996) contends that, "it is not likely that much progress will be made over time in improving schools unless we accept the reality that leadership for the schoolhouse should be different, and unless we begin to invent our own practice" (p. xiv).
A problem-solving perspective on educational administration locates school leadership within the context of day-to-day practice, offering a practical conceptualization of the work of school leaders. Such a problem-solving, or inquiry- based notion of leadership draws on Dewey's (1938) theory of inquiry. Willower ( 1994) defines Dewey an inquiry as the process of responding to a problem by thinking through, trying out, and reflecting upon possible courses of action. Leadership as inquiry "begins with an indeterminate, problematic situation, ...whose inherent conflict, obscurity, or confusion blocks action," and it positions the leader "within the situation of action, seeking actively to understand and change it" (Argyris & Schon, 1996, p.30-31). Scholars and practitioners alike recognize that problems exist across the educational landscape. Problem situations emerge naturally from the interrelated "moral, social/interpersonal, instructional, managerial, and political dimensions of the school environment" (Greenfield, 1995, p. 67). According to Argyris and Schon (1996), the appearance of problems compels inquiring leaders to position themselves squarely within problematic situations. The leader's presence as active problem solver and problem finder informs and focuses all other dimensions of school leadership. Furthermore, such a framework facilitates an understanding of leadership within a community of inquiry where problem solving is a social process carried out individually as well as collectively by members of the school community (Argyris & Schon, 1996). Thus, a problem-solving perspective moves us closer to understanding the particular work of school administration.
The Work of School Administration
Increasingly, definitions of school administration acknowledge salient differences between the duties of leadership and those of management. Welte (as cited in Smith &
Piele, 1997) defines management as "the mental and physical effort to coordinate diverse activities to achieve desired results [including] planning, organization, staffing, directing, and controlling" (p. 1). In contrast, leadership has been described as "a complex set of influence processes and activities undertaken to improve a school's effectiveness through voluntary changes in the preferences of others" (Greenfield, 1995, p. 62). Such influence is grounded in the leader’s competency, integrity, morality, values, and ethics
(Greenfield, 1995; Heslop, 1997; Lashway, 1997 Sergiovanni, 1996; Smith & Piele,
1997; Willower, 1994). Although most scholars contend that educational administrators are both leaders and managers, increasingly they assert that the complex environment of school administration, coupled with the growing demand for systemic school reform, necessitate an increased emphasis on leadership.
Much of what passes for leadership in schools Is really management. This should come as no surprise, because school administrators are trained primarily as managers, not leaders. Schools do need to comply with laws, establish consistent policies and procedures, and operate efficiently and on-budget. But schools also need, in the words of Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal, "purpose, passion, and imagination" - the products of a leader. "Particularly in times of crisis or rapid change," they say, "we look, to leaders, not to managers, for hope, inspiration, and a pathway to somewhere more desirable." (Smith & Piele, 1997, p. 3)
Greenfield (1995) also argues for "the centrality of leadership" (p. 80). He submits that the "highly normative/moral character of the school" coupled with "the vulnerability of the administrator and the school" to internal and external pressures make leadership "critical to the administration of a school" (p. 80)
Clearly, the changing context of school administration calls for a new understanding of leadership. Behar-Horenstein and Amatea (1996) contend that "schools need an organizational structure that can adapt to changing mores and beliefs and diverse needs" (p 31). As schools move toward "broadened ownership of the leadership process," administrators will need to develop organizational structures "in which management and control are based on shared authority, ...rather than administrative mandate" (p. 31)
Recently, scholars, practitioners, and the representatives of six nationally based school improvement programs (Foxfire, Accelerated Schools, The League of Professional
Schools, Impact II, The Coalition of Essential Schools, and the Center for Educational Research), gathered to discuss how our conception of school reform shapes our understanding of educational leadership. From th«*»r discussion emerged three dimensions of leadership: determining and maintaining educational direction, fostering community development, and facilitating individual and organizational growth (Clark &
Clark, 1996).
These dimensions seem to imply that the effective school administrator functions in much the same manner as an effective mentor. Leaders define, foster, and sustain the growth within a school community in the same way a good teacher facilitates student learning within a classroom. Sergiovanni (1996) calls this "leadership as pedagogy" (p.
92). Pedagogical leadership draws on the Greek notion of pedagogy which "had associated with it the meaning ofleading," or accompanying and living with the learner so as to provide "a sense of protection, direction and orientation" (van Manen, cited in
Sergiovanni, p. 93). Such a conception reframes the leader as teacher, guiding organizational success through individual and group development. Selznick (1957) puts it this way:
It has been well said that the effective leader must know the meaning and master the techniques of the educator. As in the larger community, education is more than narrow technical training; through it does not shrink from indoctrination, it also teaches [individuals] to think for themselves. The leader as educator requires an ability to interpret the role and character of the enterprise, to perceive and develop models for thought and behavior, and to find modes of communication that will inculcate general rather than merely partial perspectives, (pp. 149-150)
When viewed as pedagogy, leadership nurtures the cognitive, social/interpersonal, and moral growth of individual members and the collective school community. It fosters a school culture focused on learning, inquiry, and the construction of knowledge.
Ultimately, pedagogical leadership engages the school community in problem finding and problem solving on behalf of school improvement.
Mobilizing people to tackle tough problems is at the heart of leadership. ...[It] connotes motivating, organizing, orienting, and focusing attention on problems, and problem solving. Mobilizing the school community on behalf of problem solving is practicing leadership in the form of pedagogy" (Sergiovanni. 1996, p. 95).
Bifurcating the work of school administration helps to clarify the nature of the
practice. In particular, it highlights the need for administrators to rely more extensively
on leadership than management (Greenfield, 1995). As suggested earlier, leadership behavior emanates from the administrator’s competence, values, and beliefs. When
administrators exercise their leadership, they draw on these and other personal qualities
to effectively address emerging issues (Greenfield, 1995).
Personal qualities determine the response of a principal to the presented problem. They shape as well one's inclination and ability to conceptualize situations as problematic, to interpret the meaning of their work world as they experience it, and to respond accordingly. (Greenfield, 1995, p. 76-77)
According to this statement, the way in which leaders conceptualize and interpret
information directly influences how they respond. Said in another way, "what
administrators do depends on what they think - their overt behaviors are the result of
covert thought processes" (Leithwood & Hallinger, 1993, pp. 298-299). When we view thinking as problem solving, such a perspective on leadership focuses new attention on the problem solving processes of educational administrators.
School Leadership as Problem Solving
Explicit across the literature is the function of problem solving in school administration. Scholars identify specific instances of problem solving within the work of effective administration (Cuban, 1996; Leithwood 1995; Leithwood & Stager, 1989; Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995; Osterman, 1993). There are frequent references to the application of problem-solving-related skills across administrative tasks. For example,
Greenfield's (1995) so-called "demand environment of school administration," as described by a "continuously changing array of moral, social/interpersonal, instructional, managerial, and political role demands," (p. 80) suggests the need for leaders with strong problem-solving skills.
The school's demand environment, by its nature, places the school administrator in a reactive posture. From the administrator's point of view, the question becomes not whether to address the present "problem" but, rather, how to respond, when to respond, and who to involve, (p. 80)
Likewise, Cuban's (1997) account of "the deeply-rooted value conflicts" (p. 16) engrained in the practice of educational administration alludes to the potential for ill- defined problems. Greenfield (1995) explains:
School participants differ in the values they attach to the means and ends of schooling, teaching, learning, managing, and social relations within the school and between the school and community. ... [As a result], much of the work of the administrator requires normative judgments regarding the decisions and obligations shaping the fabric of school life. (p. 68)
Clearly, the practice of school administration is "a complex and contingent act requiring sensitivity to a broad and ultimately unpredictable host of contextual elements"
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 7). There is no one definition, theory, or framework that summarily captures the nature of school administration. However, when considering the body of research, a common cognitive thread runs throughout. Cognition, the "generic term for any process whereby an organism becomes aware or obtains knowledge . . .," includes such skills as "perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, reasoning ...[and] sensing" (Snow, Como, & Jackson, 1996. p.243). Researchers who discuss new competencies for school administrators identity as key the leader's ability to "look ahead
and see the big picture while noticing the relationships between certain events and their
consequences, ...to read and anticipate environmental and social change, ..." and "to
refirame problem areas" such that problems become potential opportunities (Behar-
Horenstein & Amatea, 1996, p. 32). Such competencies rely upon strong cognitive skills.
Further, Bolman and Deal (1992) suggest that "how leaders think and how they
frame their experience" influence their effectiveness as leaders and managers (p. 315).
When interpreting and responding to a given situation, Bolman and Deal ( 1992) posit that
leaders use one, or a combination of, four frames: structural, human resource, political,
and symbolic. They argue that because leadership is contextual, the ability of a leader to
correctly frame a situation directly relates to his or her effectiveness.
The capacity to reframe is a critical issue in success as both a manager and a leader. In a world of increasing ambiguity and complexity, we believe that the ability to use more than one frame increases an individual's ability to make clear judgments and to act effectively" (p. 513)
This implicit focus on leader perception, reasoning, and judgment suggests that
examining school administration from a cognitive perspective might prove both useful
and enriching. According to Leithwood and Steinbach (1995), "cognitive science
perspectives offer important and unique insights about the nature of expert administrative practice, how it develops, and what can be done to assist in that development" (p. 7).
At the core of this perspective lies the nature and function of expertise. Here, expertise is defined as: "(a) the possession of a complex knowledge and skill; (b) its
reliable application in actions intended to accomplish generally endorsed goal states; and
(c) a record of goal accomplishment, as a consequence of those actions" (Leithwood &
10 Steinbach, 1995, p. 13). A cognitive approach "redefines expertise or effectiveness in terms of problem-solving processes rather than behaviors" (p. 6), and it distinguishes internal processes, or problem solving, as "the lens through which all external processes must be interpreted" (Lcilhwood, 1995, p. 117).
Cognitive orientations toward problem solving devote considerable attention to the concept of "expertise" and the patterns of thought that distinguish between those who possess high levels of expertise and others. Expertise is associated with both effective and efficient problem solving within a particular domain of activity (like leading school). (Leithwood, 1995, p. 119)
The study of administrative practice as problem solving addresses not only the cognitive side of leadership, but the practical side as well. Our earlier discussion offers several examples of the salience and function of problem solving in administrative practice (Cuban, 1997; Greenfield, 1995; Leithwood, 1995; Leithwood & Stager, 1989;
Leithwood &. Steinbach, 1995; Sergiovanni, 1996). Likewise, we underscore the necessary balance between management and leadership within such practice. Problems provide rich context for exploring this blending of narrow procedure with broader purpose, efficiency with creativity, reason with passion. Consequently, the natural occurrence of problems and their capacity to reveal administrative thinking and behavior make problem solving a useful context in which to explore effective educational administration.
Expert Administrative Problem Solving
An emerging line of cognitive-based inquiry by Leithwood and his colleagues
(Leithwood & Stager, 1989; Leithwood, 1993; Leithwood, 1995; Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995) seeks to understand the relationship between administrative expertise and problem-solving effectiveness. Leithwood (1995) conceptualizes school leaders as
11 "problem solvers and problem finders with varying levels o f expertise" (p. 118). From this viewpoint, Leith wood and colleagues have identified the problems faced by school administrators, the individual and group problem-solving processes employed, the role of values and affect in problem solving, and the differences between expert and typical problem solvers (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Leithwood's work suggests that the problems school administrators encounter most frequently fall in one of four categories; teachers, school routines, students, and parents (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). More significant, perhaps, is that the majority of problems encountered are considered nonroutine. Nonroutine problems are those "ill- structured" problems requiring a higher level of knowledge, skill, and thought on the part of the problem solver. The existence of such a significant proportion of nonroutine problems implies a more cognitively demanding work environment in which
"administrative problem-solving capacities would be much more likely to influence administrative effectiveness than in one that was less demanding" (p. 23). Concurrently, acknowledging the prominence of problem solving among administrative tasks suggests a necessary emphasis on the administrator's knowledge acquisition.
Leithwood and colleagues (Leithwood & Stager, 1989; Leithwood & Steinbach,
1990) were interested in advancing their understanding school administrators' problem solving processes and "the nature and extent of differences in such processes between highly expert and more typical principals ' (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 38).
Towards this end, they developed a problem-solving framework grounded in their research with individual school principals and superintendents. The framework is comprised of five elements of the problem-solving process: interpretation, goal setting,
12 principles/values, constraints, and solution processes. Using these elements to analyze
the principals' responses to problems, Leithwood and colleagues (1989, 1990) found
evidence to suggest that experts, when compared with nonexperts, demonstrate
• a greater ability to interpret ill-structured problems clearly and comprehensively and
in such a way as to more readily arrive at their solutions;
• a greater ability to pursue a wider array of goals and were more concerned than
nonexperts with knowledge as distinct from emotions;
• a greater ability to view constraints merely as issues to be considered during problem
solving;
• and, a greater tendency to devote more effort to planning for the solution process by
delineating more detailed procedures, collaborating with others about the solution,
and carefully collecting pertinent information (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Later research by these scholars revealed the predominance of values in the problem solving of administrators, especially in the case of experts (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995).
A clear sense of their own personal and professional values provides expert administrators with the means to productively engage in solving problems about which they may have relatively little domain-specific knowledge. ... In such cases, a clear tmderstanding of one's own values, the values of others with a stake in the problem, and how to resolve value conflicts productively is the domain-specific knowledge required for expert problem solving. (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 312)
Having gained a clearer understanding of the problem-solving processes of individual administrators, Leithwood turned his attention to problem solving as a collective endeavor. Through the filter of transformational leadership, Leithwood and
Steinbach (1990) studied "the extent and nature of differences between expert and typical
13 principals' processes for solving problems with their staffs" and the impact of those differences on schools (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 95). Transformational leadership "occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of [followers], when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their [followers] to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group" (Bass, 1990, p. 629).
Drawing on the tenets of transformational leadership, Leithwood and Steinbach
(1995) found that, when solving problems in groups, "expert principals were open- minded, honest, careful, attentive to the group's needs, and attentive to their thinking"
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 117). Furthermore, when applying the aforementioned elements of problem solving, the findings suggested that the expert "seeks out and takes into account the interpretation of others," ...has a "strong concern for the development of goals both the principal and staff can agreeto,".. "accurately anticipates obstacles likely to arise during group problem solving," and "carefully checks collaborators' interpretations of problem and own assumptions" (pp. 103-104). Taken together, these findings seem to reflect, once again, that school administration is a decidedly cognitive endeavor. Additionally, in keeping with Bass's (1990) definition of transformational leadership, the findings seem to imply the need for administrators who "pay close attention to the difference among their employees, ...act as mentors to those who need help to grow and develop,. . .[and] intellectually stimulate employees ' (p. 629).
Another outgrowth of this research was the addition of a sixth element to
Leithwood's (1989, 1990) grounded framework of administrative problem solving: affect or mood. "Affect is defined as the feelings, mood, and sense of self-confidence the
14 principal experiences when involved in problem solving" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995,
p. 95). Leithwood's work on the influence of affect indicates that "the normally calm affective states of experts in the face of ill-structured problems" may partially account for their "flexible and reasonably error-free" problem solving (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995,
p. 313). Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) attribute such mood states to "the sense of self- efficacy that expert administrators have acquired from successful experiences and by
learning from their failures" (p. 313). This being so, perceived self-efficacy, or "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective situations" (Bandura, 1995, p. 2), looms large within problem-solving expertise.
"The complexity of school problems and the volume of knowledge on which school administrators must draw in search of new perspectives and solutions [is] increasing" (Hart, 1993, p. 339). As a result, it is becoming particularly important that we improve the thinking and problem-solving abilities of our leaders. Such improvement comes from understanding the problems educational administrators face, the environment in which they must be solved, and the cognitive processes educational leaders apply to find and solve these problems. For over a decade, Leithwood and his colleagues ( 1986,
1989, 1990, 1993, 1995) have focused their attention on the development of administrative expertise as problem solving This study seeks to extend this work by- exploring in-depth the problem solving of one, expert school administrator. It also aims to understand the expert problem solver's utilization of computer technology within his practice. Hence, let us turn briefly to use of computer technology in administrative practice.
15 Applying Computer Technology to Administrative Problem Solving
As mentioned earlier, udminislntlion of the educational organization dfmands
dual roles, manager and leader. When asked to manage, the administrator attends to "all technical aspects of the administrator’s work associated with day-to-day planning,
coordination, control, and operations of the school in support of the instructional program
and associated school goals" (Greenfield, 1995, p. 71). When asked to lead, the
administrator moves to "reconceptualize organizational structures and relationships and to mobilize and sustain collective social action" (Johnston, 1996, p. 214-215).
Both roles require information and the ability to make sense of it. For nearly fifty years, educational administrators have utilized some form of computer technology to aid
in the business administration of their schools. Clearly, the administrator-as-manager recognizes the computer as a valuable tool with which to access, process, and store
information. However, does the computer hold the same promise for the administrator- as-leader, where practice moves beyond the mere management of fact? Can computer technology foster the creation and communication of knowledge about instruction, curriculum, student learning, and student achievement?
Certainly, applications such as word processing and desktop publishing offer administrators timesaving tools with which to correspond. We know that currently a number of school districts are implementing electronic mail as a way of establishing and encouraging timely communication among staff and between school and home. Yet,
what of the computer's capacity to support administrative thinking, thinking that leads to effective decisions and elegant solutions?
16 Bozeman and Spuck (1994) predict that "the use of computer technology as a
decision support tool will be the new wave of technological applications in education.
By the turn of the century, a principal using a computer to diagnose and resolve student
instructional problems could be as commonplace as today’s accountant usmg a calculator
or personal computer" (p. 49). Is their prediction becoming a reality? Are school leaders
beginning to use the computer as a problem-solving tool?
As a precursor to this dissertation study, a qualitative interview pilot study of
eleven, public school administrators was undertaken to explore how school
administrators utilize computer technology to identify and solve problems (see Chapter 3
for details of the study). The data from the study seem to indicate that these
administrators use the computer primarily to access student information and to compose
written communication. Also among the data are numerous references to the importance
of information when finding and solving problems and the use computer technology as a
tool for accessing, storing, and reporting such information.
According to these administrators, an important source of information upon which
they rely is their own intuition. Intuition, or the integration of both factual and feeling
cues (Agor, 1986), was mentioned in the context of problem finding, refocusing attention
on the function of cognition and on the prominence of problem identification within the
problem-solving process. In the context of administrative computer use, the reference to
intuition begs the question if expert administrative problem solving involves intuitive thinking, what is the capacity of computer technology to support it?
17 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research is to explore the problem-solving practice of an expert educational administrator and his utilization of computer technology within that practice.
Research Questions
How does this administrator find and solve problems? What is the role of intuition and creative thinking in his problem finding and problem solving? To what extent does he utilize computer technology to support problem finding and problem solving? In what ways do this administrator's personal attributes and perceptions about computer technology influence its acquisition and use?
Basic Assumptions
This case study assumes a qualitative approach to research that endeavors to understand, describe, discover, and generate hypotheses about the nature of the case
(Merriam, 1988). This study also posits knowledge as a construction of personal interaction and perception, through which "beliefs rather than facts are the basis of perception" (p. 17). It assumes "that meaning is embedded in people’s experiences and mediated through the investigator's own perceptions" (p. 19).
Limitations of the Study
The individual case study, although "a comprehensive research strategy" (Yin,
1994, p. 13), poses certain limitations. First, this study reports one case among many; therefore, generalizations should be made with caution. Also, no case study accesses or reports the whole story. The case is bounded by time, by the questions asked or not asked, by what is observed and not observed, by the responses given and not given, and
18 by the researcher's experience with and interpretation of the case. Concurrently, in the words of Stake ( 1994):
It is the researcher who decides what is the case's own story, or at least what of the case's own story he or she will report. More will be pursued than was volunteered. Less will be reported than was learned. ...This is not to dismiss the aim of finding the story that best represents the case, but to remind that the criteria of representation ultimately are decided by the researcher, (p. 240)
Definition of Terms decision - A decision is the act or process of arriving at a solution that ends uncertainty or dispute. It is the act of making a choice or judgment. (Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1985) decision making - Decision making is a category of problem solving. It involves finding and attending to problems, thinking about (inventing) solutions, and evaluating and choosing among solutions (Simon, 1993). expert - "Experts, as compared with novices: (1) are better able to regulate their own problem-solving processes; ...(2) possess more problem-relevant information; ...(3) represent problems using more abstract categories and with reference to more basic principals; ...(4) identify and possess more complex goals for problem solving and goals related to action plans; ... (5) spend more time at the beginning planning their initial overall strategies, are more flexible, opportunistic planners during problem solving, and are able to use a greater variety of approaches to a solution; ...(6) have automated many recurring sequences of problem-solving activity; and ... (7) are more sensitive to the task demands and social contexts within which problems are to be solved" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 41). expertise - Expertise is "(a) the possession of complex knowledge and skill; (b) its reliable application in actions intended to accomplish generally endorsed goal states; and (c) a record of goal accomplishment, as a consequence of those actions, which meets standards appropriate to the occupation or field of practice, as judged by clients or other experts in the field" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 13). information - Information is facts and data (Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1985). intuition - Intuition is "immediate apprehension or cognition." It is "the power or faculty of attaining to direct knowledge or cognition without evident rational thought and inference" (Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1985) knowledge - Knowledge is "structures of information and processes that recognize and construct patterns of symbols in order tc understand concepts and to exhibit general 19 abilities such as reasoning, solving problems, and using and understanding language" (Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996, p. 18) problem - "A problem is said to exist whenever there is a gap between where the solver is (current state) and where she or he wants to be (goal state)" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995,p. 9, citing Gagne, 1985; Hayes, 1981)
routine - A routine problem exists "when both states are clearly known and the procedures to follow (or operators) to get from one to the other are also known" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 121).
well-structured - A well-structured problem is "clearly presented, with all information needed at hand, and an appropriate algorithm guaranteeing a correct solution" (Fredrickson, 1984, as cited in Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 40)
ill-structured - An ill-structured problem occurs when there is a lack of knowledge about any three elements in the problem space (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
knowledge lean - Knowledge lean problems are "novel situations where specialized knowledge and skill are not required" (Glaser, 1984; Simon, 1975, as cited Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 40). problem finding - Problem finding involves "those activities, processes, and events which precede the solving of a clearly posed problem" (Dillon, 1982, p. 102). problem solving - Problem solving is the process of identifying effective solutions to bridge the gap between the current state and the desired state (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). schema - A schema is "a modifiable information structure that represents generic concepts stored in memory" (Glaser, 1984, p. 100). schemata - Schemata are "prototypes in memory of frequently experienced situations that individuals use to interpret instances of related knowledge" (Glaser, 1984, p. 100). self-efficacy - Self-efficacy consists of "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations" (Bandura, 1995, p. 2). value - A value is "an enduring belief about the desirability of some means or end; and once internalized, a value also becomes a standard or criterion for guiding one's actions and thought, for influencing the actions and thoughts of other, and for morally judging oneself and others" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 177).
20 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Understanding computer use in educational administrative problem solving requires the integration of a number of related topics. This review begins with a look at the literature surrounding organizational and educational leadership. From this discussion emerges a description of the work and context of school leadership as it reflects the relevance of a problem-solving perspective. Transformational leadership and cultural leadership are examined briefly. The review then focuses on leadership as cognition, with attention to the literature surrounding judgment and decision making and the evolution of cognitive science as it emphasizes problem-solving research. Salient constructs such as expertise and knowledge are brought to the fore. Next, the discussion converges on expert problem solving in school administration. The nature of school problems, components of problem solving, group problem solving, and key processes of expert problem solving are considered. Furthermore, personal characteristics of expert problem solvers such as self-efficacy and reflective practice are explored. The review then turns to the literature regarding instructional and administrative use of computer technology. Finally, as indicated by the results of a pre-pilot study on the administrative use of computers, the role of problem finding and intuition within the problem-solving process is examined. In closing, pertinent conclusions and implications are drawn.
21 Leadership of the Educational Organization
School leaders make a difference. 1 heir beliefs and actions influence the course of educational improvement. For this reason, scholars across domains have generated a voluminous literature on the nature and work of leadership, seeking to understand the person, the values, the structure, and the skills of this elusive construct (Smith & Piele,
1997). Leadership has been studied as specific traits (e.g., Stogdill, 1948; Yukl, 1981,
1994), behaviors (e.g., Mintzberg, 1973), and styles (e.g., Bass, 1990, Bums, 1978;
Fiedler, 1967; Yukl, 1981). It has been explored from ethical (e.g.. Lashway, 1996a), visionary (e.g., Argyris & Schon, 1996; Lashway, 1996b), cultural (e.g.. Deal & Peterson,
1999; Sergiovanni, 1996), situational (e.g., Fiedler, 1967; Katz & Kahn, 1978), and organizational (e.g., Ogawa & Bossert, 1995) perspectives. Although a detailed account of the leadership literature is not within the scope of this review, the review scans the literature for that which informs our understanding of educational administrators as problem solvers.
Earlv Leadership Research
In many ways, the study of educational administration has paralleled the broader field of organizational administration. From 1910 through 1930, the principles of scientific management, as explicated by Frederick Taylor, dominated scholarly inquiry
(Hoy & Miskel, 1996). Early notions of organizational leadership were grounded in traditional assumptions about the superiority of management.
The manager was capable of a scientific understanding of tasks and of effective decision making. Workers were assumed to have different values and motives, to be potential shirkers and opportunists, ... [and] were motivated entirely by financial rewards" (Miles & Creed, 1995, p. 338-339).
9") From this perspective, organizational leaders were required to closely supervise and control the workers, break down tasks into repetitive and easily learned operations, and establish and enforce regular work routines and procedures (Miles & Creed, 1995).
Successful leaders were perceived as those individuals whose innate, superior abilities, and position at the top of the organizational hierarchy, enabled them to influence subordinates to achieve organizational goals (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995) Accordingly, early leadership research aimed to identify the traits that differentiated leaders from other group members (Hoy & Miskel, 1996; Ogawa & Bossert, 1995). Researchers studied such traits as physical characteristics, personality factors, intelligence, interpersonal competence, and charisma, looking for indicators of leader effectiveness (Hoy & Miskel,
1996).
During the 1940s, partly in response to the Hawthorne studies' revelations about the importance of social relationships within work groups, the study of leadership shifted to the human elements of administration. New assumptions emerged about the
"humanity" of workers (Miles & Creed, 1995, p. 339). These assumptions argued that workers were motivated by social as well as economic factors and that treating workers
"as appendages to machines would lead to poor morale, resistance to authority, and inefficiency" (p. 339). As a result, informal and interpersonal relations were viewed as most significant in organizational activities, and research began to focus on the leader's capability to foster "employee motivation and satisfaction and group morale" (Hoy &
Miskel, 1996, p. 15).
In contrast with earlier assertions that a person becomes a leader due to the possession of some mixture of traits, new evidence emerged that questioned the viability
23 of the trait approach. In particular, StogdiH's (1948) review and subsequent classification of leadership factors revealed that "the leader's traits must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics of the followers" (Bass, 1981, p. 29). This finding suggested for the first time that effective leaders behave according to situational conditions (e.g., interpersonal relationships, organizational goals, and the characteristics of subordinates).
As a result, inquiry changed its focus from the "comparison of leaders and nonleaders" to understanding "the relationship between leader traits and leader elTectiveness" in particular situations (Hoy & Miskel, 1996, p. 378). Stogdill's 1970 review of trait research revealed that the most frequently identified factors included "social and interpersonal skills, technical skills, administrative skills, intellectual skills, leadership effectiveness and achievement, social nearness, friendliness, group task supportiveness, and take motivation and application" (Bass, 1981, p. 89).
Proceeding apace with trait research, the behavior approach to studying leadership concentrated on identifying differences in behavior patterns between effective and ineffective leaders (Yukl, 1981). Some of the most significant leader behavior studies occurred in the late 1940s at the Ohio State University, where researchers developed and revised the leader behavior description questionnaire (LBDQ) (Yukl, 1981). Researchers designed the LBDQ to measure two fundamental dimensions of effective leadership:
"initiating structure and consideration" (Hoy & Miskel, 1996, p. 382). These studies found that effective leaders frequently demonstrated behaviors consistent with establishing structure across the organization and consistent with friendship, trust, consideration, and respect. Although subsequent LBDQ studies confirmed the salience of both dimensions, they also revealed that "situational variables apparently affect the
24 relationship between consideration and initiating structure and affect the criteria of
organizational effectiveness as well" (p. 384). Similar to the research on leader traits,
these findings emphasized the influence of a given situation on leadership.
Other studies on leader behavior aimed to understand and delineate typical
managerial work. Through the use of diaries, continuous observation, questionnaires, and the collection of critical incidents, researchers catalogued managerial activity (Yukl,
1981). Mintzberg’s (1973) research concluded that managers typically participate in a great variety o f activities, perform their work "at an unrelenting pace," are frequently
interrupted, lack time for reflection, spend a majority of their time communicating orally, and interact more frequently with their subordinates than with their bosses (Yukl, 1981, p. 96-98). To enhance the developing conception of managerial behavior, Mintzberg
(1973) identified ten managerial roles that accounted for all of the activities he had observed; figurehead, leader, liaison, monitor, disseminator, spokesperson, entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator (Yukl, 1981).
A Contingencv Approach
Perhaps the most significant theoretical outgrowth of trait and behavior research was the contingency approach to leadership. Evidence from both research approaches confirmed the situational contingencies of effective leadership as scholars recognized that traits and behaviors emerged not in isolation but as the result of interaction with certain situational variables. The contingency approach maintains that "leadership performance depends as much on the organization as it depends upon the leader's own attributes"
(Fiedler, 1967, p. 261). Consequently, contingency models aim to identify the situational
25 conditions that mediate the interaction of traits, behaviors, and outcomes (Hoy & Miskel,
1996).
Fiedler's (1967) contingency model presented a theory of leadership that addressed the leader’s personality as well as the leadership situation. This theory attempted to "specify in more precise terms the conditions under which one leadership style or another will be more conducive to group effectiveness" (Fiedler, 1967, p. 261 ).
According to Fiedler ( 1967):
Leadership performance depends ...as much on the organization as it depends upon the leader's own attributes. Except perhaps for the unusual case, it is simply not meaningful to speak of an effective leader or of an ineffective leader, we can only speak of a leader who tends to be effective in one situation and ineffective in another. If we wish to increase organizational and group effectiveness we must leam not only how to train leaders more effectively but also how to build an organizational environment in which the leader can perform well. (p. 261)
Clearly, the work of Fiedler and others regarding the situational imperatives of leadership has contributed to our developing conception of the organizational environment. However, where early definitions of the educational environment were limited to the internal operations of the school, current definitions reach beyond the walls of the schoolhouse encompassing a broader and more complex environment. Scholars of educational administration describe an environment unlike that of other organizations, an environment bound by moral obligation and vulnerable to external threats (Greenfield,
1995). Greenfield (1995) argues that "scholarship in educational administration tends to accept theories developed in nonschool contexts, ...and although many of those ideas are useful, they are very abstract and are not context sensitive" (p. 73). A.s a result, recent school leadership literature explores the unique context of educational administration and suggests new perspectives on leadership. It is to that literature that we now turn.
26 School Leadership in Context
Although current scholarship on educational administration appears to support a contextual approach to leadership, definitions of context vary significantly across the literature. According to Duke (1998), contextual differences may be found in the way schools are defined and differentiated from other organizations. For example,
Greenfield's (1995) "demand environment of school administration" locates the study of school leadership within the context of several interrelated role demands (moral, social/interpersonal, instructional, managerial, and political). From Greenfield's (1995) standpoint, the role demands of school administration create a "highly normative work context" and necessitate a much greater reliance on leadership than is typical of other organizations (p. 67). To this end, Greenfield suggests that "it is important to distinguish between the personal qualities of leaders, what leadership and administration look like on a day-to-day basis, and the contextual conditions affecting leadership and administration, and the problems, decisions, and other elements stimulating the need for leadership" (p.
73).
Duke (1998) also writes about the normative context of leadership, but from a slightly different viewpoint. For Duke (1998), a normative perspective "regards leadership as a function, in part, of organization members' beliefs, expectations, and values" (p. 184). In other words, the context of leadership lies in the members' perceptions about the need for leadership, about the intentions of the leader, and about how leaders conduct themselves (Duke, 1998). Duke (1998) argues that members' perceptions contribute to and are shaped by the normative structure and that a strong normative structure is present when there is high agreement between members'
27 perceptions and leader’s purposes and practices. Because shared beliefs may be related to
organizational effectiveness and productivity, "a normative perspective suggests a need
for greater understanding of leaders' intentional efforts to shape how organization
members think about leadership and the need for it" (Duke, 1998, p. 192).
When schools are defined as institutions rather than organizations, the context of
leadership changes. Ogawa and Bossert (1995) take such an institutional approach.
Here, leadership is operationalized at the organizational level, where it affects the social
legitimacy and survival of the organization (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995). It is not confined
to a particular position, but "flows through the networks of roles that comprise
organizations" (p. 225). Such a perspective equates leadership with influence and,
therefore, views organizational members as leaders when they exchange their valuable resources with others who need them to perform their roles effectively.
In school organizations, district superintendents use their knowledge of state guidelines to influence school boards, principals, and teachers. Principals employ their knowledge of budgets to influence the decisions of both district superintendents and teachers on school councils. Also, teachers use their knowledge of effective instructional techniques to affect principals and district curriculum directors (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995, p. 235)
Implicit within the organizational context of leadership is the need for school administrators who will foster interpersonal relationships and facilitate the potential contributions of all organizational members. In short, when viewed from an organizational standpoint, school leadership is collaborative.
Upon review, the literature seems to say that effective educational administrators are contextually responsive. Hoyle (1997) suggests that current environmental forces compel school leaders to "quickly frame problems, use targeted information, and inspire
28 others to share a vision about schools which serve all children and youth" (p. 92). In order to do so, effective administrators must possess strong cognitive skills, a broad array of leadership tools, and the ability to assess the situation for the form of leadership that best applies.
Tvpes of Leadership
Current scholarship in educational administration explores the contextual viability of various types of organizational leadership. In particular, two types of leadership emerge as most responsive to the changing school environment: transformational leadership and cultural leadership. Our discussion moves first to transformational leadership.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership stands in contrast to the notion of transactional leadership (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Where transactional leaders exchange rewards or discipline for employee compliance and performance, transformational leaders seek to empower their employees. Here, the leader serves as coach, "developing the knowledge, skills, moral sentiment, and perspectives of followers" (Johnston, 1996, p.
221 ). Bennis and Nanus (1985) write that "transformative" leaders "shape and elevate the motives and goals of followers" thereby achieving "significant change that reflects the community of interests of both leaders and followers" (p. 217). From their perspective, transformational leadership "frees up and pools the collective energies in pursuit of a common goal" (p. 217).
Although many notions of this construct exist, scholars generally believe that transformational leadership works well for organizations facing "problems, rapid
29 changes, and uncertainties" (Bass, 1990,p. 639). Under these circumstances, organizations need "the flexibility to forecast and meet new demands and changes as they occur, and only transformational leadership can enable the [organization] to do so" (p.
639). Such a description suggests that transformational leadership might be effective
within a school context.
Recently, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995), interested in understanding transformational leadership in the context of school restructuring, conducted a study of principals and teachers in nine Canadian secondary schools. As a framework for their study, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) combined expert thinking with six dimensions of transformational school leadership: "identifying and articulating a vision, fostering the acceptance of group goals, providing individualized support, intellectual stimulation, providing an appropriate model, and high performance expectations" (pp. 257-258).
According to Leithwood and Steinbach (1995), although transformational leadership appears promising in many organizational contexts, the wholesale application of transformational leadership in the context of school reform may be ineffective. The need for school improvement occurs "in specific and partially unique contexts ... in which productive leadership responses will be contingent upon circumstances unique to the context" (p. 255). Consider for a moment the new principal who seeks to engage school community members in significant organizational change, one of the basic tenets of transformational leadership. If, however, community members do not perceive the need for change, the leader would do well to reconsider and search for alternative actions to move the organization forward- The leader may need to convene stakeholder discussions about the collective vision for the school in order to identify acceptable and explicit
30 change imperatives. Here, productive school leadership combines "expert thinking with the capacities to act transformationally when such actions are warranted" (p. 255).
Within the context of Leithwood's and Steinbach's (1995) study, one principal demonstrated both high levels of expert thinking and transformational leadership.
"Sarah's" responses to a problem-solving interview illustrate what Leithwood and
Steinbach (1995) refer to as " total quality leadership in practice" (p. 269).
First, her vision is value-based and hence offers the potential to attract strong, even ideological commitment on the part of others (Shamir, 1991); the vision may help to transform staffs' prevailing views about the importance of their work, a means through which high performance expectations can be expressed. Second, Sarah strives to eliminate sources of conflict potentially adding to the sense of coherence and meaningfulness people feel about their work in the school (Bandura, 1986), a form ofindividualized support. And, because she attempts to behave in ways that are consistent with the values she considers important, she models behavior important in moving toward the school's vision. Fourth, Sarah respects her staff and values their participation in the school, thereby creating important conditions for further developing their sense of self-efficacy; eventually this may strengthen their attachment to the school, increase their willingness to persist in solving school problems (Ford, 1992; Bandura, 1986) - one meaning of providing intellectual stimulation, (p. 272)
Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) suggest that as "more sophisticated evidence accumulates about the effects of transformational practices, we may anticipate increasingly reliable and contextually sensitive advice about potentially useful leadership behaviors" (p. 277).
Cultural Leadership
Johnston (1996) writes, "whereas both transactional and transformational leadership take as their point of departure the nature of relationships between the leaders and the led, cultural leadership shifts the analytic focus to the sociocultural context in which leadersliip-followership relations are embedded" (p. 222). This context, or culture.
31 refers in general to the "historically transmitted patterns of meaning that may include the
norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and myths understood, maybe in varying degrees, by
members of the school community" (Stolp & Smith, 1996, p. 159). Shared experiences,
meaning, and values translate to
unwritten rules and tradition, norms, and expectations that seem to permeate everything: the way people act, how they dress, what they talk about or avoid talking about, whether they seek out colleagues for help or don't, and how teachers feel about their work and their students. (Deal & Peterson, 1999, p. 2-3)
Consequently, school culture influences educational effectiveness and
productivity, "improves collegial and collaborative activities that foster better
communication and problem-solving practices," nurtures effective school improvement
efforts, builds commitment, and focuses attention on what is important and valued (Deal
& Peterson, 1999, p. 7-8). Because school culture plays an integral role in school
effectiveness, "developing an organizational culture and shaping the creative process of
its evolution is the unique and essential function of leadership" (Stolp & Smith, 1996, p.
172).
Deal and Peterson (1999) contend that school leaders can influence the growth and change of culture through their actions, conversations, decisions, and communication. "Cultural leaders reinforce the underlying norms, values, and beliefs.
They support the central mission and purpose of the school. They create and sustain motivation and commitment through rites and rituals" (p 87). From a cultural perspective, "the challenge for leaders is to develop a consensus around values that constitute an effective culture, such as high expectations, commitment, mutual respect.
32 confidence, continuous improvement, experimentation and risk taking, and an insistence that students will leam" (Stolp & Smith, 1996, p. 160).
Cultural leadership implies collective leadership. From a cultural perspective, "it is not only the formal leadership of the principal that sustains and continuously reshapes culture but the leadership of everyone. Deep, shared leadership builds strong and cohesive cultures" (Deal Peterson, 1999, p. 87). Stolp and Smith (1996) agree.
The principal alone cannot bring about change in the norms of the school because, by definition, cultural transformation is a collaborative activity. The principal must engage others both inside and outside the school if he or she is to effect any meaningful changes in the school's cultiue. (p. 172)
Stolp and Smith draw attention to the school's location within a wider community.
Schools share a reciprocal relationship with the social and political environments in which they reside. Communities look to schools "for assurance that local values are being transmitted and that the future will bear some connection with traditions of the past" (Deal & Peterson, 1999, p. 129). They expect schools to provide a safe haven for children where social, emotional, physical, and educational needs are met. Schools look to parents and the community for social, political, and symbolic support (Deal &
Peterson, 1999).
Deal & Peterson (1999) submit that cultural leadership "provides a sense of meaning internally as well as externally. ...The same cultural elements that anchor meaning inside a school - values, heroines, ritual, ceremony, and stories - can simultaneously convey a positive image externally" (p. 130). Therefore, in order to engender community support, effective cultural leaders "market their schools,... build
33 bonds with the community, ...tie the history of the school to the history of the
community,... [and] connect to all members of the community" (pp. 130-131).
Sergiovarmi (1996) also has written extensively on the salience of building school
communities. His definition of community as a collection "of individuals who are
bonded together by natural will and who are together bound to a set o f shared ideas and
ideals" (p. 48) reinforces a cultural leadership perspective. When we view school
cultures as communities in the broader, sociopolitical sense, Sergiovanni’s message
implies that cultural leadership must endeavor to create a sense of community that
extends from the schoolhouse across social and political borders.
Leadership as Cognition
The literature on educational administration everywhere suggests that the work of
school leadership is complex and unpredictable. It maintains that effective school
administrators act to transform their schools and to infuse the broader school community
with a sense of culture. In the words of Deal & Peterson ( 1999):
Effective school leaders are alert to the deeper issues agitating beneath a seemingly rational veneer of activity. They read between the lines to decipher complex cultural codes and struggle to figure out what's really going on. Once they get a bead on a situation, they ponder over whether and how to try to shape or reshape existing realities, (p. 85)
The emergent picture of school administration illustrates a decidely cognitive undertaking. Recent inquiry into the thought processes of school leaders focuses on the
interplay of thinking and behavior. In particular, Leithwood's (1986, 1989, 1990, 1993,
1995) research posits cognition as the sine qua non of expert leadership and seeks to
understand leader thinking through the problem-solving practices of expert school
34 administrators. Such a perspective has its roots in cognitive science and the study of
problem solving.
The study of problem solving spans numerous fields of scientific inquiry.
Contributions from economics and psychology shape the framework in which other fields
have grounded their understanding of human judgment, decision making and problem
solving. Recently, scholars of educational leadership, engaged in their own problem
solving on behalf of school improvement, have become interested in understanding why
certain school administrators are so good at what they do (Leithwood & Steinbach,
1995). Believing that successful school leadership lies at the core of successful schools,
research that explores “the nature, determinants, and consequences of school
administrators’ practices” has drawn increasing attention (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995,
p. 38). The resulting inquiry operationalizes specific behavioral patterns of instructional
leadership as one lens through which to view the nature of expert educational
administration. However, for those who see educational leadership as problem solving,
understanding why some administrators act as they do and why some are more successful than others, requires more than understanding behaviors. In order to appreciate fully expert administrative practice, we also must understand how the expert thinks, makes decisions, and solves problems.
Judgment and decision making (JDM) perspectives provide both a foundation and point of departure for the study of administrative problem solving. The tenets of JDM research are clearly evident in the fiamework on which problem-solving inquiry rests, and, yet, they form the basis of the argument that supports a departure fi'om the
35 traditional JDM viewpoint. Consequently, a brief overview o f recent judgment and
decision-making research enriches our understanding.
Judgment and Decision-Making
The psychological study of judgment and decision making began as the search for
answers to two different questions (Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997). One group of
psychologists, theoretically grounded in the work of economists and statisticians, sought
to discover how people decided on a course of action (Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997). This
focus on preferential choice was motivated by the work of vonNeumann and Morgenstem
through which game theory and, later, the concept of expected utility emerged (Goldstein
& Hogarth, 1997). Expected utility theory, published in 1947, was proposed as a
normative theory of behavior (Pious, 1993). In other words, it aimed not to describe how
decision makers actually behaved, but how they "would behave if they followed certain
requirements of rational decision making" (p. 80). In the 1950’s, the decision-making
literature from economics and statistics was made widely available to scholars whose
interests lay in psychological measurement, psychophysics, and mathematical modeling
(Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997). The collective work of these scholars established a focus
on preferential choice under uncertainty, or risky decision making (Goldstein & Hogarth,
1997).
In 1954, simultaneous to research in economics and statistics, Meehl published
Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction (Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997). Meehl rejected the
rational framework. His alternative centered on “the way in which people intuitively combine information from multiple sources to reproduce numerical judgments and classifications” (p. 7). Scholars who followed directed their attention more toward what
36 an individual understands, believes, and feels than toward what course of action he or she chooses (Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997).
In an effort to bridge the gap between judgment and decision making research.
Savage proposed his theory of subjective expected utility (Goldstein & Hogarth, 1997).
Although typically viewed as an extension of vonNeumann’s and Morgenstem’s work on expected utility. Savage’s theory addressed the necessity of considering "subjective, or personal, probabilities of outcomes" (Pious, 1993, p. 82). Within this framework, it is acceptable "to consider the probability of an unrepeatable event ...even though there is no way to determine the probability of [its occurrence]" (p. 82-83).
In time, scholars acknowledged the discrepancy between rational decision making models and how individuals actually make decisions (Pious, 1993). Consequently, alternative theories of decision making came to the fore. Simon (1957) posited that when deciding between two options an individual satisfices, or chooses the option that best satisfies his or her most crucial needs even though the choice may not be the best.
Satificing involves taking into consideration the information at hand, in contrast to all available information, and selecting the choice that best suits one’s needs. Simon’s
(1957) satisficing emerged from his theory of bounded rationality in which he posits that humans are cognitively incapable of consuming all information and all options in a given decision situation, and therefore are rarely, if ever, wholly-rational decision makers. In the past twenty years, additional alternatives to expected utility theory have gained notoriety including Kahneman’s and Tversky’s prospect theory (1979), Loomes’s, and
Sugden’s regret theory (1982), and multi-attribute choice theory (Pious, 1993). Each of
37 these alternative models endeavors to quantify how individual decision makers apply
rationality, utility, value, and subjective factors to preferential choice situations.
The decision-making approach to educational administration can be traced back at
least to Simon’s work on organizational administrative behavior (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995). Simon (1957) describes administration as more than “the processes and methods for insuring incisive action” and suggests that a theory of administration
should be concerned with “the processes of decision as well as the processes of action”
(p. 1). Simon’s work attends to the notion of rationality in decision making. He views
rationality as limited by the individual’s “unconscious skills, habits, and reflexes;
...values and conceptions of purpose which may diverge from the organization goals;
...and the extent of [his] knowledge and information” (Simon, 1957,p. 241). However,
Simon sees increased rationality as possible if the organizational environment is structured such that those deficits that limit rationality are ultimately supplied.
Yet, this orientation to decision making still falls short of capturing the complexity and contingency of the educational environment Leithwood and Steinbach
(1995) argue that:
Conventional definitions of decision making narrow the generic task of the administrator unnecessarily. From this view, decision making is a relatively simple category of problem solving involving the choice of a solution from known alternatives, by applying readily available criteria, (p. 39)
Although this type of decision making is appropriate for the well-structured problems faced by school administrators, many of the problems they confront are ill- structured, requiring great effort to identify the problem, the goals to be achieved, and the values inherent in the solution (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). By studying how expert
38 school administrators manage these ill-structured problems, we can begin to understand
how such administrators convert their thinking into action.
A Cognitive Approach
"Tire cognitive perspective is both the oldest and the youngest member of the
psychological community" (Woolfolk, 1998, p. 246). Its roots can be traced to the ancient Greeks' philosophical conversations. These conversations explored the nature
and origin of human thought. However, "from the late 1800s until a few decades ago,
...cognitive studies fell from favor and behaviorism thrived" (Woolfolk, 1998, p. 246).
Behavioral ists denounced as impractical and irrelevant any attempt to understand the underlying mental operations of external behavior (Anderson, 1985). Instead, their belief that behaviors are learned through repetition and reinforcement directed their inquiry toward the responses of animals in controlled laboratory settings (Woolfolk,
1998). Hence, the behavioralist influence virtually eliminated any interest in cognitive processes within the field of psychology for nearly forty years (Anderson, 1985).
In the early 1940s, research on humans as infomnation-processing systems, on artificial intelligence (e.g., Newell & Simon, 1972), and on language development (e.g.,
Chomsky) evoked a resurgence in cognitive perspectives (Anderson, 1985; Woolfolk,
1998). Emerging data suggested that learning was more than behavioral responses to stimuli, it was "an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge" (Woolfolk, 1998, p. 246). The information-processing framework, in particular, continues to dominate research on human thinking, remembering, and problem solving. Within the information-processing framework, psychologists seek to understand human abilities in terms of mental structures, or factors, believed to be responsible for
39 individual differences in observed intellectual and academic performance (Sternberg,
1985). Cognitive psychologists who view thinking as information processing analyze how people solve difficult mental tasks, often constructing definitive models of how these tasks are solved (Sternberg, 1985).
Cognitive perspectives have advanced greatly over the past twenty-five years.
This advancement, according Leithwood and Hallinger (1993), "has been largely due to the efforts of psychologists, linguists, philosophers, neuroscientists, and students of artificial intelligence who have formed a loose, interdisciplinary alliance called cognitive science (Simon & Kaplan, 1990)" (p. 296). Cognitive science, or “the study of intelligence and its computational processes in humans (or animals), in computers, and in the abstract” (Simon & Kaplan, 1989, p.2), seeks to understand "how the mind works - from chemical and neurological microlevel to the level of highly theoretical, symbolic architecture explaining complex mental process” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 5).
In doing so, it provides the foundation for what Leithwood and his colleagues (1986,
1989, 1990, 1993, 1995) call "cognitive perspectives."
According to Leithwood & Steinbach (1995), three areas of applied cognitive science study have been especially relevant to educational administration; learning, teacher thinking, and the thinking of executive decision makers. Cognitive perspectives on learning have emphasized the centrality of "learners' existing knowledge structures and.. the development o f personal meaning through social interaction" (p. 8). Research on teacher thinking has explored the "situated nature of cognitions needed for practical problem solving" and the development of teaching expertise (p. 6). The goal of the research on executive decision making has been "to understand executive behavior - how
40 senior executives turn thought into executive action and what attitudes and abilities make
such executives effective" (p. 7). When applied to the study of educational
administration, cognitive science perspectives regarding all three of these projects
provide a useful filter through which to examine expert administrative practice and the
development of administrative expertise (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Cognitive Perspectives on Problem Solving
Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) contend that "cognitive science perspectives
offer important and unique insights about the nature of expert administrative practice,
how it develops, and what can be done to assist in that development" (p. 5). Such
perspectives redefine administrative effectiveness in terms of problem-solving processes
and concern themselves with how individuals attend to the information available; store,
retrieve, and further develop their knowledge; and use their knowledge in problem
solving (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). In short, they "remind us that what
administrators do depends on what they think" (p. 7).
From a cognitive perspective, school administrators are viewed as "problem
finders and problem solvers with varying levels of expertise" (Leithwood & Steinbach,
1995, p. 9). Problems are defined as "circumstances in which a gap is perceived between
a current state and a more desirable state (Gagne, 1985; Hayes, 1981)" (Leithwood, 1995,
p. 118). This gap, or "problem space" (Newell & Simon, 1972), occurs "when a problem
solver has a goal but lacks an obvious way of achieving the goal” (Mayer & Wittrock,
1996, p. 47).
Problem Complexity. As suggested earlier, the problems leaders face vary in complexity. They range from those that are considered well-structured to those that are
41 ill-structured. The extent to which a problem is considered well- or ill-structured is dependent upon the “objective complexity’ of the problem and the relevant knowledge possessed by the solver” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 121). Le*thwood and
Steinbach clarify:
When both states are clearly known and the procedures to follow (or operators) to get from one to the other are also known, a problem is considered routine or well- structured. Lack of knowledge about any of these three elements in the problem space makes a problem less well-structured, (p. 121)
Solving ill-structured, or knowledge-rich, problems requires significant conceptual knowledge that must be sorted and reduced (Voss & Post, 1988). In contrast, well-structured, or knowledge-lean, problems require very little domain-specific knowledge and typically are solved with a minimum of conscious effort (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995; VanLehn, 1989). Problems also may be categorized as routine and nonroutine. According to Mayer & Wittrock (1996), "a routine problem is one for which the problem solver already possesses a ready-made solution procedure, ...[whereas] a nonroutine problem is one for which the problem solver does not have a previously learned solution procedure" (p. 48).
Although the degree of complexity varies, all problems share three main components: an initial state, a goal state, and a set of operators for transforming the initial state into the goal state (Sternberg, 1985; Hegarty, 1991). The problem-solving process involves searching through the problem space “for a set of operators that allows you to get from the given state of the problem to the goal state” (Hegarty, 1991, p. 254), while attending to the rules or constraints “that specify allowable operations” (Chi & Glaser,
1985, p. 229).
42 Problem-Solving Processes. Much of the research surrounding problem solving is focused on problem-solving processes. These processes appear to represent two broad categories of problem solving activity: understanding and solving (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995). Understanding processes assist the problem solver in interpreting problem. Solving processes seek to "transform the current state into the more desirable goal state" (p. 123). As problem solvers move from understanding to solving problems, they engage in identifying and framing the problem, developing and monitoring a method for solving the problem, and carrying out planned operations (Jacobsen, Hillcox, &
Stevenson, 1996; Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
Although each element of the problem-solving process serves an important purpose, the research on problem solving consistently confirms the salience of problem interpretation in the problem-solving process. Across the literature, scholars seem to agree that "a substantial part of professional work is the delineation of problems, not their solution" (Ashbaugh & Kasten, 1993, p. 154).
As we have come to see, ...the problems of real-world practice do not present themselves to practitioners as well-formed structures. Indeed, they tend not to present themselves as problems at all but as messy, indeterminate situations. ... If [practitioners] are to get a well-formed problem, ...they mustconstruct it from the materials of a [problematic] situation. (Schon, 1987, p. 4)
How problems are interpreted significantly influences how they are solved. "The quality, completeness, and coherence of this internal representation determine the efficiency and accuracy of further thinking" (Glaser, 1984, p. 98). Bransford and Stein
(1984) contend that "problems can often be defined or represented in a variety of ways ...
[and] some representations are more likely to lead to effective solutions than are others"
(p. 18).
43 An example of this might be found in the circumstances of low school attendance.
Here, if the problem is represented as a threat to student learning, the solution might include attempts to motivate student attendance through incentives or an improved curriculum. If, however, the problem is interpreted as the reason for an increase in student-related misconduct and crime, the solution might aim for an increase in disciplinary actions or on-campus police protection. In either case, we can see that different problem representations result in different solutions and, perhaps more important, in potentially different outcomes. Hence, because "the solution is generally a function of how the problem is represented, ...the particular representation developed is critical to the entire process" (Voss & Post, 1988,p. 282).
Further evidence of the salience of problem interpretation can be found in
Kaplan's and Simon's (1990) research on insight problems. According to these scholars, effective solutions to insight problems require a change in the problem interpretation
"when the initial one does not suffice" (p. 377). Hence, the difficulty of the insight problem "stems from search for the correct representation, not search once this representation has been found" (p. 392). Kaplan and Simon (1990) offer as an example the problem of finding a diamond in a dark room.
What do you do? One option is to grope blindly in the dark. If you have a specific idea of where the diamond might be, this may even be an effective strategy. But after groping blindly for several minutes, you might decide to abandon the search for the diamond, and to search instead for a light switch. If one could be found, and the light turned on, the location of the diamond could be evident almost at once. (p. 376)
Here, refiraming the problem is analogous to turning on the light (Kaplan &
Simon, 1990). The problem solver abandons the search for solution within one
44 representation and searches instead for a new representation (Kaplan & Simon, 1990).
Because "the space of possible problem spaces is exceedingly ill-defined, in fact, infinite," and because "people don't have a generator for 'all possible problem spaces,'" the problem solver must "have or obtain strong constraints that guide the search" (p. 381).
In an effort to understand the sources of search constraint, Kaplan and Simon
(1990) examined the search processes o f subjects attempting to solve the "mutilated checkerboard problem," or MC (p. 377). The MC problem employs a standard 8 X 8 checkerboard with two of its diagonally opposite comers removed. Subjects are asked either to cover the remaining 62 squares using 31 dominos (each covering two adjacent squares), or to prove logically why such a solution is impossible. To solve the MC problem, subjects must switch from an initial representation to a new one. Consequently,
"this problem falls outside the limits of the standard information processing theory" and provides an account of the constraints used to search for a new representation (p. 378).
Kaplan and Simon (1990) identified four potential sources of constraint: features of the problem itself, cues from the problem environment, prior knowledge, and problem solving heuristics. The use of the "invariant heunstic" emerged as the "clearest opportunity for exploring individual differences between problem solvers" (p. 382). This heuristic involves recognizing the recurring features of a problem. In the context of this study, invariants were classified as either relevant or perceptual, with perceptual invariants referring to "the unique properties of the MC problems ... likely to facilitate success" (p. 408-409).
45 Kaplan and Simon (1990) found that, when comparing fast to slow subjects (with regard to the time it took to solve the problem), fast subjects differed from slow subjects in the types of invariant they noticed.
In particular, of the eight subjects whose behavior was examined, all fast subjects noticed perceptual invariants within the first 10 min fsicl of problem solving, whereas none of the slow subjects did so. ... Fast subjects also tended to notice a wider variety of invariants that slow subjects during the initial minutes of problem solving, suggesting that flexibility, or the willingness to try a variety of things, may facilitate insight, (p. 413)
We can see from this research that accurate problem interpretation is essential to effective problem solving. We also can see that solutions to particularly difficult problems may require alternative interpretations and that effective problem solvers must be able to interpret problem situations as well as to recognize the need for a different interpretation. Most important, however, we can see vital connection between the search for a solution and the level of cognitive expertise possessed by the problem solver.
Problem-Solving Expertise
Increased awareness that successful problem solving has more to do with the problem solver's cognitive capabilities than with the nature of the problem itself, shifts scholarly interests from the problem to the problem solver (Leithwood & Steinbach,
1995). Given the change of focus, the capabilities, or expertise, of the problem solver become the subject of much attention.
Scholars across fields of study have generated a vast literature delineating "the processes associated with expertise, how such processes are developed, and what accounts for them" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). As a result, numerous and varied
4 6 accounts of the expert exist. Shanteau (1988), for example, offers a list of ten psychological traits associated with expertise. Tney range from having “highly developed perceptual abilities” to “showing strong outward confidence” (p. 209). Shanteau views these characteristics of decision style as having implications for “defining the image and expectations of experts, specifying different types of experts, training/selecting novices to become experts, and developing and using expert systems [artificial intelligence]” (p.
211).
Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) remind us that "expertise is associated with both effective and efficient problem solving within a particular domain" (p. 122). In general, experts are believed to
• excel mainly in their own domains;
• perceive large, meaningful patterns in their domains;
• solve problems quickly with few errors;
• have superior short- and long-term memories;
• represent problems at deeper, more principled levels than do novices;
• spend more time than novices interpreting (as distinct from solving) problems; and
• monitor their own thinking much better than are novices; and,
• possess more domain-specific [task-related] knowledge, (p. 122)
Discussions regarding human problem-solving expertise typically focus on two cognitive elements: the problem solver’s knowledge and the processes he or she chooses to employ (Mumford, Reiter-Palmon, & Redmond, 1994). Glaser (1984) writes, "an important focus for understanding expert thinking and problem solving is investigation of characteristics and influence of organized knowledge structures acquired over long
47 periods of learning and experience" (p. 98). Given the prominence of knowledge 'vithin theories of expertise, we turn first to a discussion of knowledge.
Knowledge. According to Glaser (1984), "the difference between individuals who display more or less [expertise] in thinking and problem solving" lies in their
"possession and utilization of an organized body of conceptual and procedural knowledge" (p. 97). Experts, as compared to novices, are believed to possess a greater store of easily retrievable knowledge, including knowledge about the application of what they know (Glaser, 1984; Woolfolk, 1998). Hence, understanding the nature and acquisition of expert knowledge appears useful.
Schema theory provides an effective framework for understanding how expert knowledge is acquired and organized (Glaser, 1984). Schemas are conceptualized as
"abstract knowledge structures that organize vast amounts of information" (Woolfolk,
1998, p. 259). They are also described as "prototypes in memory of frequently experienced situations that individuals use to interpret instances of related knowledge"
(Glaser, 1984, p. 100). In schema theory, knowledge is acquired when newly encountered information is compared to a relevant schema. Dependent upon the degree to which the schema accounts for certain aspects of the information, the schema is temporarily accepted, modified, rejected, or replaced (Glaser, 1984). As new schemas are acquired and existing schemas are enriched, both the stmcture and the quality of knowledge are increased. In this way, those who gain greater amounts of knowledge also gain greater access to that knowledge.
Schema theory fits well within a constructivist framework of learning. A constructivist firamework emphasizes the salience of prior knowledge in knowledge
48 acquisition and posits schema as existing knowledge structures on which new knowledge is built. As in schema theory, constructivists submit that knowledge is acquired by "an active process of construction rather than by a passive assimilation of information"
(Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996,p. 22). When learners interact cognitively and socially with their environment, they construct knowledge by "transforming and reorganizing their existing cognitive structures" (Woolfolk, 1998, p. 277). Accordingly, knowledge acquisition, or learning, "depends on one's prior knowledge, on the social context for learning, and on the connections between what is being learned and the real world" (Sergiovanni, 1996, p. 132).
Knowledge comes in many forms. For example, knowledge can begeneral, pertaining to many different kinds of tasks, domain-specific,or appropriate to a particular situation or task (Woolfolk, 1998). Also, knowledge can bedeclarative, regarding facts, ideas, and theories, orprocedural, concerning processes such as thinking, problem solving, and synthesizing (Sergiovanni, 1996). Expert knowledge develops as individuals transform increasing amounts of declarative knowledge into procedural form
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). "As this occurs, [declarative] knowledge ceases to be inert and becomes a more useful source of guidance in problem solving (p. 14). Further, expert knowledge increases as knowledge is reorganized and "chunked" together in ways that enhance the expert's "ability to recognize patterns or cause-effect relationships" (p.
14). Finally, expertise develops as the individual's conditional knowledge increases
(Leithwood& Steinbach, 1995).Conditional knowledge, or "knowing when and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge" (Woolfolk, 1998, p. 249), enables the expert to clarify "the circumstances under which certain actions are appropriate, transforming
49 more general procedural knowledge into complex ...combinations of conditions and actions” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 14).
Knowledge alone, however, does not guarantee expertise. The expert problem solver is capable of transferring the acquired knowledge to other, unfamiliar situations.
In general, transfer occurs "when a person's prior experience and knowledge affect learning or problem solving ...on a different task” (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996, p. 48). It occurs either as the result of great effort and deliberation, when the problem solver actively thinks about the connections between the current problem and previous experience, or with little conscious effort and attention, when the problem solver automatically uses prior knowledge to solve a new problem (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996).
A cognitive approach to transfer emphasizes the role of metacognition, or the awareness, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Mayer &
Wittrock, 1996). From this view, "successful transfer occurs when the problem solver is able to recognize the requirements of the new problem, select previously learned specific and general skills that apply to the new problem, and monitor their application in solving the new problem" (p. 50). This being so, problem-solving experts are "managers of their
[own] knowledge," possessing and knowing how to use relevant knowledge in the context of their problem solving (p. 51).
Expert Processes. By definition, expert problem solvers possess not only a great storehouse of knowledge, but they possess a strong repertoire of procedural skills. The rules, heuristics, and operations experts apply when generating solutions are essential for solving problems that occur in cfynamic, educational environments. Here, “extant
50 knowledge must be applied, reshaped, and reformed to generate novel problem solutions
... in novel, poorly defined, and complex domains (Mumford et al., 1994, p. 5).
Over time, numerous analylic models of problem-solving processes have
emerged. These models seek to quantify effective methods for attacking complex
problems. However, “the selective nature of process application in relation to real-world
constraints, along with the existence of multiple complex interactions between these
processes and other features of the individual’s life,” make it extremely difficult to
proffer any one model as superior or even satisfactory in any one context (Mumford et
al., 1994, p. 6). Given this, expertise becomes a delicate choreography of skills, actions,
application, and analysis. It is “a function of the size of the professional’s repertoire, the
degree of skill developed in exercising elements of that repertoire, and (to a lesser extent)
how choices are made about when to apply those elements” (Leithwood & Steinbach,
1995, p. 10).
Expert Problem Solving in Educational Administration
The general study of cognition, problem solving, and decision making is
fundamental to our understanding of expert problem solving. Consequently, Leithwood
applies these broad notions of problem-solving expertise to the specific practice of
educational administration. He explores the nature of school problems and looks at the components of administrative problem solving from interpretation to solution and their
subsequent application to both individual and group practices. He explores key processes of educational administrative problem solving and examines three personal
characteristics associated with problem-solving expertise. In these ways, Leithwood’s
51 work provides a strong foundation, upon which this dissertation draws, for understanding
computer use in the context of educational administrative problem solving.
This dissertation study endeavors to extend Leithwood's research in two ways.
First, it seeks to broaden Leithwood's inquiry by looking at problem discovery and role of
intuition. Second, the research aims to understand how computer technology might
support school leaders' individual and group problem solving at all points in the process.
With this said, this discussion turns to a review of Leithwood's research of expert
administrative problem solving.
The Origin of Interest
For nearly fifteen years, Leithwood and his colleagues have focused their research
on the problem-solving practices of experts in educational administration. Recently,
Leithwood’s interest in administrative thinking was peaked while observing “Jack,” a
school leader who he refers to as “the Wayne Gretsky of principals” (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995, p. 4).
No one we studied did so much with so little apparent effort. Jack was active in many district initiatives, but was still a pervasive presence in his school; he worked closely and regularly with teachers on instructional improvement, knew the kids in his large elementary school very well, and had exceptionally well- developed relationships with parents and many other members of the school community... much of Jack’s impact seemed to depend on his sensitivity to the people and contexts in which he worked and on his ability to flexibly adapt his repertoire to suit the circumstances. (1995, pp. 4-5)
After wondering at Jack’s behavior, Leithwood (1995) hypothesized that perhaps even more important than Jack’s behavior was the way he thought and how he chose a particular behavior. Interested in understanding the problem solving of school leaders, and somewhat concerned with the inability of decision-making research to explain the
52 work of experts in ill-structured task environments, Leithwood (1995) set out to identify and study expert educational administrators in their problem-solving domains.
The Nature of School Problems
Leithwood (1995) began his inquiry by identifying the problems faced by school administrators. This was accomplished by interviewing fifty-two school principals about the problems they faced over a two-week period. Principals used calendars or appointment books to spark their memories. In addition, they were asked to identify those problems they felt were nonroutine, or “muddy” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p.
24). The results indicated four categories of problems: teachers, school routines, students, and parents in that order of prevalence (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Principals reported the highest incidence of nonroutine problems in the student category
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). The distributions of problems as seen by elementary, as distinct from secondary, principals and their distribution over the school year were also reported.
Central Components of Administrative Problem Solving
Having some idea of the categories of problems faced by school leaders,
Leithwood and Stager (1989) sought to develop a grounded framework of problem solving through which to study expert administrative problem solving. They began with a list of seven differences between novices and experts. A total of twenty-two elementary school principals participated in the study with six of the participants classified as “expert" (Leithwood & Stager, 1989). The identification of expert principals came as a result of nominations by two central office administrators and interviews using an instrument entitledThe Principal Profile (Leithwood & Montgomery, 1986). Other
53 possible correlates to expertise, such as years of experience and size of school, were reported. Principals “were asked to perform a problem-sorting task, to reflect on their own problem-solving and the factors influencing it, and to indicate how they selected which of the problems they faced deserved priority” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995. p.
43).
In a second interview, the principals were asked to rank six problems according to how clear (at the outset) was the action to be taken (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). In addition, they were asked to present their solutions, in as much detail as possible, to both the clearest and the least clear problems, and to describe, from their own experience, problems with similar degrees of clarity to each of these (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
These data were recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed.
From the data, five grounded components of problem solving emerged: interpretation, goal setting, principles (values), constraints, and solution processes (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Later research added the component of mood/affect to the list in Table 2.1.
Component Definition Interpretation "A principal's understanding of the nature of the specific problem" (p. 46) Goal Setting "The relatively immediate purposes that the principal attempts to achieve in response to his or her interpretation of the problem" (p. 46) PrinciplesATalues "The relatively long-term purposes, operating principles, fundamental laws, doctrines, and assumptions guiding the principal's thinking" (p. 46) Constraints "Immovable" barriers, obstacles, or factors severely narrowing the range of possible solutions the principal believes to be available" (p. 46) Solution Processes "What the principal does to solve a problem (in light of his or her interpretation o f the problem, principles, and goals to be achieved, and constraints to be accommodated)" (p. 46) Mood/AfTect "The feelings, mood, sense of self-confidence the principals experiences when involved in problem solving" (p. 45)
Table 2.1 Six Components of Problem Solving
54 Data also were analyzed quantitatively to assess those problems that the principals regarded as least structured and most structured (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Conclusions from the study indicated few differences between expert and novice principals’ understanding of problems as clear, or well-structured. The differences, however, were more evident for those problems Judged to be less clear. For these problems, expert principals were better able to “arrive at a clear, comprehensive interpretation of a problem, . . did not appear to become involved in irrelevant issues,
...and did not become dysfunctionally preoccupied with the feelings of others associated with the problem” (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 54).
Group Problem-Solving Processes
Influenced by the growing body of research on transformational leadership and its companion notion of collective leadership, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) turned their attention from individual administrative problem solving to problem solving as a collaborative endeavor. Consequently, they began to explore "the extent and nature of differences between expert and typical principals' processes for solving problems with their staffs" (p. 95).
For this research, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) refined their information- processing orientation to expert problem solving by adopting three constructs associated with transformational leadership. First, drawing on Simon's (1957) bounded rationality, which focused on the limitation of individual cognition, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) postulated "collegial rationality" (p. 96). Collegial rationality acknowledges the socially interactive context of cognition and offers "a better conception of problem solving in many life circumstances" (p. 97).
55 From such a view, problem solvers use others to compensate for their own limitation. They do this by transforming, redefining, and distributing parts of the problem task to others in the working group in an opportunistic way according to each individual's unique abilities, (p. 97)
Second, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) turned to Vygotsky's (1978) "zone of proximal development" for help in understanding how group problem solving might contribute to individual development among participants. According to Vygotsky ( 1978), the zone of proximal development "is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving ...in collaboration with more capable peers" (p. 86). From this perspective, transformational leaders seek to create a zone of proximal development in which collaborative problem solving nurtures the development of organizational members.
A similar notion emerges from Argyris's and Schon's (1996) work on organizational learning (e.g., Cohen & Sproull, 1996; Cook & Yanow, 1996; Huber,
1996; Leithwood & Louis, 1998). From the perspective of these scholars, an organization is said to have learned when "its members learn for it, carrying out on its behalf a process of inquiry that results in a learning product" (p. 11). In other words, as organizational members engage in the social process of collaborative problem solving, the solutions they create become organizational knowledge that "yields a change of organizational practices" (p. 12).
The final theoretical construct for this research postulates that when individuals share in the development of problem-solving goals, their commitment to implementing the solution processes significantly increases (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). When
56 individuals commit themselves to a particular goal, their search for fulfillment motivates them to persist toward the end goal state. As a result, "collaboration with one's colleagues seems likely to generate not only shared goals but also goals which have highly motivating properties" (p. 100).
In addition to the three constructs, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) refined their information-processing framework by adding a sixth component to their model of administrative problem solving. Affect, or "the feelings, mood, and sense of self- confidence the principal experiences when involved in problem solving," (p. 95) emerged from Leithwood's prior research as a significant element of expert problem solving and seemed a likely contributor within the socially interactive context of group problem solving.
Utilizing the foregoing framework for their analysis of the data, Leithwood and
Steinbach (1995) found significant differences between expert and typical principals regarding their problem interpretation and solution processes. In the case of problem interpretation, expert and typical principals varied considerably on the degree to which they attended to other individuals' interpretation of the problem (Leithwood& Steinbach,
1995). Whereas none of the typical principals turned to staff members for clarification,
"two of the four experts explicitly checked their own assumptions and actively sought out the interpretations of their staff members as well" (p. 102). In addition, "most expert principals viewed the problem they were addressing in the context of the larger mission and problems of their schools" (p. 105) and were more explicit about their interpretation and their reasons for it (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
57 With regard to solution processes, "typical principals rarely planned for collaborative problem solving" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 111). However, expert principals not only developed explicit plans, but they also began problem-solving sessions by clearly outlining the nature of the problem and suggesting the process for its solution (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Expert principals also were "able to make clear their own view of the problem without intimidating or restraining their staffs,. . open to new information, ...and prepared to change their views of what the solution should be (p.
112). Moreover, "experts, in contrast with typical principals, facilitated collaborative problem solving by synthesizing the views of others, summarizing progress in the meeting from time to time, providing clarification as needed, and gently prodding the group to keep on task" (p. 112-113). In doing so, these expert principals provided collaborative experiences through which colleagues can develop the shared values, norms, and beliefs of a strong and cohesive culture.
When considering the role of affect in expert group problem solving, the data seemed to say that although both expert and typical principals seemed to be calm and confident, "there were substantial differences, however, in the amount of anxiety or frustration actually experienced (but not demonstrated) by principals" (p. 113). Three of the five typical principals indicated frustration about "the unwillingness of staff to agree on what the problem should be" (p. 113). Experts, on the other hand, showed little frustration.
Overall, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) ascribed the differences between expert and typical principals' problem-solving processes to two basic attributes of expert practices. "Expert principals demonstrated a high degree of metacognitive control: this
58 was evident, for example, in their ability to monitor the effects of their own behavior and change that behavior when warranted" (p. 116). In addition, evidence suggested that expert principals hold beliefs indicative of "good thinking." For instance, "experts clearly believed that thinking often leads to better results and that staff members working together could think better than when they were working alone" (p. 116).
Key Processes in Expert Educational Administrative Problem Solving
According to Leithwood and Steinbach (1995), three key problem-solving processes seem to "offer particularly powerful insights concerning the differences between expert and nonexpert administrators" (p. 18). Evidence suggests that problem solving expertise exists to the degree that school administrators effectively interpret problems, apply values, and engage in flexible thinking. Hence, this section explores educational administrative expertise as a function of problem interpretation, the application of values in administrative problem solving, and processes associated with cognitive flexibility.
Problem Interpretation by School Administrators
Problem interpretation, or the way in which administrative problem solvers make sense of and evaluate information, is integral to effective educational problem solving.
As mentioned earlier, how a problem is translated and classified may influence its solution processes. Just as researchers who studied cognition in general terms,
Leithwood and Steinbach saw this component as key to school administrative problem solving. For this reason, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) set out "to better understand administrators' problem identification in both their cognitive and organizational contexts"
(p. 150). They aimed to discover "those factors, including those in the external
59 environment, that [school] administrators actually think about as they frame their problems" (p. 150).
For this qualitative study, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) identified eleven highly effective secondary school principals on the bases of nomination and their ranking on The Principal Profile (Leithwood & Montgomery, 1986). Data from the interviews indicated three key aspects of problem interpretation: problem classification and management; broad-based problem-solving strategies; and influences on problem solving
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Principals' responses regarding their classification and management of problems indicated that effective administrative problem solvers prioritize the problems, estimate their difficulty, and determine whom to involve in the problem-solving process (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). The data suggest that these principals prioritized problems according to such factors as the number of people affected by the problem and the problem's relationship to long-term plans (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995). Problem difficulty was determined similarly, according to such factors as the likelihood of value conflicts and the availability of clear procedures to address the problem (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). When determining the involvement of others in problem solving, the principals considered the time available for a solution; the importance of finding the best solution; the amount of relevant knowledge possessed by others; the impact of the problem on others; and the need for ownership of the problem
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
The second aspect of problem interpretation was related to the principals' overall problem-solving strategies. All eleven principals had "a highly collaborative approach to solving all but those problems they considered to be trivial or mechanical" (Leithwood &
60 Steinbach, 1995, p. 158). Most of the principals indicated a tendency to take risks when initially defining a problem, "risks associated with the difficulty of finding a solution or being critical of an aspect of the school's program" (p. 159). However, once a problem was defined, these principals were diligent about gathering pertinent information. Across the sample, the overall problem-solving style of effective principals was characterized by
"collaboration, front-end risk taking, and ...a high degree of conscious self-reflection" (p.
159). In addition, they develop organizational structures such as department meetings and administrative teams to help in problem interpretation.
The final aspect to emerge from the data regarded specific influences on problem interpretation. Leithwood and Steinbach (1990) found four categories of influence; increased experience, personal values, the larger school system context, and principals' attitudes toward problem solving. According to the data, as effective principals gained experience, they demonstrated evidence of "greater reflection on their problem-solving processes," "a more collaborative approach to problem solving," and a "relative ease with which previously experienced problems could be solved" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 162). Similarly, the influence of personal values also seemed to increase in proportion to the principals' effectiveness in the role, experience, and problem-relevant knowledge
(Begley & Leithwood, 1989; Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). In addition, the problem solving of these principals was affected by the broader school system in the form of board policies and procedures, the autonomy and high performance expectations for the principal's role, and board resources (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Finally, principals' attitudes toward problem solving influenced their practice. Evidence from the data implied that effective principals perceived problem solving as a distinct process, enjoyed
61 the challenge of new problems, viewed problems as opportunities, and demonstrated self- confidence about their ability to deal with problems (LeiIhwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Clearly, Leithwood's and Steinbach's (1995) work calls attention to the salience of problem interpretation in school administration. How administrators understand the complex problems they face may ultimately influence the course of school reform. Given the abundance in schools of such complex and value-laden conflicts, expert problem interpretation is crucial to effective school leadership.
Values in Educational Problem Solving
"Values are a critical aspect of [expert] thinking and problem solving (f rankena,
1973; Rokeach, 1973)" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 172). As a result, the degree to which educational administrative problem solvers employ values is a clear indicator of differences between experts and nonexperts. Research agrees, suggesting that "experts were much clearer about their values, and, as a consequence, could and did use them as substitutes for more problem-specific knowledge" (p. 174). Expert school problem solvers also use values as "perceptual screens" for deciding what contextual aspects of a problem will be considered (p. 176). In sum, it appears that expertise in educational administrative problem solving requires domain-specific knowledge "of one's own values, the values of others with a stake in the problem and how to resolve value conflict productively" (p. 312).
As mentioned earlier, Leithwood's early research on problem solving did not address the role of values. Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) explain, "It was not until we began frequently tripping over them in our data that we began to realize their central
62 importance" (p. 172). Subsequent research on the role of values in administrative problem solving addressed five major questions:
• What is the role of values in administrative problem solving?
• What types of values are reflected in administrative problem solving?
• What is the correlation between administrators' expertise and values?
• How do administrators address problems that involve value conflicts?
• What influences shape administrators' values? (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995)
Three studies were conducted to clarify the role of values in administrative problem solving. One study by Begley and Leithwood (1989) addressed the influence of values on decisions about the adoption and implementation of computer technology in schools (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Due to the "preeminent role" of values In the adoption decision and to "the number of school leaders in the study who decided to adopt computers in the absence of knowledge about the consequences for students and others,"
Begley and Leithwood concluded that "values are capable of dictating behavior without any (or much) regard for facts" (p. 175). Two additional studies examined the role of external influences (e.g., time and money) and internal influences (e.g., beliefs and values) on school administrators' problem solving (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). In sum, the results of these three studies suggest that, for experts, "dominant values appear to play an especially explicit and important role ...at key points in the problem solving process" (p. 176).
With regard to the kinds of values employed by expert problem solvers,
Leithwood, Begley, and Cousins (1990) identified four sets of value categories relevant to administrative problem solving: basic human values (freedom, happiness, knowledge,
63 respect for others, and survival), general moral values (carefulness, fairness, courage),
professional values (general responsibility, role responsibility, consequences for students,
consequences for others), and social and political values (participation, sharing, loyalty,
solidarity, commitment, and helping others). Later, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995)
employed these categories to compare the results of four studies o f values used in
administrative problem solving. The frequency of statements coded in the verbal
protocols suggested that school administrators most frequently rely upon their basic
human values and professional values when problem solving (Leithwood & Steinbach,
1995).
Studies designed to investigate the relationship between administrative expertise and values revealed that a strong relationship existed between the level of expertise and, especially, basic human values (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Nonexperts most frequently mentionedrespect for others, while experts centered their concerns on knowledge (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). When faced with ill-structured problems, the experts relied more frequently on theirspecific role responsibility and placed greater emphasis on the consequences to students (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
Leithwood's and Steinbach's (1995) research regarding how administrators solve conflicts between competing values found that principals encountered two types of value conflicts; "competition between two or more values for recognition in the formulation of a solution" and conflict between the administrators' "strongly-held set of values and their actions" (p. 185). They observed that when faced with value conflicts principals employed either "deep and strong" methods, or "surface and weak" methods. Deep and
64 strong methods resembled the solution processes of expert principals with regard to other ill-structured problems and involved
taking considerable care and effort in the early stages to clarify the nature of the conflict; satisfying themselves that the problem could not be usefully interpreted as involving anything but serious value conflicts (i.e., avoiding such an interpretation where possible); and clarifying for themselves their own priority among the competing values, (pp. 185-186)
Upon clarification, principals used formal, organizational procedures as well as
"information collection, collaboration with others, and consensus-reaching techniques to resolve conflicts" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 186).
In contrast, principals applying surface and weak methods "seemed less clear about their own relevant values and had fewer existing procedures to call on as supports for their own actions" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 186). They frequently "sought out others' interpretations of the conflict and consulted with others about solutions" (p.
186). Without the initial effort to clarify the conflict, its source typically remained unclear. Overall, Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) suggest that "when principals encounter value conflicts, their responses are more productive when the conflict itself is treated as a problem and subjected to the same (deep and strong) processes that would be used with other types of ill-structured problems" (p. 187).
The final question addressed by Leithwood's work on values involved exploring the influences that shape the values used by administrators in their problem solving.
Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) suggest that the likely origin of these values can be found within the administrators' personal and professional life experiences. Although some influence may come from more formal situations, the greater influence seems to occur as the result of administrators' informal, or social, interactions.
65 Evidence from Leithwood's and Steinbach's (1995) examination of the development of superintendents' values suggests that although people are significant
influences,
the work setting was the most powerful force in the development of values in use. ...That is, superintendents' own direct experiences about what values are best, most sensible, successful, and the like in solving problems (through on-the-job leadership experiences, for example) may be the most powerful influence on the development of their professional values-in-use. (p. 192)
Values clearly play an integral role in educational administrative problem solving.
As Cuban (1996) writes, "Without a practical understanding of the value conflicts deeply rooted in educational administration, ...schools will continue to be administered as they are and face dim prospects for engaging in either meaningful or substantial reform" (p.
3). Cuban's warning emphasizes the need for expert administrative problem solvers who are clear about their values and capable of resolving value conflicts.
Cognitive Flexibility in Administrative Problem Solving
According to Leithwood and Steinbach (1995), "the disposition to think flexibly about problems" undergirds expert human problem solving (p. 195). Cognitive flexibility in problem solving involves "recognition and responsiveness to novel aspects of a problem; the degree of active control over one's thoughts and plans; how one interprets a situation; and change in one's knowledge, beliefs, and values as a function of that experience" (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 198). In contrast, inflexibility is defined as "tending to cling to favorite interpretations and not be responsive to situations; exercising little active control over moods, self-defeating cognitions, and dysfunctional strategies; being trapped by perceptually salient and cognitively available stimuli; and being resistant to change" (p. 198).
66 In order to identify the elements of cognitive flexibility and inflexibility,
Leithwood and Stager (1989) analyzed the interviews of twenty-two elementary school principals. Evidence trom their analyses suggested that the most frequent errors in cognitive flexibility involved the "overuse and misuse of theories and schemas"
(Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 205). Put simply, such inflexibility occurs when the principal fails to see the difference between the current problem and a similar problem encountered in the past, or when the principal fails to see that the current problem may not involve the same constraints as those present in a past situation (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995). Other incidences of inflexibility were evident when principals made poor judgments setting priorities due to the "vividness" of problems, or when basing their interpretation and resolution of a problem on limited or biased information (Leithwood &
Steinbach, 1995).
Interestingly, the results also suggested that mood, or motivation, plays an important role in cognitive flexibility. Here, three sources of motivation (personal goals, mood states, and problem-relevant knowledge) interact to direct the problem solver's interpretation and response to a problem (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). Evidence indicated that "there were several instances in which principals' moods produced considerable inflexibility and failure to examine alternative possible courses of action as judged, after the fact, by the principals themselves" (p. 210). However, a number of principals demonstrated strategies for responding to mood influences. Such strategies included understanding one's own limitations with regard to the type and number of problems one can solve so as to avoid frustration and being aware of the importance of
67 keeping one's own mood in check when solving problems alone or in groups (Leithwood
& Steinbach, 1995).
Cognitive flexibility facilitates expert administrative problem solving It increases access to and facilitates the growth of experiential and theoretic knowledge about educational problem solving. Further, flexible thinking extends the range of possible problem interpretations, goals, and solutions. For these reasons, it seems useful to address a key influence on cognitive flexibility, the personal characteristics of the problem solver.
Personal Characteristics Associated with Expert Problem Solving
Evidence from Leithwood's research seems to suggest that personal characteristics play a role in problem solving expertise. His work on group problem solving found a significant difference between novices' and experts' "feelings, mood, and sense of self- confidence" during problem solving (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 95). In addition, experts demonstrated more self-reflection and evaluation. In light of these findings, and the literature on expertise, this review now takes a closer look at three personal characteristics linked with expertise in problem solving: positive affect, self-efficacy in problem solving, and habits of self-reflection (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
The Influence o f Positive Mood. Cognitive perspectives view affective states as integrated with knowledge structures (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). They come to bear on expertise when they "shape the mood" associated with carrying out a cognitive procedure such as problem solving (p. 130). In her paper on positive affect and decision making, Isen (1997) writes:
Most people seem to have a sense that affect (feelings, emotion) can influence their decisions, at least under certain circumstances. However, it is usually 68 assumed that such influence is something irregular or unusual; that mostly strong and infrequent feelings would have such effects; and that most often only negative feelings such as anger, sadness, or fear would have an impact on thinking processes. ...Interestingly, however, a growing body of research indicates that even mild and even positive affective states can markedly influence everyday thought processes, and do so regularly, (p. 509)
How, then, do happy feelings impact problem solving? According to the research,
"the presence of positive feelings appears to cue positive material in memory, making access to such thoughts easier" and more likely to "come to mind" (Isen, 1997, p. 509).
Because "positive material is more extensive and diverse than other material, ...the cognitive context is more complex when a person is feeling happy, as a broader range of ideas is cued" (p. 511). Evidence from a study by Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) on positive affect in creative problem solving suggests that creativity is necessary when attempting to solve problems that require "making new associations and combining cognitive elements in new ways" (p. 1123). These scholars submit that "the large amounts of cognitive material cued by the positive affective state results in defocused attention ...and awareness of more aspects of stimuli and more possible ways of relating and combining them" (p. 1130). Hence, positive feelings facilitate an environment conducive to creative thinking that leads to effective solutions.
Interestingly, the notion of problem solving as a creative process offers particular relevance in the context of educational administration. For example, Csikszentmihalyi and Getzels (1970) define creativity as "concern for discovery." They argue that such creativity is necessary when problem solvers are faced with a "discovered problem situation." Here, "not only the solution but the problem itself must be 'discovered' by the problem-solver, and in fact when [he or she] reaches a solution, [he or she] cannot
69 compare it to a predetermined standard of right or wrong, but only, as in the case of a work of art, consider it critically" (p. 93). As stated earlier, many of the problems faced by school administrators are ill-defined, requiring considerable initial effort to find and then interpret the problem. Under these circumstances, it appears that administrators whose affect permits them to "approach an indeterminate but potentially creative situation with a "high concern for discovery'" may arrive at more effective solutions
(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970, p. 93).
In addition, research suggests that the influence of positive affect is related to problem type. According to Isen (1997), "if the task is unimportant and promises to be dull or unpleasant, those in a positive feeling state may decline to work on it or may work on it with as little effort as possible" (p. 511 ). In other words, "the impact of positive affect may not be the same for negative material as for other material" (p. 511 ). In fact, if negative materials are threatening enough, the problem solver may mentally walk away from the problem as positive feelings give way to fear and anxiety (Bransford & Stein,
1984).
Jackson and Dutton (1988) offer further insight on the influence of affect. They suggest that the problem solver's attitude is influenced significantly by whether a problem is perceived as a threat or as an opportunity. "Threat is distinct from opportunity in that threat has a negative connotation, and it is associated with lack of control and the expectation of loss" (p. 384). In contrast, opportunity "has a positive connotation, and it is associated with a feeling of control and the expectation of gain" (p. 384).
For opportunity, feelings of control seem to derive from perceived autonomy about how to respond and freedom to choose whether to respond, access to resources or means for resolving the issue, and feelings of personal competence. For threat, feelings of low control seem to derive from the perception that one's 70 actions will be constrained by others and feelings of low personal competence. (Jackson & Dutton, 1988, p. 384)
Here, perceptions of threat or opportunity have implications for the problem solving process. Jackson and Dutton (1988) write, "we would expect managers to avoid becoming involved in dealing with threats when it is feasible to do so, [and],
...conversely, we would expect managers to seek involvement in developing responses to opportunities" (p. 384). Bransford and Stein (1984) submit "problem solvers frequently employ a let me out of here' approach when a problem seem difficult and an answer does not immediately come to mind" (p. 4). They add, "there is a natural tendency to attempt to get out of the situation and to do something with a higher probability of success" (p. 4).
These differences in the problem solver’s responses would most likely result in "greater participation in the resolution of opportunities as compared to threats (Dutton and
Jackson, 1987)" (p. 384). In fact, "threats tend to be underrecognized and overinterpreted" (p. 385).
Evidence from a study by Jackson and Dutton (1988) indicated that problem solvers are more attentive to information that implies a threat than they are to information that implies an opportunity. Consequently, there exists a so-called "threat bias," or tendency to interpret "strategic issues as threats unless there is strong evidence to do otherwise" (p. 385). Such a notion implies that problem solvers, in general, adopt a defensive rather than an offensive attitude toward their task. From this perspective, problem discovery becomes the recognition of difficulties rather than the revelation of opportunities. Thus, the affect induced by a perceived threat appears to influence the search for a problem and, ultimately, the quality of its solution.
71 Taken together, these findings emphasize the influence of positive attitude on educational problem solving. They imply that expert school administrators possess an attitude for discovery, casting the problems they face as opportunities for change rather than threats to stability.
Efficacv Beliefs in Problem Solving. A second personal characteristic frequently associated with expert administrative problem solving is a strong sense of self-efficacy.
Bandura (1995) defines self-efficacy as "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective situations" (p. 2). He adds,
"efficacy beliefs influence how people think, feel, motivate themselves, and act" (p. 2).
Self-efficacy, however, is "situationally specific" (Dimmock & Hattie, 1996, p. 65).
Although it "may be generalisable across related situations, . . a strong sense of self- efficacy in one domain does not necessarily generalise across into other domains" (pp.
65-66).
Efficacy beliefs are created and strengthened through "four main forms of influence": mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional states (Bandura, 1995, pp. 3-4). Through mastery experiences, or by "overcoming obstacles through persévérant effort," self-efficacy is developed by "acquiring the cognitive, behavioral, and self-regulatory tools for creating and executing appropriate courses of action" (p. 3). Vicarious experience provides a
"social model" of self-efficacy through which people observe others like themselves persevere, thus increasing "observers’ beliefs that they, too, possess the capabilities to master comparable activities (Bandura, 1986: Schunk, 1987)" (p. 3). Social persuasion enhances peoples' sense o f self-efficacy when others verbally express confidence in one's
72 ability to master a specific task (Bandura, 1995). Physiological and emotional states influence efficacy beliefs in the way that people evaluate their physical and mood responses to certain tasks (Bandura, 1995). If a person's response to a challenging problem includes physical pain or depression, the person is likely to harbor self-doubts about his or her capability to solve the problem. Taken together, the information provided from each form of influence "gains its significance through cognitive processing, during which information is "selected, weighted, and integrated into self- efficacy judgments" according to "a host of factors, including personal, social, and situational ones" (Bandura, 1995,p. 5).
Lindsley, Brass, and Thomas (1995) offer a slightly difference perspective on the creating and developing efficacy beliefs. They posit that the relationship between efficacy and performance "is a positive, cyclic one" (p. 645). In other words,
"performance affects self-efficacy, which in turn affects performance, and so on" (p.
645). Lindsley et al. propose that we avoid positive and negative spirals in favor of self- correcting spirals in which "failures are encountered and adjustments are made (i.e. one learns from one’s mistakes)" (p. 650). In doing so, self-efficacy increases as one confronts and successfully corrects errors.
Another belief system that affects how efficacy-relevant information is processed deals with "peoples' beliefs about the extent to which their environment is influenceable or controllable " (Bandura, 1991,p. 269). Bandura (1991) submits that there are two aspects to "the exercise of control" that are particularly pertinent to the administration of organizations: efficacy to "effect changes by productive use of capabilities and enlistment of effort" and the level of constraints and opportunities to exercise personal efficacy (p.
73 269). Within this domain, "those who have a strong sense of efficacy, through ingenuity and perseverance, fig;ure out ways of exercising some measure of control in environments containing limited opportunities and many constraints" (p. 269). Said simply, individuals who believe themselves efficacious to control a problematic situation are likely capable of effecting significant change.
Self-efficacy beliefs play a significant role in regulating two processes integral to solving problems: cognitive processes and affective processes (Bandura, 1995).
Bandura ( 1995) addresses the influence of self-efficacy on cognition when he writes:
A major function of thought is to enable people to predict events and to develop ways to control those that affect their lives. Such problem-solving skills require effective cognitive processing of information that contains many complexities, ambiguities, and uncertainties. ... Indeed, when people are faced with the task of managing difficult environmental demands under taxing circumstances, ...those who maintain a resilient sense of efficacy set themselves challenging goals and use good analytical thinking, which pays off in performance accomplishments, fp. 6)
In light of our earlier discussion of affect and perceived threat or opportunity, self-efficacy's role has special significance. According to Bandura (1995), "efficacy beliefs regulate stress and anxiety ...by supporting effective modes of behavior that change threatening environments into safe ones" (p. 9). As a result, "the stronger the sense of efficacy the bolder people are in taking on problematic situations that generate stress and the greater their success in shaping them more to their liking" (p. 9). Such a notion is particularly relevant to educational administration, where school leaders often face problems that generate anxiety and stress. Clearly, in these situations, the school leader's sense of efficacy helps to control his or her affective response and provides the
74 confidence and courage necessary to discover and solve existing problems and, further, to recast difficult situations as potential opportunities.
As stated earlier, administrative problem solving requires not only individual but collective effort. Bandura's (1991, 1995) notion of collective efficacy, which extends the construct from the individual to the group, offers a useful way to think about the influence of a group's belief that it can effectively solve a problem. Although efficacy beliefs primarily reside in the individual, there are certain "group-based beliefs" that emerge from "common exposure of members to objective stimuli (such as outcomes of group performance) and the processes of social influence and social comparison
(Lindsley, Brass, and Thomas, 1995, p. 648). "The strength of families, communities, social institutions, and even nations lies partly in people's sense of collective efficacy that they can solve the problems they face and improve their lives through unified effort"
(Bandura, 1995,p. 35).
Collective efficacy in schools, as in other organizations, does not come easily.
Bureaucratic structures, diverse self-interests, and a pervasive sense of powerlessness in the face of mounting social and political problems undermine its development (Bandura,
1995). Unfortunately, "schools in which the staffs collectively judge themselves as powerless, ...convey a group sense of [futility] ...that can pervade the entire life of the school" (p. 20), including the collaborative efforts of school community members on behalf of school reform. Given the importance of collective efficacy, the challenge for educational administrators is to create a collaborative zone of proximal development wherein participants gain a collective sense of efficacy through the shared experiences of successful group problem solvers.
75 Habits oF Self and Collective Reflection. In addition to positive affect and a
strong sense of efficacy, expert administrative problem solvers demonstrate habits of
reflection. As stated earlier, all elements of problem solving, from interpretation to solution, require careful consideration and analysis. However, for expert administrative
problem solvers, reflection extends beyond the problems themselves. It challenges problem solvers to consider their own performance and, in doing so, to identify the need for improvement of practice, to clarify successful problem-solving strategies, to develop an awareness of artful problem solving, and to communicate their knowledge to others.
In other words, expert problem solvers reflect not only in action but on action when they engage in thoughtful consideration of their own problem-solving practice
Self-reflection and evaluation are "habits of the mind" that allow us to learn from experience (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 248). In general, the process of self reflection begins with a problem or an unexpected occurrence (Osterman, 1990). In order for the problem to stimulate change or growth, the problem solver must make meaning of the problem, examine it, and assess his or her actions in relation to the problem
(Osterman, 1990).
Out of this process of observation and reflection comes new meaning, alternative perspectives, and new views about how things work. These new perspectives then provide the rationale for experimentation. The learning process ends and begins anew as these new ideas become integrated into behavior, (p. 135)
When experts reflect upon their own problem solving, they question their assumptions (Ashbaugh & Kasten, 1993). They "identify flaws in their own arguments as well as the arguments made by others,... [and] attempt to define the nature of the flaws,.
. correct them, ...and look at the effects" (Bransford & Stein, 1984, p. 88). In addition.
76 they question the nature and purposes of their problem solving. How did I interpret the problem? What were my goals? What power relationships came to bear on my thinking?
Experts also engage in reflective dialogue, either internally through introspection or externally through a conversation with others (Ashbaugh & Kasten, 1993). When engaged in dialogue with others, experts filter their own thinking through the thinking of others, gathering helpful feedback about their assumptions and actions. Additionally, such interaction instructs others in reflective practice and encourages meaningful communication between and among staff and administration, a hallmark of expert educational administrative practice.
The Utilization of Computers in Expert Administrative Problem Solving
The introduction of computer technology into schools and the call for educational reform are "two of the most significant trends in education today" (Means, 1994, p. 2).
Wisely, proponents of school reform and technology have begun discussing the ways in which these two innovations can be intertwined supportively. Because meaningful reform efforts "must look not just at the classroom but at the whole system within which education takes place," (Means, 1994, p. 5) such a notion begs the question, what is the potential of computer technology to support educational reform through administrative practice?
If we believe, as stated earlier, that expert problem solving is the vehicle by which administrators direct the course of school reform, and that computer technology is a powerful tool for transforming schools, then we must address the efficacy of computers to support expert administrative problem solving. Therefore, this review now moves to a discussion of computer technology in educational administration.
77 Educational administrative computer use has its roots in the evolution of
instructional technology. We begin with a look at general technological innovations as
they influenced education and move to the advent of the computer as an instructional and administrative tool.
Technology in Education
Since the mid-nineteenth century, schools have engaged in a succession of technologies designed to improve instruction (Cuban, 1986). Chalk, slates and chalkboards, books, and pictures were among the first media used to enhance "the sole medium of instruction - teacher talk" (Cuban, 1986, pp. 3-4). The "durability, simplicity, and flexibility" of these technologies fit well with "the existing structure [of school]" and
"met the demands that teachers must face in their daily tasks" (Gormly, 1996,p. 277).
Shortly after the turn of the century, instructional use of films was viewed as progressive teaching. Film was perceived as "a medium for breathing reality into the spoken and printed word, stirring emotions and interest while taking up far less instructional time" (p. 11). However, cost, lack of teachers' skills, and inaccessibility of film blocked increased use (Cuban, 1986).
Beginning in 1920, radio was touted as the new medium of instruction (Gormly,
1996). Both commercial and educational radio stations began broadcasting educational programs including historical biographies, book discussions, civics lessons, dramas, and current events to classrooms (Cuban, 1986). Yet, a 1941 survey of almost 2,000 principals in Ohio, a state "far among others for using radio," found that only 15 percent of the schools regularly used radio broadcasts in classrooms (p. 23). These principals cited broadcast scheduling difficulties, poor signal reception, and the lack of continuity
78 between the programs and curricula as reasons for not using radio programming in their schools (Cuban, 1986; Gormly 1996). Perhaps even more significant, "half of the principals reported no equipment at all, and one in five said the equipment available was unsatisfactory" (Gormly, 1996, p. 268).
In the mid-1950s, television was lauded as "the device that would forever alter classrooms" (Gormly, 1996, p. 268). Advocates viewed television as a "surrogate teacher," capable of supplementing or even replacing formal instruction (Cuban, 1986, p.
29). However, despite these claims, the instructional use of television never really caught on. Research conducted between 1970 and 1981 found that teachers seldom used the television, and, when they did, their use was infrequent and for only "a tiny fraction of the instructional day" (p. 40). Teachers cited lack of equipment, poor reception, mediocre programming, and the difficulty of scheduling as "disincentives" for utilizing television in their classrooms (Gormly, 1996, p. 269). Once again, a promising instructional tool failed to achieve implementation due to the lack of necessary support, equipment, and teacher training.
In the late 1970s, the microcomputer moved to the forefront of instructional technology. Initially, schools purchased hardware and software to support drill and practice, with electronic workbooks and games dominating educational applications.
However, as educators gained computer experience, and as the quality and accessibility of technology improved, schools discovered the instructional potential of word processing, telecommunications, and subject-specific software that allowed students to perform virtual experiments, design art projects, compose music, or learn a foreign language. Clearly, computer technology was emerging as a valuable educational tool.
79 Today's schools are in various stages of blending computer technology into their
overall educational programs (Picciano, 1998). Although some schools have successfully
infused their programs with digital technology, others still struggle against a lack of
resources and support. A 1995 national report by the United States General Accounting
Office (GAO) found that although most schools report having "sufficient" computers and other basic technologies, "they do not have the technology infrastructure to fully support
them" (p. 10). The majority of states reported that "at least 50 percent of schools have six or more insufficient technology elements" (p. 35). Ohio reported an even higher
percentage of schools with insufficient computer resources, ranging from 70 and 79 percent (GAO, 1995).
These findings seem to suggest that, like past technological innovations, the instructional use of computers will be successful only to the extent that the necessary planning and resources support their implementation. Hence, wise administrators must engage their staffs in "thoughtful evaluation, discarding or improving what does not work, accepting and building on what does, and carefully planning for new applications"
(Picciano, 1998, p. 7). Important questions should be asked about the possibilities and limitations of computer technology as an instructional tool and about how best to engage children and teachers in this powerful medium.
Recently, scholars of educational administration have turned their attention toward the application of computer technology in the context of administrative practice
(e.g., Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Kearsley, 1988; Kearsley & Lynch, 1994). This body of work chronicles the history and use of computer technology as an administrative tool, but leaves unquestioned the limitations and possibilities of the computer to enhance
80 administrative practice. In an effort to frame new questions about administrative use of
computers, this discussion focuses on the literature surrounding computer technology in
educational administration.
Computer Technology in Educational Administration
The brief history of computer technology in educational administration began in
the 1950s when a limited number of large school districts, colleges, and universities
invested in data-processing machines to perform such routine business tasks as
accounting, payroll, and financial reporting (Bozeman & Spuck, 1994). Many of these early computers were actually tabulating machines operating with punch cards and hand- wired, single-application control panels which made processing slow and limited the range of applications (Bozeman, Raucher, & Spuck, 1991 ). As a result of their high cost, technological innovations such as these were not widespread among educational organizations.
A decade later, the availability of lease and purchase arrangements slightly increased the number school organizations gaining access to data-processing capabilities
(Bozeman, et al, 1991). This era saw trained programmers, data-entry workers, technicians, and computer analysts manning operations from the district business office where improved systems could now handle persoimel records, inventories, class rolls, grades, and student scheduling (Bozeman, et al, 1991). Concurrently, a surge of interest by computer manufacturers resulted in new software written and marketed for traditional and current administrative needs (Bozeman & Spuck, 1994). For the first time, educational organizations could approach such tasks as flexible scheduling, bus routing, master-schedule generating, and desegregation plans with the aid of computer
81 technology. Nonetheless, the bulk of "smaller school districts could afford neither the hardware nor expensive support staff that the large mainframe computer systems of the
1960s and early 1970s required" (Picciano, 1998, p. 6-7).
During the 1970s, computer technology continued lo gain ground in educational organizations. "With the combination of more sophisticated users, better understanding of the relationship between information and decision-making, more powerful hardware, and improved software, many school districts began to move forward into the integration stage of [computer-assisted school administration] development" (Bozeman, et al, 1991, p. 65). It is important to note, however, that computer operations remained primarily the province of the data-processing staff within the central business office. Larger school districts typically employed a data-processing specialist and support staff for computer operations, while smaller districts relied on consortia arrangements or service contracts
(Bozeman & Spuck, 1991). In most cases, the building administrator’s role in computer operations was to “clearly and intelligently communicate his or her specific requirements
[to the central office computer personnel] and utilize information relevant to school needs” (p. 517).
In the late 1970s, the advent of microcomputers altered the face of educational computing. Almost overnight, the wonders of computer technology came home in the form of the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh. A new generation o f technologically savvy citizens discovered a powerful tool for generating and managing stores of information.
Simultaneously, computer manufacturers targeted children and youth, developing hardware and software that could be used for fun (Picciano, 1998). Electronic games
82 captured youth interest and imagination while at the same time advancing skills, so that increasing numbers of students came to school computer literate (Picciano, 1998).
Before long, the computer industry began marketing their products to schools
(Picciano, 1998). Concerned parents, hearing reports about declining national test scores and the "deteriorating condition of American public schools," (Bozeman and Spuck,
1991, p. 514), looked to technology for solutions. Interested citizens urged school boards to purchase classroom computers in hopes of reforming an educational system judged "at risk in mathematics, science, technology, and other vital areas" (p. 514). Voter pressure prompted politicians to join in the push for technology-rich education. In the words of
Cuban (1986):
Growing concern . . drove corporate officials to examine public schools and to join lawmakers in correcting what became viewed as a national problem: the inefficiency of U.S. schools in producing sufficient numbers of engineers, mathematicians, technicians, and workers flexible enough to survive in a rapidly changing workplace, (p. 75)
The collective pressure for instructional computing pushed schools headlong into the information age. During the 1980s, schools began to make significant investments in computer technology, due, in part, to the "efforts of a handful of teachers and administrators who ... experimented with their own classes and schools ... [and] gradually won over more colleagues" with whom they "toiled to win political support and funding for technolog) " (Trotter, 1997c, p. 7). While teachers moved forward with plans to technologically enhance instruction, principals and superintendents began to consider the application of microcomputers to administrative responsibilities.
According to a 1987 Electronic Learning magazine poll of 328 district superintendents, assistant superintendents, principals, and their assistants regarding the
83 role of technology in school administration, three quarters of those responding personally used a computer, mostly for word processing (Barbour, 1987). When asked to identify the tasks they performed on the computer, 39 percent cited student/personal record keeping, with attendance, class scheduling, inventory management, and budgeting close behind (Barbour, 1987). The survey also inquired as to what these administrators perceived as the main benefit of computer technology. A little over half of those responding identified “the reduction of paperwork” and “the amount of time it saves over conventional paper-based methods” (p. 19). Thirty-percent of the administrators pointed to “the ease with which stored information can be accessed ... and arranged,” while others touted “the accuracy of the information and reports generated as being particularly valuable” (p. 20).
Taken together, these data seem to say that today's school administrators recognize the ability of the computer to efficiently process information. Nonetheless, according to scholars, the majority of school administrators do not possess the skills necessary to effectively utilize computer technology (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Kearsley,
1988; Spuck & Bozeman, 1988; Trotter, 1997b). Although the research on administrative computer use is sparse, it attributes the low level of skill primarily to the lack of formal training. Much discussion revolves around the need to improve preparation programs for school administrators (e.g., Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Kearsley,
1988; Spuck & Bozeman, 1988). And yet, the research also seems to imply that administrative computer expertise might be related to the possession of specific attitudes and characteristics. In light of the possible relationship among attitude, skill, and usage.
84 this review now explores the literature surrounding the necessary competencies for and
perceptions related to administrative technological expertise.
Administrative Technological Competencies
Bozeman and Spuck (1991) corrtend that administrators’ knowledge and
proficiency in "technology and applications o f technology to education are essential to
effective instructional leadership, expert decision making, and competent management"
(p. 515). With that said, what specific capabilities should school administrators possess
in order to be deemed proficient and knowledgeable?
Recent survey research on computer training for educational leaders offers some
insight into skills and abilities related to effective computer use (e.g., Bozeman & Spuck,
1991; Kearsley, 1988; Thomas & Knezek, 1991 ; Spuck & Bozeman, 1988). For example,
Kearsley (1988) contends that there are five general competencies for educational
administrators. They include the ability to;
• describe the possible administrative uses of computers;
• determine what applications are appropriate for a given school;
• select the best software and hardware for a given administrative application;
• develop successful implementation plans for computer applications; and
• use computers as a personal productivity tool. (p. 65)
With regard to specific skills, word processing, database, and spreadsheet are three of the skills most frequently associated with computer competence (see Bozeman &
Spuck, 1991; Kearsley, 1988; Thomas & Knezek, 1991; Spuck & Bozeman, 1988).
Furthennore, survey research by Thomas and Knezek (1991) on the role of technology in
85 restructured schools suggests that the definition of technological competence should also include the ability of administrators to use the computer for;
• facilities planning and management;
• financial management planning and reporting;
• student, teacher, classroom scheduling;
• networking and communications;
• personnel management;
• forecasting enrollments and demographics; and
• inventory control.
These scholars submit that administrators also should possess knowledge and/or skill in:
• public relations to promote technology;
• application of research findings;
• planning computer implementation;
• emerging technology;
• student assessment;
• supporting instruction with technology; and
• facilitating and designing appropriate staff development.
As suggested earlier, computer-literate administrators are not only effective users of technology themselves, but effective managers of technology within their schools
(Bozeman & Spuck, 1991). Kearsley and Lynch (1994) contend effective technology leaders:
86 • ensure equal access and opportunity to technology resources;
• ensure that facilities for technology are appropriate;
• establish priorities for technology use in school;
• provide released time for technology training; and
• seek out funding sources for technology, (p. 9)
Most important, "if the principal is to be a true instructional leader, a knowledge of instructional technology is essential. The promise of computer based education, coupled with rapidly declining costs of the technology, has resulted in many possibilities for curricular reform" (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991, p. 517). Regrettably, however, "the intelligent integration of technology into the curriculum of American schools is not commonplace" (p. 517). Some scholars suggest that administrators, in general, lack fundamental knowledge of instructional technology (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Trotter,
1997b). Still others attribute the poor use of instructional technology to;
• lack of adequate time or funds to properly implement technology;
• use of technology for its own sake rather than genuine need;
• unequal access creating "have" and "have not" groups;
• poorly designed facilities resulting in limited access;
• poor results causing negative attitudes about technology; and
• overt resistance on the part of potential users. (Kearsley & Lynch, 1994,p. 11)
In sum, research implies that if schools are to realize the potential of computer technology and avoid implementation problems, school administrators should possess specific technology-related knowledge and skills (Kearsley & Lynch, 1994). Research also contends that such competencies arise only from effective formal training
87 combined with practical experience (Bozeman et al, 1991; Bozeman & Spuck, 1991;
Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Trotter, 1997b; Spuck& Bozeman, 1988)
Administrative Perceptions
According to the literature, administrators who effectively implement computer technology also may possess certain attitudes, perceptions, or beliefs about computer use.
Rice & Aydin (1991) contend that "user attitudes toward [computers] are crucial factors in the success of such systems" (p. 221). Evidence suggests that educational administrators who effectively utilize computers hold five, general perceptions about computer use. First, effective technology leaders believe in the computer's capacity to effect meaningful educational reform (Kearsley & Lynch, 1994). From their perspective, computer technology can assist in addressing the problems of administrative practice and the challenges of instructional improvement (Bozeman, et al, 1991). Second, efficacious technology leaders develop and articulate a vision of how technology can help achieve educational goals (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Kearsley & Lynch, 1994). They seek to construct shared values and beliefs about educational computer use and aim to sustain those beliefs with "social and technical support structures" (Kearsley & Lynch, 1994,p.
7).
In addition to beliefs about and a vision of computer capacity, effective technology leaders believe that data are a valuable decision-making resource (Bozeman, et al, 1991; Trotter, 1997a). They respect the power of data to inform and convince, and they understand the computer's capacity to access, store, generate, and communicate educationally relevant data. Yet, they also realize that "merely collecting a plethora of data" does not guarantee solutions (Bozeman, et al, 1991, p. 71). Said simply,
88 competent technology leaders recognize the human component of technology, the need to
critically examine and probe relationships within the data (Bozeman, et al, 1991).
Fourth, competent educational technology leaders believe that computer
technology can support communication (Bozeman et al, 1991; Bozeman & Spuck, 1991;
Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Trotter, 1997b; Spuck & Bozeman, 1988). They recognize the
potential of computers to link valuable student information with professional knowledge
in ways that promote meaningful instructional reform. Trotter (1997b) explains:
Developing a data infrastructure ... [gives] schools an unprecedented ability to manage their budgets, buy supplies, hire teachers, and analyze student data. ... [It] lets principals or teachers delve into district records for their students' test scores, attendance patterns, or even health information and sort it to create profiles of individual schools or classes, (p. 33)
Capable technology leaders recognize that computer networks allow educators to access and analyze pertinent decision-making data and to transform that data to knowledge that may improve instructional practice. Zehr ( 1997) writes, "teachers as well as principals say they make different decisions when they have precise data about their resources and students" (p. 24). Thomas and Knezek (1991) agree: "Greater wealth of information and efficiency of access to that information empower [staff] with necessary research to make higher level decisions" (p. 270). Hence, technologically effective school leaders believe that computer networks have the potential to facilitate information- rich communication among staff, communication through which administrative problems may be identified, clarified, or even solved collaboratively.
Finally, competent technology leaders believe in their own capability to use the computer to complete required tasks. Put simply, they possess a strong sense of computer self-efficacy. Research on the relationship between self-efficacy and
89 computers submits that efficacy beliefs may critically influence school administrators'
computer use (e.g., Ellen, Beardon, & Sharma, 1991; Kinzie, Delcourt, & Powers, 1994;
Olivier & Shapiro, 1993). In general, the administrator’s sense of computer efficacy is
thought to influence "the choice to engage in [computer use], as well as the effort that
will be expended and the persistence that will be exhibited (Bandura, 1977; Schunk,
1985)" (Kinzie et al, 1994, p. 747). Some studies suggest that the development of
computer self-efficacy, like that of other efficacy beliefs, is most strongly influenced by direct computer experience (Kinzie, et al, 1994; Nash & Moroz, 1997; Oliver & Shapiro,
1993). Others maintain that vicarious computer experience, or observing someone else successfully perform specific computer applications, increases feelings of control and confidence (Oliver & Shapiro, 1993).
Increasingly, computer self-efficacy literature notes the salient connection between positive attitude and efficacy beliefs. In her study of computer self-efficacy,
Jorde-Bloom (1988) concluded although "self-efficacy is a major factor in influencing
[computer use], it would be erroneous to assume that it is the sole determinant. Other personal characteristics, aptitudes, related cognitions, and environmental considerations also serve as powerful motivators in determining [computer use]" (p. 60). In fact, some evidence suggests that user attitudes toward computers are "precursors of self-efficacy,"
(Kinzie et al, 1994, p. 766) contributing "significantly to prediction of self-efficacy for computer technology " (p. 765).
Self-efficacy for word processing, electronic mail, spreadsheets, database problems, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases were all positively related to experience in using the technology (through frequency of use and by learning about it in a class) and attitudes toward computer technologies (perceived usefulness and comfort/anxiety levels). Even after accounting for the contributions made by demographic variables..., course, experience, and 90 frequency of use, it is worth noting that attitudes contributed significant amounts to the explained variance in self-efficacy response, (pp. 765-766)
In conclusion, the literature regarding school administrators' perceptions about computer use seems to suggest administrative beliefs and attitudes influence their utilization of computers. In other words, the way in which school leaders think about computer technology determines their effectiveness as instructional technology leaders and administrative technology users.
Educational Administrative Computer Use: A Grounded Theory
In an initial attempt to understand computer use in administrative problem solving, a pilot study was conducted (see Chapter 3 for details of the study). Findings from the study provide information about school administrators' computer use as well insights that appear to extend Leithwood's notion of problem solving in a direction that precedes interpretation. Administrators' responses draw attention to the role of problem finding and to the influence of creative and intuitive thinking within the problem-finding process. Consequently, this review now turns to the literature surrounding problem finding and intuition.
Problem Finding
Finding the problem is the key to educational reform. In theory, the change process begins with recognition of a problem. How that problem is defined, shapes the solutions that are developed and, ultimately, influences the success of the reform process. (Osteiman, 1993, p. 59)
With these words, Osterman emphasizes the significance of problem finding in expert educational administration. Like Leithwood (1995), she reminds us that expert educational administrators are problem solversand problem finders, seeking not only to solve existing problems, but to raise new questions, discover new possibilities, and
91 consider old problems from a new perspective (Einstein & Infeld, 1938). For these
reasons, a look ai problem-finding literature informs our understanding of expert
administrative problem solving.
In its most comprehensive form, problem finding refers to "those activities,
processes, and events which precede the solving of a clearly posed problem," (Dillon,
1982, p. 102). Although, "the first step in most schemes of problem solving is, simply, a
given problem, that step may accordingly be viewed as the last step of problem finding,
that process which eventuates in a problem to solve" (p. 102). "Because it occurs first,
and because the quality of a problem may in part determine the quality of solutions,"
problem finding may be crucial to effective problem solving (Runco & Okuda, 1987, p.
212).
Across the literature, scholars articulate the importance of problem finding by drawing distinctions between problem finding and problem solving. In differentiating between the two processes, Mackworth (1965) contends that"problem xolving is a choice between existing programs or sets o f mental rules - whereas - problem finding is the detection o f the need for a new program based on a choice between existing and expected future programs" (p. 57). Given that "problematic situations do not present themselves automatically as problems capable of solution, ...they must be formulated in creative ways if they are to be moved to creative solutions" (Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, p.
90). From this perspective, educational administrative problem solvers interested in affecting meaningful reform must be as adept at finding problems as they are at finding solutions.
92 A problem-finding approach to school administration requires a broad notion of
the term problem. At one extreme, "a problem may refer to an undesirable situation the
individual wishes to avoid," while at the other, "it may refer to a desirable situation the
individual strives to find or create" (Getzels, 1979, p. 7). From this standpoint, the usual
conception of a problem as a barrier to a goal "is misleading and by no means covers the
variety of problematic situations" (p. 7). Argyris and Schon (1996) conceive of problem
finding as Deweyan (1938) inquiry, "the detection ...of a mismatch of outcomes to
expectations, that triggers awareness of a problematic situation and sets in motion the
inquiry aimed at correcting the error" (p. 31). Such a notion extends problem finding
from the individual to the collective "when individuals inquire on behalf of the
organization, within a community of inquiry, governed, formally or informally, by the
roles and rules of the organization" (p. 33).
Getzels (1979) suggests that three categories of problems; presented problems,
discovered problems, and created problems, better conceptualize the problem-finding
milieu. These problem situations differ according to "whether the problem already exists,
who [presents] it, and whether it has a known formulation, known method of solution, or
known solution," (p. 7). Presented problems are well defined. They are presented to the problem solver, have "a known method of solution entailing a series of more or less
logical steps," and have "a solution ...whose ultimate correctness is known and which permits of little or no deviation" (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970, p. 92). Discovered
problems are ill defined, having no known formulation, method of solution, or solution
(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970). Here, the administrative problem solver "must
formulate the problem ...before he [or she] can begin to envisage a method toward its
93 solution ...and when the solution is obtained, [the problem solver] has no immediate
criterion as to its ultimate correctness " (p. 93). Created problems do not exist at all until
someone "invents or creates" them (Getzels, 1979, p. 8). These are the problems "that one strives to find and formulate" (p. 8). Given these three categories of problems, we
can see that problem finding exists primarily in the context of ill-defined problems, where educational administrative problem solvers discover or create opportunities for change by
"grubbing around in the roots of knowledge, searching for the unexpected" (Mackworth,
1965, p. 54).
In light of the need for educational administrators who can find problems, it seems useful to address the skills and knowledge conducive to a "concern for discovery"
(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970, p. 94). Arlin (1975) writes that problem finding involves "flexibility, fluency, elaboration, and a high degree of integration in processing
information; ...[therefore] it seems natural to conclude that the good problem finder has developed a degree of sophistication in his [or her] own cognitive development" (p. 101).
Basadur, Graen, and Wakabayashi (1990) posit problem finders as prol iterators "of opportunities, problems, facts, and feelings, ... sensitive to the world around, absorbing diverse information and possibilities that might have relevance to one’s interests and goals" (p. 114). Others remind us that simply finding the problem will not eventuate in a valuable solution (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1970). Hence, requisite technical skill and knowledge must support an attitude for discovery (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels,
1970).
In sum, the literature seems to support the notion that successful problem finding is key to meaningful educational cfiange. Such a notion casts school administrators as
94 inquirers, gathering and searching information for important questions. It points again to the cognitive aspect of educational leadership, reinforcing the need for school administrators who think flexibly and have the capacity to view problems from various perspectives. Overall, it suggests that expert educational leaders dig deeper, ask more questions, find more facts, anticipate more problems, and sense more opportunities for change.
Intuition
As stated earlier, information is crucial to expert educational administrative problem solving. Consequently, administrative problem solvers gather and consider problem-pertinent information from several sources. One source of information frequently used, and increasingly acknowledged, is intuition (Agor, 1986). Intuition provides information relevant to both problem solving and problem finding.
Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels (1970) submit that "the problem-solving process leading to a creative product begins with only a diffuse feeling of unease about a general problematic area before the actual problem is visualized" (p. 94). This feeling, or intuition, is "the first step in the process (and perhaps the crucial step)," involving "activity in discovering the problem itself (p. 94). The potential of intuition to influence educational administrative problem solving seems to suggest that a brief review of the theory surrounding intuition may inform the larger discussion.
In general, intuition is described as "a way of 'knowing' occurring spontaneously, without the conscious use of logic or analytical reasoning" (Parikh, 1994,p. 2). Scholars suggest that, fully developed, intuition is highly effective (Agor, 1986). It produces "a wide array of information on many levels and [provides] an instantaneous cue [for
95 action]" (p. 6). Through intuition, "we have the answer even though we do not
understand ail the steps or know folly all the information our system processed to give us
this cue" (p. 6).
Scholars suggest that intuition functions on four levels of awareness; physical,
emotional, spiritual, and mental (Agor, 1986; Vaughan, 1979). Intuition at the physical
level is associated with strong body responses and at the emotional level with feelings
(Agor, 1986; Vaughan, 1979). At the spiritual level, intuition is independent of
sensations and feelings. This level of "pure intuition ...transcends rational, dualistic
ways of knowing," emphasizing the "transpersonal" and "underlying oneness of life" (p.
77-78). Intuition that functions on the mental level "refers particularly to those aspects of
intuition related to thinking. Thus, intuition on this level is often associated with problem
solving, mathematics, and scientific inquiry"(p. 73).
Although much of the current literature centers on the role of intuition in
organizational management, until recently, managers’ intuitive thinking was largely
ignored. Businesses of the 1960s and 1970s faced problems best solved by relying on
"hard facts and tough analysis" (Parikh, 1994, p. II). "The overriding managerial
priority was to analyze multiple options and select skillfully from among them" (p. 11).
However, by the 1980s, "stagnating markets, enormous restructuring efforts, and growing
unemployment problems" sparked questions about "whether the problems faced by
tomorrow's managers will be solved quite so readily by the powers of shrewd analysis
alone" (p. 12). Traditional management watched as a new generation of "innovative,
largely intuitive" owners and managers transformed minor companies into major successes (p. 13).
96 Over time, scholars and practitioners have acknowledged that "the conventional, analytical, logical patterns of thinking are no longer sufficient either to understand or to cope with the current and emerging scenarios" (Parikh, 1994, p. 2). Top management positions "require a greater capacity to solve complex problems, deal with uncertainty, motivate subordinates to act, and integrate factual information" (Agor, 1986,p. 20).
Consequently, "the ability to diagnose problems created by rapid change, complexity, and conflict may require an intuitive frame of mind ...characterized by the ability to step back mentally and emotionally and size things up" (Parikh, 1994, p. 30). From this perspective, managers need "a deeper level of perception" to function effectively (p. 2).
The recognition of intuition "as a major component of good management" (p. 13) has encouraged scholars to investigate managers' perceptions and use of intuitive thinking. In a recent national survey of top/senior managers in private sector organizations, "nearly half of the managers stated that they use intuition and logic/reasoning in almost equal measure in their professional lives" (Parikh, 1994,p.
213). Over seventy-five percent could cite actual instances of intuition use, with over half of them citing more (Parikh, 1994). However, top executives are also quick to stress that "they consider intuition to be only one resource for guiding their decisions (Agor,
1986). "They believe that good intuitive decisions are in part based on input from facts and experience gained over the years combined and integrated with a well-honed sensitivity/opermess to other more right brain cues" (Agor, 1986, p. 28).
Such findings seem to suggest that intuition, when used in concert with other information sources, provides a valuable source of problem-solving information. Here, problem-solving expertise lies in the balance between intuitive and analytical thinking.
97 Baron (1998) submits "intuitions can be useful when we correctly perceive them as part
of the story rather than the whole story" (p. 7). He suggests that they become
problematic "when we think in a way that protects whichever idea grips us fîrst"(p. 7).
Sternberg and Davidson (1982) agree:
It seems to us ... that the most successful problem solvers are those who manage to combine both [intuitive] and [analytic] styles. ...At certain points in the problem-solving process they act on impulse; at other times, they act only after great reflection. The hard part is knowing which style will pay off at which point in solving problems, (p. 44)
Given that school administrators are leadersand managers, the notion of intuitive
thinking seems aptly applied to the educational problem-solving milieu. As discussed
earlier, the context of school administrative problem solving is complex and rapidly
changing. Educational administrators must sort through abundant information and ill-
defined situations in order to find and solve problems. In such an environment, "there is
a premium on knowing the appropriate level of attention to any detail" (Parikh, p. 18).
"The ability to tap into an intuitive frame of mind can allow busy managers to select clear
criteria among the conflicts inherent in ...dynamic and unstable [situations]" (Parikh,
1994, p. 20). Parikh (1994) argues that "ill-structured problems which do not lend
themselves to conventional analytical treatment...require [italics added] intuition" (p. 7).
Cappon (1994) agrees, adding that "missing data, the presence of innumerable knowables
and the crucial unknowables, [and] the dynamic interaction between variables affecting
decisions ...are the specific conditions and situations of problems to be solved which
require maximum intuition" (Cappon, 1994, p. 173). If we recall earlier descriptions of the problems faced by school administrators, we can see where the use of intuition in
educational problem solving might be appropriate.
98 The literature also implies the potential use of intuition for problem discovery.
In today's turbulent, ever changing environment, it becomes imperative to solve problems and to avoid hazards proactively. By the time we react, it might be too late. Therefore, we need the full complement of intuitive skills in order to tackle proactively the main problems of the day. (Cappon, 1994,p. 4)
Here, Cappon's reference to proactive problem solving suggests that intuition might aid in finding problems before they develop. Such a notion implies that intuition be used "to identify simple underlying patterns" pointing to the problematic (Cappon,
1994, p. 18). Once again, such a notion fits well in the educational context. In his article on problem finding and teacher experience, Moore (1990) submits "while most teachers can solve problem, good teachers are often said to sense problem before they arise. Thus, by sensing the emerging problem, the teacher can find the real problem and solve it before it develops" (p. 40).
In sum, intuition appears to offer educational administrators a potentially valuable source of problem-solving and problem-finding information. Such a perspective on administrative problem solving views expertise as a situation-sensitive blend of intuition and other pertinent data. Given the complex and ill-defined nature of educational problems, "trusting one's gut feeling" (Parikh, 1994, p. 30) might be among the most valuable resources a school leader can employ.
Conclusions and Implications
Effective educational leaders are expert problem solvers and problem finders.
The problems they discover and the solutions they create reinforce the values, beliefs, and norms that support effective school cultures. From discovery to solution, expert administrative problem solving is a cognitive process. It requires school administrators
99 to find, discriminate, and reflect upon pertinent information. It asks administrative problem solvers to think flexibly and creatively as they search for and connect salient patterns among the data. And it enjoins school leaders, as individual and collaborative problem solvers, to communicate their thinking in ways that promote meaningful educational reform.
For nearly forty years, educational administrators have employed information technology to address certain problems of practice. Early on, computers were used primarily for data processing tasks such as payroll, inventories, and personnel records.
Later, the influx of microcomputers and user-friendly software increased the number o f school administrators using word processing and administrative-specific applications to address written communication and management tasks such as scheduling and student- record keeping. Currently, school administrators with access to updated computer systems and telecommunications have the potential to retrieve, process, and communicate salient student and administrative data, increasing their capacity to process problem relevant information digitally as well as cognitively.
Given the potential for computer technology to support educational administrative practice, this study seeks to understand the possibilities and limitations of computer technology as a problem-solving and problem-finding support tool. In order to do so, the study focuses on one expert school administrator's computer use in the context of his problem-solving practice. By studying an administrator who demonstrates expertise in problem solving, who has the technological capacity, and who is currently applying computer technology to his problem-solving practice, this study offers in-depth and
too detailed illustration of how educational administrative problem solvers might utilize computer technology to improve their practice.
101 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The selection of a particular research design and methodology is determined by
"hew the problem is defined and the questions it raises " (Merriam, 1988, p. 29). Given that the purpose of this study is to explore an expert administrative problem solver's computer use "in depth and detail" (Patton, 1990, p. 13), a qualitative research design and methodology was chosen. Further, because decisions about the type of research design were made following a pilot study, a brief look at that study is warranted.
Research Design as Informed by a Pilot Study
A qualitative, pilot interview study was conducted to explore how school administrators utilize computer technology as a means of communication and, further, how they use the information made available through technology to identify and solve problems. More specifically, this phase of research examined the following questions:
• In the context of what experience, training, and computer capacity do these principals
practice?
• How do these principals identify and solve common problems of practice?
• In what ways do they utilize computer technology in understanding and solving
problems?
102 • Under what conditions does the use of computer technology and the information It
generates help to differentiate more or less successful problem solving?
The primary unit of analysis for the pilot study was the individual school
principal. Participants were eleven, public school principals practicing in a large, urban,
Midwestern school district. These six elementary, one middle, and four high school
principals were selected purposefully (Patton, 1990), representing school administrators
at each instructional level. Their location in a large, urban setting, where access to
computer technology was not unlimited, positioned these principals within an educational
environment typical of those of many school leaders across the country.
Each participant was interviewed about his or her problem solving and use of
computer technology (see Appendix A for pilot interview protocol). Individual
interviews were taped, transcribed, and returned to the appropriate participant for
corrections, deletions, and additions. Data were collected using a standardized, open- ended interview (Patton, 1990). Interview questions were crafted to generate general
background information; to inquire into the participant's computer experience, training, comfort, and skill; to probe into each participant's problem-solving process; to access
information about the participant's use of computer technology; and to explore his or her perceptions about computers. Drawing on methods employed by Leithwood and
Steinbach (1995), each participant was asked to select, reflect upon, and narrate a challenging problem he or she recently faced.
All these data were organized, classified, and coded. Content analyses methods were employed to interpret the data, searching for emerging themes across all eleven schools and school principals, as well as teasing out the anomalies. A coding system,
103 developed by Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) and based on their six problem-solving components (problem interpretation, goal setting, principles/values, identifying
constraints, solution processes, and mood/affect), was used as a lens through which to view problem solving. Further, the researcher developed codes for the analysis of computer use in problem solving by merging patterns from the data with the relevant literature.
The findings of the pilot study directed decisions regarding the current study's methodology and appropriate unit of analysis. From the findings emerged a continuum of school administrators' computer use influenced by such factors as computer capacity, principals' perceptions of and competence with computers, and problem-solving expertise. Identifying a broad spectrum of administrative computer use and capacity, although instructive, offers limited substantive knowledge about the ways in which computer technology might promote efficacious educational problem solving. It begs a closer look at a school administrator who has problem-solving expertise and the computer competence and capacity to support it. In other words, the pilot study seemed to suggest that if we are to understand how, why, when, and to what degree computer technology supports effective problem solving, then we should study, in depth, a school administrator who can show us.
Thus, the research design selected for this study is the instrumental, single case study (Stake, 1994). Case study is particularly useful "where one needs to understand some special [person], particular problem, or unique situation in great depth, and where one can identify [a case] rich in information - rich in the sense that a great deal can be learned" (Patton, 1990, p. 54). In the instrumental case study, "the case is of secondary
104 interest; it plays a supportive role, facilitating our understanding of something else"
(Stake, 1994, p. 237). Here, the choice to study an expert administrative problem solver was made "because [that case] is expected to advance our understanding of something else," specifically the effective application of computer technology to educational administrative problem solving (p. 237).
Delineation of the Case
The participant for this instrumental case study is the principal of an urban public high school, one of the original eleven principals included in the pilot study. This educational administrator was selected purposefully (Patton, 1990) based primarily on his identification as an expert administrative problem solver (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995) and as an efficacious user and capacity-builder of computer technology. His selection was enhanced by the fact that he practices in a large, urban school district where access to computer technology typically is not unlimited. Consequently, this information-rich case provided the opportunity to "learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research" (Patton, 1994,p. 169). It appeared, in Patton's words, to be"the site that would yield the most information and have the greatest impact on the development of knowledge" regarding computer use in the context of administrative problem solving (p. 174)
Gaining Access
Initial access to this case was gained through the participant's cooperation on two prior research projects on which the researcher served as graduate assistant Upon the participant's identification as the critical case (Patton, 1990; Yin, 1994) for the current study, the researcher asked for his cooperation once again, this time, as the sole focus of
105 an in-depth case study. The participant accepted the proposal enthusiastically, offering access to any manner of pertinent information. From this point, gaining access became
"largely a matter of establishing trust and rapport" (Patton, 1990, p. 251). To do so, the researcher clarified her intentions to interview and observe the participant regarding his problem solving and computer use and to extend data collection to his staff and other key informants. The researcher explained her desire to be as unobtrusive as possible and suggested that if the participant at any time felt encumbered by her presence he should immediately indicate his feelings.
Having gained access to the participant, the researcher focused on the faculty and staff. Patton (1990) suggests researchers can ease the access process and encourage rapport by "beginning their observations and participation ...at the same time that participants are beginning the program" (p. 254).
Evaluators ...can often experience the same socialization process that regular participants experience by becoming part of the initiation process and time their observations to coincide with the beginning of a program. Such timing makes the evaluator one among a number of novices and substantiallv reduces the disparity, (p. 254)
Hence, the researcher was introduced and addressed the staff during an inservice meeting just prior to first day of school. The researcher explained her research and methodology, her intended presence at meetings and on campus, and the possibility of her interviewing staff. The participant reinforced the researcher's message, assuring staff confidentiality and encouraging them to respond openly and without fear of reprisal. The researcher assured the staff that they were not obliged to consent to any interview and encouraged them to ask questions as they occur. Two weeks following, the researcher prepared and distributed a letter to each staff member, both classified and certificated,
106 outlining the purpose of the research and reemphasizing confidentiality (see Appendix B fur letter to staff). To acquaint staff with appropriate procedures, a copy of the human subjects' consent form was attached to each letter.
Data Collection
Qualitative case studies frequently triangulate data sources, combining dissimilar collection methods to study the same case (Janesick, 1994; Merriam, 1988). Using multiple sources of evidence allows the researcher to develop "converging lines of inquiry," thus strengthening any findings or conclusions (Yin, 1994, p. 92). For these reasons, this research employed four qualitative data collection methods: interview, observation, grounded survey, and document analysis.
Interviews
Both semi-structured (Kvale, 1996) and informal conversational interviews
(Patton, 1990) were conducted. The semi-structured format was used to address baseline information questions and those emanating from the data themselves. For the informal interviews, questions "flowed from the immediate context," allowing them to be individualized to the particular situation (Patton, 1990, p. 288). Also, questions "changed over time, [with] each new interview [building] on those already done, expanding information that was picked up previously, moving in new directions, and seeking elucidations and elaborations" (pp. 281-282).
In all, 14 interviews, over an eleven-month period, were conducted with the participant, each lasting approximately two hours. Early interviews were rather informal, as questions emerged naturally from the participant's discussion of relevant daily occurrences and the context and content of his problem-solving practice. Baseline
107 questions were asked to establish the participant's educational and professional background and to identify pertinent demographic and historical information about the school, the distnct, and the community. As observations ensued and other data came to light, the interviews became more structured and the discussion more focused on the four dominating research questions (see Appendix C for semi-structured interview protocol initial questions). The participant was asked about his problem finding and problem solving, use of reflection, sense of efficacy, and application of the computer as a support tool for finding and solving problems. Additional questions explored emerging themes and patterns and clarified or enriched "answers given and stories told" (Kvale, p. 1996,
124). To better understand the participant's problem-solving practice a "think-aloud protocol" was employed (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995, p. 15). Here, the participant was asked to identify and reconstruct, by thinking-aloud, challenging problems in which he was recently engaged. As time in the field began to draw to a close, the researcher reviewed the data and drafted a final list of questions to serve as the focus for the remaining interviews (see Appendix D for final questions). These questions, added to those remaining from the initial protocol, addressed such topics as the participant's use of values in problem solving, his problem interpretation, his use of intuition, and his school's culture and community.
In addition to the participant, members of his department chairpersons' committee and administrative team were interviewed- These informants, or "embedded units of analysis" (Yin, 1994, p. 119), were chosen purposefully as information-rich cases emerging from the data and the researcher’s observations. Six of the eight department chairpersons were interviewed. O f the six teachers, three had been at the school since its
108 inception and the other three had been there from two to five years. Each interview lasted approximately one hour and took place in the informant's classroom or in the teacher's lounge. A. semi-structured interview protocol was employed with questions centering on the informants' notion of the school, the administration, the faculty, the principal's leadership and problem solving, and the role of computer technology within the school (see Appendix E for department chairperson interview protocol). In addition, all four members of the administrative team were interviewed. Two members of the team had been at the school from its inception, one member had been there for five years, and the other member for one year. This group interview took place in the teacher's cafeteria and lasted approximately one hour. Questions focused on the assistants' personal knowledge of and experience with the participant's leadership, problem solving, and use of computer technology (see Appendix F for administrative team interview protocol). All interviews with the participant and key informants were taped and transcribed.
Observation
The second method of data collection involved participant observation. Here, the researcher sought to "consciously observe the research setting; its participants; and the events, acts, and gestures that occur within them" (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 45).
"Participant observation ranges across a continuum from mostly observation to mostly participation" (p. 40). For the current study, the researcher observed as a participant, interacting with participants as indicated, but "remaining marginal" (p. 58). Marginality
"offers the advantage of seeing without being the focus of attention, [and] being present without being fully participant, so that you are free to be fully attuned to what occurs" (p.
58). Hence, the researcher, recognizing that "the observer is also the observed," (Patton,
109 1990, p. 255), endeavored to be sensitive the situation and participants' reactions when determining the degree of her participation.
The goal of observation was "to understand the research setting, the participants, and their behavior" (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 42). Consequently, the participant was observed in various situations and capacities (leader, manager, educator, learner).
Planned observations took place during meetings with his staff, department chairpersons, and school-community members, during which the researcher focused on "what happens as well as what does not happen" (Patton, 1990, pp. 235-237). See Appendix G for observation guide. These observations included seven, monthly inservice meetings, opening-school and closing-school staff meetings, two department chair meetings, an advisory board meeting, and a meeting of the school's improvement team, a total of 30 hours of observation. Other observations of the participant included his presentation to the freshmen academic/arts foundation classes, a computer training session, new student orientation, the career center awards ceremony, and graduation. The researcher also shadowed the participant on the first day of school and a teacher later in the year. In all, planned observation time amounted to over 50 hours. Less formal observations were ongoing as the researcher sought to understand aspects of the case that emerged spontaneously. Further, observations included attention to the physical environment, noting such artifacts as posters, announcements, bulletin boards, facilities, office décor, climate, and sounds. Field notes were taken and meetings were audiotaped for transcription.
110 Grounded Survey
In addition to interviews and observations, a grounded survey was used to collect data. Grounded theory is "a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in the data systematically gathered and analyzed" (Strauss & Corbin, 1994, p. 273). Such theory evolves during the research through "continuous interplay between analysis and data collection" (p. 273). A grounded survey, then, is composed of questions emerging from the data themselves.
For this study, a grounded survey was crafted from interview and observation data
(see Appendix H). The fifty-two-question survey was administered to staff members in an effort to triangulate the emergent data and assess the accuracy of the researcher's evolving perceptions and analyses. The survey format presented statements regarding the staff member's notion o f the participant's leadership, problem solving, and computer use.
Respondents indicated their level of agreement with each statement by circling one of five responses: (I) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) uncertain, (4) disagree, and (5) strongly disagree. Aside from requesting the respondent's length of tenure at the site, the survey format facilitated anonymity, thereby promoting the likelihood of candid informant responses. The results of the survey are interwoven with assertions and findings as they support or negate them.
Document Analvsis
The fourth method of data collection was document analysis. According to
Merriam (1988), documents, in contrast with interviews and observations, "are usually produced for reasons other than research and therefore are not subject to the same limitations" (p. 104). Documents "corroborate your observations and interviews, ...raise
111 questions about your hunches and thereby shape new direction for observations and
interviews, ... and provide "historical, demographic and sometimes personal information
that is unavailable from other sources" (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 52). In addition, they
portray "the values and beliefs of participants in the setting" (Marshall & Rossman, 1995,
p. 85). Document analysis for this study included examination of the school's technology and school improvement plans; meeting agendas, handouts, and minutes; home/school communications; district publications; letters; electronic mail messages; and event programs. These documents were accessed upon permission of the participant.
Researcher as Instrument
"The importance of the researcher in qualitative case study cannot be overemphasized. The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis" (Merriam, 1988, p. 19). As a result, "the quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely dependent on the interviewer" (Patton, 1990, p. 279).
Patton suggests that interviewers "can enhance the utilization potential of the information they collect by making sure they take the necessary steps to increase the quality of their findings" (p. 279). Heeding Patton's advice, the researcher aimed to choose and word questions carefully, listen intently, respond sensitively, probe judiciously, and "provide a framework within which respondents can express their own understandings in their own words" (p. 290).
The observer role suggests similar interdependence between researcher and data.
Although "participant observation maximizes the advantages of the human being as instrument," the human instrument's capacity to identify and understand other's beliefs, motives, and subconscious behaviors, can create biases affecting "how [observational]
112 data are seen, recorded, and interpreted" (Merriam, 1988, p. 103). Further, "an observer cannot help but affect and be affected by the setting, and this interaction may lead to a distortion of the real situation" (p 103). In light of these concerns, the researchcr- observer sought to "make the strange familiar and the familiar strange" by "continually questioning [her] own assumptions and perceptions (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, p. 42).
The researcher also endeavored to "constantly analyze [her] observations for meaning
...and for evidence of personal bias" (p. 43).
Data Analysis, Interpretation, and Presentation
Although there is no specific point at which data collection stops and analysis begins, "as fieldwork draws to a close, the researcher is increasingly concerned with verification of data and less concerned with the generation of new data" (Patton, p. 1990,
265). Given that the purpose of case study research is to produce findings, "the culminating activities of qualitative inquiry are analysis, interpretation, and presentation of the findings, ...to make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of information, identify significant patterns, and construct a framework for communicating"
(p. 371-372).
For this case study, once data collection was complete, the researcher organized the raw data. Ail interview and observation data were transcribed into the word processor. Field notes and tape-recorded researcher reflections were transcribed as well.
These data were entered into NUD*IST 4.0 for computer-aided data management and analysis.
A qualitative approach to data analysis and interpretation was employed. Such an approach views knowledge as "constructed rather than discovered" (Stake, 1995, p. 99).
113 Emerging categories and concepts were coded according to theory emanating from the
literature and the data themselves. Additional codes, designed by mapping themes and
patterns from the pilot study onto existing problem-solving codes (Leithwood and
Steinbach, 1995), were used to analyze the participant's computer-aided problem solving.
Constant effort was made to test and confirm conceptual hypotheses as they emerged
from data collection and analysis.
The researcher continued data analysis through the writing of the case in keeping
with Richardson's (1994) recommendation that writing not be "just a mopping-up activity
at the end of a research project, ... [but] a way of knowing' - a method of discovery and
analysis " (p. 516). The researcher aimed to provide readers with "good raw material" for
their own analysis, interpretation, and knowledge construction (Stake, 1995, p. 102).
Thick description, narrative vignettes, assertions supported by evidentiary warrant (direct
quotes), and interpretive commentary were employed. The researcher sought also to
present "rival explanations, disconfirming [evidence], and data irregularities" so that
readers may test the viability of the interpretation (Patton, 1990, p. 423). Finally, in an
effort to make explicit the author's thinking, the researcher aimed to include "a discussion
of the ways in which the key concepts in the analysis evolved or unexpected patterns
were encountered during the time spent in the field and in subsequent reflection" (p. 152).
Trustworthiness
"All research is concerned with producing valid and reliable knowledge in an ethical manner" (Merriam, 1988, p. 163). Qualitative case studies are no exception. For a case study to inform either the theory or practice of educational administration, its
findings must be believed and trusted. Assessing the validity and reliability of qualitative
114 research requires standards that fit within a constructivist inquiry. Such standards rest
"on triangulated empirical materials that are trustworthy" (Denzin, 1994, p. 508).
According to Cuba and Lincoln (1989), trustworthiness, or "the quality of goodness," in qualitative research may be judged by the case study's credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (p. 233). These four criteria parallel traditional standards of goodness (internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity) while "invoking a new set of criteria embedded in the basic belief system of constructivism" (p. 233). Hence, for this study, the four components of trustworthiness were employed as criteria forjudging its adequacy, goodness, and quality.
Credibility
The credibility of qualitative case study research focuses on "establishing a match between the constructed realities of respondents (or stakeholders) and those realities as represented by the [researcher] and attributed to various stakeholders" (Guba & Lincoln,
1989, p. 237). Case studies are credible to the extent that they employ "rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality data that is carefully analyzed"
(Patton, 1990, p. 461). As the primary instrument of data collection and analysis for this case study, the researcher sought to promote credibility by applying five techniques: prolonged engagement in the field, persistent observation, negarive case analysis, triangulation, and member checks.
Prolonged Engagement. Guba and Lincoln (1989) define prolonged engagement in the field as "substantial involvement at the site of the inquiry ...to establish rapport and build the trust necessary to uncover constructions, and to facilitate immersing oneself in and understanding the context's culture" (p. 237). For this case study, engagement
115 amounted to nearly 90 hours over eleven months with intensive, on-site involvement occurring during the final four months of school. The data informed decisions about meaningful engagement in the field as the researcher aimed for breadth o f involvement rather than length.
Persistent Observation. "The object of persistent observation is to add depth to the scope which prolonged engagement affords" (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 237). To accomplish this, the researcher engaged in approximately 50 hours of observation, endeavoring to observe the participant sufficiently as to "achieve theoretical saturation," or "when the generic features of [her] new findings consistently replicate earlier ones"
(Adler & Adler, 1994, p. 381). In other words, based the data and its evolving analysis, the researcher observed until findings became redundant.
Negative Case Analysis. Patton (1990) writes, "where patterns and trends have been identified, our understanding of those patterns and trends is increased by considering the instances and cases that do not fit within the pattern" (p. 463). Such negative cases provide "confidence that the evaluator has tried and rejected all rival hypotheses save the appropriate one" (Guba & Lincoln, 1989,p. 238). Hence, this researcher strove to engage in negative case analysis, searching for " instances that do not match the original hypothesis" and, when encountered, "[reformulating] the hypothesis or
[redefining] the phenomenon" (Merriam, 1988, p. 143).
Triangulation. In an effort to gain credibility of the study, the researcher sought to triangulate data sources and data collection methods. Data source triangulation "is an effort to see if what we are observing and reporting carries the same meaning when found under different circumstances" (Stake, 1996, p. 113). In the current study, multiple
116 sources of data including interviews, observations, field notes, and documents were used.
The process of data source triangulation consisted of
• comparing observational data with interview data;
• comparing what people say in public with what they say in private;
• checking for the consistency of what people say about the same thing over time; and
• comparing the perspective of people from different points of view. (Patton, 1990, p.
467)
Methodological triangulation is the use of multiple methods in different
combinations to study a single case. For this study, the researcher triangulated four
methods; the grounded survey, and three other methods typically used in case study,
interview, observation, and document analysis.
Member Checks. In the words of Guba and Lincoln (1989), "[member checking]
is the most crucial technique for establishing credibility" (p. 239). Member checks
involve "taking the data and interpretations back to the [participants] and asking them if the results are plausible" (Merriam, 1988, p. 169). This technique allows the researcher to understand the intent of a given action, gives participants the opportunity to correct or refine errors of fact or interpretation, and offers participants a chance to provide additional information "which further illuminates a given construction" (Guba & Lincoln,
1989, p. 239). In light of these facts, the researcher sought to conduct member checks during the analysis and narrative stages of the study.
Transferabilitv
Issues of generalizability have long plagued the credibility of qualitative case study research. Questions like, "What can we learn from studying only one o f anything?"
117 and "How do you generalize from a qualitative study?" abound (Wolcott, 1995, p. 171).
Wolcott's responses to these questions, "All we can!" and "You don't," illustrate the salient disconnect between traditional notions of generalizability and more meaningful criteria forjudging the applicability of qualitative findings (p. 171).
Guba and Lincoln (1989) prefer the notion of transferability to generalizability.
Transferability depends upon "the degree of similarity" between the sent context and the received context (p. 241 ). Here, the burden of proof for claimed transferability is on the reader, or receiver, of the findings. The reader judges the degree of transferability based on his or her notion of the similarities and differences between the study’s findings and the reader’s experiences. From this standpoint, the qualitative researcher aims "to set out all the working hypotheses for this study, and to provide an extensive and careful description of the time, the place, the context, the culture in which those hypotheses were found to be salient" (p. 241-242). Having done so, the researcher facilitates
"transferability judgments on the part of others who may wish to apply the study to their own situations ” (p. 242).
Stake (1996) offers a similar notion of transferability through naturalistic generalization. "Naturalistic generalizations are conclusions arrived at through personal engagement in life’s affairs or by vicarious experience so well constructed that the person feels as if it happened to themselves [sic]" (p. 85). From Stake’s perspective, transferability occurs when existing generalizations are modified or refined by case study.
People can learn much that is general from single cases. They do that partly because they are familiar with other cases and they add this one in, thus making a slightly new group from which to generalize, a new opportunity to modify old generadizations. (p. 85)
118 Stake suggests that "to assist the reader in making naturalistic generalizations, case researchers need to provide opportunity for vicarious experience" (p 86). To do so, researchers must present "sufficient descriptive narrative so that readers can ...draw their own conclusions" (Stake, 1994, p. 243).
Amid concerns about generalizability. Stake reminds us that case study researchis designed to focus on the particular rather than the general. "The real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular case and come to know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from other but what it is, what it does"
(Stake, 1995, p. 8). We study "that case from which we feel we can learn the most,
...[and] learning is ...sometimes a superior criterion to representativeness" (Stake, 1994, p. 243).
That said, in the current study, the researcher endeavored to foster naturalistic generalizations and transferability by offering a narrative account, rich description, direct quotations, and interpretive commentary. Following Denzin's (1994) advice, the researcher "attempt[ed] to weave a text that re-creates for the reader the real world that was studied ...[such that readers] develop their own naturalistic generalizations and impressions based on the tacit knowledge and emotional feelings the text creates for them" (p. 507).
Dependability
Dependability is intended to parallel the traditional criterion o f reliability, "the stability of data over time" (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 242). However, establishing reliability "is based on the assumption that there is a single reality which if studied repeatedly will give the same results" (Merriam, 1988, p. 170). Given that, from a
119 qualitative viewpoint, "there is no benchmark by which one can take repeated measures and establish reliability in the traditional sense," reliability in qualitative case study research focuses on the consistency or dependability of the results (p. 170). Theicfore, for this study the researcher sought to "explain the assumptions and theory behind the study;" use multiple methods of data collection and analysis; and construct an audit trail of "how data were collected, how categories were derived, and how decisions were made throughout the inquiry" (p. 172).
Confirmabilitv
The confirmability criterion "is concerned with assuring that data, interpretations, and outcomes of inquiries are rooted in contexts and persons apart the [researcher] and are not simply figments of the evaluator's imagination" (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 243).
From a qualitative perspective, assurances o f the integrity of the findings are grounded in the data themselves. Consequently, confirmability is achieved when data "can be tracked to their sources, and the logic used to assemble the interpretations ...is both explicit and implicit in the narrative of the case study" (p. 243).
Hence, this researcher aimed to establish confirmability in the same manner as dependability. An audit trail, as described in the context of dependability, was employed.
Just as the dependability audit attests to the "quality and appropriateness of the inquiry process," the confirmability audit will aim to attest to " the fact that the data' (facts, figures, and constructions) can all be traced to original sources and the process by which they were converted to the "bottom line' ...can be confirmed" (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p.
243).
120 Ethics
"Qualitative researchers are guests in the private spaces of the world. Their
manners should be good and their code of ethics strict" (Stake, 1994, p. 244). For the
current research, ethical concerns will center on three primary issues: risk assessment,
confidentiality, and informed consent (Patton, 1990). Issues of risk and confidentiality
pervade qualitative case study designs. "People in interviews will tell you things they
never intended to tell. Interviews can become confessions, particularly under the promise
of confidentiality" (p. 355). In addition, observers are privy to off-handed comments and
other occurrences that might be perceived by participants as embarrassing or risky.
Hence, for this study the researcher carefully considered the effect of interviewing and
observing and strictly adhered to a code of confidentiality with regard to all participants
and situations. Further, pseudonyms were used to identify the participant and informants
in the written report. Informed consent for this research involved submitting an
application for exemption from Human Subjects Institutional Review Board. All
interviewed participants were assured confidentiality and asked to sign the Consent Form
for Participation in Social and Behavioral Research. See Appendix I for consent form.
Significance of the Study
The information age is upon us. School administrators across the country are
making important decisions about how best to utilize computer technology. This study
looked at computer technology in the context of an expert school administrator’s
problem-solving practice. It explored the computer's capacity to promote meaningful communication and support administrative problem solving and problem finding. It examined personal attributes and perceptions indicative of effective administrative
121 computer application and seeks to understand their influence on technological capacity building. As a result, this study potentially can provide decision makers with information helpful in designing educational administration preparation programs, district policy makers with knowledge integral to decisions about administrative computer purchase and utilization, and researchers with a departure point for further inquiry into school administrators' utilization of computer technology.
122 CHAPTER 4
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
Problem solving is central to educational administration. Every day, in schools across the country, principals are faced with the task of identifying, understanding, and resolving problems that influence the quality of education. Given the significance of problem solving and problem finding in effective school leadership, there is much we can learn from school leaders who possess the necessary knowledge and skills. Hence, this presentation endeavors to describe effective administrative problem solving through the practice of an expert educational leader. What makes the in-depth study o f this expert's practice particularly instructive is that it affords a detailed and contextually sensitive account of administrative problem solving. Much as the apprentice studies the craftsman to learn a trade, the systematic analysis of an expert school administrator offers the administrative apprentice an example from which to learn.
This qualitative analysis begins by conceptualizing expert administrative problem solving as craftsmanship, the blend of skill and artistry. In keeping witii this notion, it introduces the craftsman whose problem-solving trade is the focus of analysis, and it presents the raw materials with which he works - the district, the school, the staff, the students, and the community. With that said, the analysis focuses on the craftsman's
123 trade, the tools he uses to find and solve problems, and the ways in which he utilizes
each.
Administrative Problem Solving as Craftsmanship
Traditional notions of problem solving frame the activity as a scientific endeavor,
casting the process as a series of prescribed steps designed to achieve a goal. These
purely scientific notions of problem solving tend to encourage formulaic thinking,
reducing the work of problem solvers to the rigid application of predetermined
procedures and ready-made solutions. They hinder broader, more inclusive definitions of
the term problem and dismiss expertise as merely the ability to correctly enact the appropriate solutions.
Precise questions and conscientious observation notwithstanding, problem solving
is much more than science in this narrow sense. Problem solving requires a careful, thorough analysis of the facts as well as the application of imagination, intuition, and creative thinking. Problem solving is as much art as science, and, when framed as such, problem solving and school leadership move beyond more limited notions of simple problems and standard solutions. From this perspective, school leaders engage in the art of problem solving as a creative process within which the details of the problem itself
inform the solution path.
It is important to recognize that all art moves beyond inspiration and creativity.
Art requires discipline - the discipline to practice, to train the eye to see, the hands to sculpt, the ear to hear, the body to dance. It is discipline that returns the writer to the empty page, the painter to the unfinished canvas. Artists leam discipline. They immerse themselves in the materials that constitute their particular craft, applying all available
124 skills and resources in a multitude of combinations in order to discover the possibilities.
For the artist, there is no arrival, no completion, no eventual satisfaction. Constantly pushing the margins of the craft, the artist creates by testing limits, and the resulting works of art participate in a kind of progressive dialogue, with each individual achievement informing and advancing the whole.
From the data emerges the portrait of such a problem-solving craftsman. Dr.
Mark Davidson leads by constructing and reframing problems such that they strengthen and expand the foundation on which his organization is built. His problem-solving practice emulates the discipline of the artistic process. This is not to suggest that
Davidson chooses artistic discovery over scientific scrutiny, but rather that he understands these as mutually reinforcing actions. Davidson's work is grounded in deeply held beliefs about a strong work ethic and integrity of thought, word, and deed.
He trains in his craft, seeking to improve through education and experience, and, he returns to the unsolved problem in relentless pursuit of a solution. Through his expertise, he artfully composes solution processes from a generous palette of problem-solving tools, crafting solutions that reflect his knowledge, analytical skills, and creativity, seeking to move his organization forward. Always, Davidson seems to place his work and work of his school within the larger context. He and his teachers talk often about how their efforts are informed by and, hopefully, have potential to inform other educators. As
Davidson remarks to his faculty.
You have a lot to say and a lot to show and sometimes you don't feel like you're out there on the edge, but ladies and gentlemen, you are, for God's sake you are. And if we're gonna be instructional leaders, we've got to put [what we are doing] out there [for others to see] and let everybody follow and then run harder.
125 The Craftsman
Dr Mark Davidson is the principal of Evans Local Education Center (ELEC), an urban alternative high school and career center located within a large, Midwestern, urban, public school system. Before earning his doctorate in educational administration. Dr.
Davidson served as an instrumental music teacher and band director for eleven years. In
1988, with three years of administrative experience. Dr. Davidson was charged with creating a new arts and academic high school at the Evans Local campus. In Mark’s words, "[the assistant superintendent] just took the keys, pushed them across the desk to me, and said, 'It's your school. Make it happen. "
As mentioned in Chapter Three, Mark Davidson emerged as an expert educational administrator during a related pilot study. Dr. Davidson's skills, knowledge, and record of accomplishment established his qualification as an expert. By definition, a problem solving expert possesses, among other qualities, the ability to perceive meaningful patterns within his or her domain and represent problems at a deeper level. Staff comments emanating from the current study seem to offer further support for his identification as an expert problem solver and instructional leader. Here, a teacher summarizes his impression of Dr. Davidson's problem-solving practice.
He involves the teachers when it's a teacher thing, and if it's an administrator thing, he takes care of the problem before it ever gets here. He likes to think of himself as the person who is the buffer that is somebody's coming in here to get to the staff, he intervenes and sometimes you never hear about it. The problem will disperse. Like a parent that's irate and talks to him first. He takes care of the problem before it ever gets out of hand. I see him as kind of like a guard for the door into a lot of problems. ...We are in a way put under a bubble of protection by administration.
126 According to the teacher, Mark is adept at finding and solving problems, often before they occur. He employs his problem-solving expertise as a shield to protect his staff from unnecessary disruptions. And, Mark knows when to solve problems collaboratively and when to work alone.
Likewise, comments from the administrative team support Dr. Davidson's identification as an expert. When asked to describe Dr. Davidson’s effectiveness as a problem solver, an assistant principal who has been with Mark since the creation of
ELEC replied simply, "Unbelievable." She continued.
In all the years I’ve been here, I know that when I have a problem I don’t know how to fix. I’ll go to Mark and he'll think of something that never in my wildest dreams would I have thought of and it's like, "Ah, sure!" Terrible problems - impossible problems. I mean the littlest to the most extensive problems. He’s excellent as a problem solver.
Another eleven-year member of the administrative team offered as evidence of expertise Dr. Davidson’s integral role In creating and growing ELEC.
He started this school. It started from the ground up. There was conflict in the career component - they were threatened with the new entity coming in here with the high school. There was tremendous upheaval and change.
One of the other administrators added that the upheaval "could have tom the schools apart, but didn’t. ” When asked why, the administrator replied, "Mark’s leadership," and, when pushed about her response, the other administrator jumped in.
I'm gonna tell you flat out. I'd say this on the Bible. I’d say this in front of a judge. Dr. Davidson's the one that put this thing together. He put in all the time, the thinking, and etc. with collegial involvement and working. It was developed over years, and now you have interdisciplinary activities occurring between the high school and the career component. It's such an effort of love and hard work and determination and tenacity ... that [his] whole being is wrapped up in this, but he’s done it in a great way.
127 Other staff comments reflect similar notions of Dr. Davidson’s expertise as an educational leader. Here, a veteran teacher describes Mark's leadership.
He - is - a - leader. He is a real educational leader. Davidson really does believe the best of everyone unless they prove not to be accountable. In a way, he's given them ability, and I think most people, or at least - maybe I'll speak for myself - 1 really thrive on that. [His leadership style] is much more adult peerage plus being an instructional leader, an idea leader, an applauder, the guy who cheers you when something goes right.
From this teacher’s perspective. Dr. Davidson's leadership provides teachers educationally sound instructional guidance and support, along with the freedom and encouragement to advance professionally. Other teachers agree.
He's a very strong instructional leader. He supports ... almost anything you want to try, and promotes interdisciplinary - a very strong instructional leader.
As illustrated here, Mark's knowledge of instructional practices and respect for the professionalism of his teachers encourages staff to explore new avenues of instruction.
He is so supportive of staff - so, so, so supportive. I mean so much different than administrators in different situations. He works with you. He talks to you individually. He deals with you as a professional.
Materials of the Craft
The District
Moffit City School District, the second largest school district in the state, is located in a large, Midwestern city. The district's 141 schools and 5,000 faculty members serve the educational needs of nearly 63,000 public school students. The student population is comprised of approximately 55% African American, 41% Caucasian, 2%
Asian American, 1% multi-racial, and less than 1% Hispanic children. Approximately
43% of the district's teachers have advanced degrees, and nearly 50% of the faculty have
14 years or more teaching experience.
128 The district currently faces challenges at a number of levels. Just last year, the state funding system for public schools was found unconstitutional. As legislators struggle to reconstruct the system, school districts across the state speculate about how the new system will impact their schools. In addition, increased accountability measures in the form of statewide proficiency tests for students have focused new attention on the proficiency of administrators and teachers as well. Stricter licensure requirements will soon be a factor in certifying teachers and administrators. And, beginning this past fall, a new superintendent assumed district leadership.
The School
Evans Local Education Center, an urban public high school, was created in 1988 as a result o f collaboration between an already established career center program and a new arts and academic high school. Once a military base dating from Civil War times,
ELEC utilizes six buildings, each with a particular program. Among them, the visual arts building, or shot tower, houses three floors of studio space and one of the largest galleries in the state. The business building contains two dance studios, academic classrooms, computer labs, and the library media center. The performing arts building has a three- hundred-seat theatre with a thrust stage, a radio/television studio, vocal and instrumental music rooms, a dance studio, practice rooms, and a theatre shop. Other buildings on the sixty-two-acre campus contain a woodworking studio, a room for welding large metal works, and an interactive television classroom. Also residing on campus are a few non restored buildings and the old military barracks.
Each year, interested students from the local district apply for the 180 ninth-grade, arts and academic high school openings and are selected by lottery. Students interested
129 in the career center apply for programs for their junior and/or senior years, attending
ELEC for half a day and their home high school for the other. All arts and academic high school students are enrolled in college preparatory classes and in courses relating to art history, appreciation, performance, creation, and criticism. High school students may also choose advanced placement classes in biology, calculus, European history, English, foreign languages, studio art, and music theory. Likewise, the career center offers eighteen intensive one and two year programs in the areas of business, health, and the performing and visual arts. Career programs include data processing, dental and medical assisting, early childhood education, optical laboratory and dispensing, surgical technician, dance, radio and television, theatre, vocal and instrumental music, and commercial art and photography.
In keeping with Evans Local Education Center’s mission "to create expectations of excellence within students through challenging and collaborative learning, by blending the arts, academics, and career programs," ELEC provides a strong educational program and culture conducive to student performance. For example, Evans Local's graduation rate is 95%, significantly higher that the district's 57% and the state's 80% rates. The percentage of graduates going on four-year colleges and universities is 64%, as compared with the district average of 48%, and an additional 14% of graduating Evans Local students attend two-year programs. All areas of the ninth and twelfth grade, state proficiency scores are above district and state averages, with most areas showing improvement over the past three years. And, although the school's attendance rate is still below the state average, it has improved slightly from 88.9% in 1995-95 to 89.4% in
1998. Additional recognition comes from the popular press. In 1992 and 1994, Evans
130 Local Education Center was selected by Redbook magazine as one of the nation's fifty best high schools, and in 1997 she was one of only ten schools in the country to receive
Business Week magazine's award for instructional innovation. One veteran teacher sums it up like this.
I think that we're a really wonderful place for students and staff. For students, 1 think it's a culture that is very supportive and very supportive of diversity. I think that's probably one of our strengths in that we have so many different kinds of kids from diverse backgrounds. ... [For staff] the wonderful thing about this place is that we have the freedom to be professionals, and we have professional respect from the administration that know we can do our jobs without having somebody constantly holding our hands or saying we've got to do this or got to do that. There's guidance, but there's respect that 1 think some people do really well with and some people can't handle.
The Staff
The faculty of Evans Local includes an administrative team comprised of one principal, two assistant principals, two supervisors, and a teaching staff of seventy. Fifty- seven percent of ELEC's teachers have earned advanced degrees, and 64% bring fourteen or more years of teaching experience to their practice. In general, comments from teachers and administrators suggest a hard working faculty of talented and caring professionals. As one veteran teacher explains, "Mark hires people who are on the cutting edge, or he tries to get people who are going to work very hard to prepare the students." Consequently, as another teacher reports, "I think there's a lot of really talented faculty here. I think there is an outstanding staff. A lot of them are staying up with what's current in their field, which is really nice to see."
Although comments generally reflect a highly qualified and talented staff, some faculty comments also suggest that teachers and administration face certain challenges.
131 One teacher describes the challenge of working with colleagues who are all "highly talented" individuals.
I think we have an excellent faculty. I think we get some of the best-trained teachers. [But], sometimes with the best come a lot of egos and sometimes they do conflict. We have a lot of teachers who are double majors, who have degrees in many things, and I feel like we have a faculty who are very well traveled, or stay [active] within their field. So I really do think we’re strong in that sense. 1 just think, sometimes were a little too arrogant.
Another teacher describes her frustration with old notions of high school departmentalization held by some of her colleagues.
There's a circle of people who are extremely supportive to each other, [but] there are some, I think, that are typical of high school teachers in that we have been use to having high school compartmentalized, and everybody's in their own classroom, doing their own thing. 1 think a lot of people are still stuck in that and have a really hard time getting out of that "this is my room, and I'm gonna do my thing." It's very difficult - I think it's the culture of high school in general that makes it very difficult.
With regard to the administrative team, staff comments generally indicate support and respect. They are seen as hard working, caring, fair with students, and supportive of staff. At the same time, however, several teachers voice concern that the administration is too flexible, to tolerant, too confident of teachers' and students' abilities to solve problems. This manifests itself in comments regarding student discipline. As one teacher explains, the team's style of considering each case individually promotes a sense, among teachers, of "not getting backed the way they think they should"
The assistant administrators are wonderful people, but they're way too nurturing. The school doesn't want to have anything in black and white. They don't want to say, "If you cut class this is what happens." I realize it's a cookie-cutter thing, but for certain things you should just say, "You're not a bad person, you made a mistake. You need to pay for it."
132 The Students
ELEC is a citywide altemaiive high school, drawing students from both the local school district and surrounding suburban districts. Arts and academic high school students number approximately 600, while over 1,000 students attend career center programs. The student population at Evans Local reflects the cultural, economic, religious, and ethnic diversity of the surrounding urban community. It is comprised of approximately 51% African American, 45% Caucasian, 3% Asian American, and less than 1% Hispanic students. Students also bring a variety of religious beliefs: Christian,
Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist, Hindi, and Taoist.
Faculty comments cast further light on the student body. Several teachers suggest that because of Evans's uniquely diverse population, "our students seem to understand that they can be themselves."
We have a diverse culture here. For the most part, we have wonderful students who really care about things. They want to be loved, but yet they want to be grown. You know, you have mischievous kids - kids who get in trouble for being lazy or whatever, but I don't see that we have "bad" kids. It just seems like we have so much to offer our students that they seem to find something here that they like.
Here, a teacher shares an example.
We have Goth kids and we have preppy kids and we even have some sports kids here. And, because of that, I think the kids ... are very supportive of diversity. At the prom, they had some rap music on and one of my students, who is a Gothic kid, put on Marilyn Manson and ...he and his [male] friend were dancing to this [music]. Everybody [else] stopped dancing and stood around and looked at them for awhile. Then, these kids that were listening to the rap went out and danced with them.
133 These comments are further supported by the remarks of a student speaker at graduation who described Evans Local Education Center as "a place where people are free to think, to do, to act, to be themselves. "
According to the data, ELEC’s alternative school configuration contributes to student diversity by drawing students from across a broad range of preparedness and expectations. Here, academic diversity presents the challenge of effectively addressing a wide range of student needs. In the words of a teacher.
We get kids from twenty-six different middle schools, [so] ...you don't have this vertical articulation like you would in a normal setting ... [where] you usually get two feeder middle schools and you can go in an prep those middle schools and the kids already have that same in-grown feeling. Well, that doesn't happen here. So it's a hodge-podge. It's almost like the United States as far as a marriage of different cultures and different learning styles.
Other teachers concur. As one staff member explains, Evans's excellent reputation in the district causes some parents to urge their reluctant students to apply.
Then, when faced with the rigor of Evan's academic program, students unwilling to put forth the effort required don't succeed.
I would say about a third are real strong academically. About a third or more are strong in some kind of art area. And I would say about a third, especially at the ninth and tenth grade level, either don't want to be here, but parents have forced them, or they don't have a focus yet and they are really struggling. ...W e seem to have either extremely amazing students, or students who are failing. Seems like we hardly have any in the middle. How are you as a teacher able to facilitate both ends?
Finally, some remarks seem to suggest that students interested in an art-centered curriculum may require teaching methods a part from those typically employed in other comprehensive high schools. A teacher explains.
It's a whole new ballgame when it comes to teaching here compared to any other schools. ...The students here are different in that they,a lot of them, are not
134 competitive by nature. So things that used to work in a [traditional] school in your classroom like having competitions ... don't work here.
The Community
Evans Local Education Center has a unique community. The sprawling sixty- two-acre, six-building campus and former military base is situated in a downtown area surrounded by industry, freeways, and a community college. Consequently, as described in detail later, the school has had to look beyond traditional notions of a neighborhood to find her community. As one teacher puts it, "The whole city’s our community in a lot of ways."
Tools of the Trade
As noted earlier, craftsmen immerse themselves in the materials and tools that comprise their particular trade. Much as the musician employs the instrument to create music, the problem-solving craftsman employs certain tools to create solutions. Yet, because problem solving is a cognitive craft, many of the tools of this trade are internal implements, forged of the craftsman's knowledge and experience. For this reason, we must turn to the expert to make visible these more internal tools.
From the data emerge seven tools that Dr. Davidson regularly applies when finding and solving problems: (a) gathering and using information, (b) thinking, (c) communicating, (d) educating, (e) building relationships, (f) cultivating change, and (g) collaborating (see Table 4.1). Beginning with codes emanating from the literature, especially from the work of Leithwood and colleagues (1986, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1995), the researcher analyzed 30 individual problems identified through interviews, observations, and think aloud protocols (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). The aggregate
135 these problems forms the subject of analysts for this dissertation study. Patterns, or themes, emerging from the analysis present themselves as tools of Dr. Davidson's expert
Tools of the Trade Observing GATHERING AND Listening USING Inquiring INFORMATION Reading Intuiting Analyzing THINKING Synthesizing Forecasting Reflecting Verbal COMMUNICATING Written Non-verbal EDUCATING Self and Others With School-Community Members BUILDING Among School-Community Members RELATIONSHIPS Between School Community and School CULTIVATING Advancing the School Mission CHANGE COLLABORATING Problem Solving Shared Leadership
Table 4.1 Tools of the Trade problem-solving practice. Davidson selects and applies these tools in various combinations to find and create problems and craft their solutions. He gathers and utilizes problem-pertinent information by observing, listening, inquiring, reading, and intuiting. When thinking about the problems he faces, Davidson analyzes, synthesizes, forecasts, and reflects. He communicates with others verbally, non-verbally, and in writing, and he educates himself and others in an effort to build a rich, problem-solving knowledge base from which organizational members may draw. Dr. Davidson works to
136 build relationships with and among his school community, and he seeks to connect the community to his school. He cultivates change to advance the mission of his school, and, finally, he collaborates with others on problem solving and leadership.
In addition to these internal tools of the trade, Mark Davidson employs an external tool to his problem-solving craft - the computer. As the painter uses the brush,
Davidson utilizes the computer to facilitate his application of the other seven tools. Here, the computer serves as an extension of his problem-solving expertise, a support for the other tools of his trade.
Gathering and Using Information
Tool People and Processes Observing Student Behavior Teacher Behavior Listening Purposefully Strategically GATHERING To Facilitate Collaboration AND USING Inquiring Knowledgeable Sources INFORMATION Staff Feedback Reading Theory Current Research Intuiting As a "Gut Feeling" As the Union of Knowledge/Experience
Table 4.2 Gathering and Using Information
Mark Davidson is a skilled consumer of information. He understands the value of data and, consequently, devotes significant effort collecting, making sense of, and utilizing information in ways that are conducive to finding and solving problems. As
Mark puts it, "You've got to know as much about your organization as you possibility can so that you can fix it at any time." Hence, Dr. Davidson uses the knowledge created from the information gathered to protect and grow his school.
137 The data from faculty seem to support the conclusion that Mark Davidson is, as one staff member puts it simply, "an information gatherer." According to an administrative team member, "What I see is that he does a lot of research to find out ilie details before coming to a conclusion." Responses to the faculty survey explained in
Chapter Three seem to support the conclusion that this administrator values and utilizes information when finding and solving problems (see Appendix H for survey). Sixty surveys were distributed and 35 were returned, over half of whom indicate a length of tenure at ELEC between eight and eleven years. Of those 35, 34 respondents indicate agreement that Dr. Davidson views information as a valuable, decision-making resource.
Over three-fourths of the respondents agree that Mark solves problems only after considering pertinent information (see Appendix J for remainder of results).
In addition to gathering and using information. Dr. Davidson also recognizes the value of keeping information for future reference. According to Mark, the power of data to influence decisions demands that school leaders document and preserve pertinent data.
You got to keep your paper. You - must - keep - your - paper if you 're gonna sit at these desks. Many of my colleagues don't keep paper. It's time, it's work, it's staying organized. But if you don’t have your paper, they’re gonna take you out.
For Mark Davidson, keeping an organized record of information gathered and used can prevent new problems from occurring and old problems from resurfacing.
In order to gather problem-pertinent information, the data seem to suggest that Dr.
Davidson regularly engages in five information-gathering activities: observing, listening, inquiring, reading, and intuiting (see Table 4.2). This analysis turns first to Mark's use of observation.
138 Observing. One of the ways in which Dr. Davidson gathers information is by
observing. The data seem to suggest that Dr. Davidson employs a kind of visual inquiry,
systematically seeking and questioning information that will lead to understanding. 1 Icre,
Mark explains how he gathers and uses information by observing .
When I watch a show that's live. I'm watching what they do more so than [what's being performed] - and that's a problem for me. 1 can't settle and enjoy the performance as much as I perhaps should because I'm always watching how it's happening rather than just enjoying it and being light for a moment. [I'm] always [thinking] I can grab something and put it to use.
For Dr. Davidson, every observation is an occasion to leam, to increase his
knowledge of students and teachers in ways that promote educational success. According
to the data, one of the ways Mark learns about students is by observing their behavior. In
order to avert problems with students before they occur, Mark watches individual and
group activity patterns for irregularities that might indicate trouble. For example, on the
first day of school, as Dr. Davidson toured the campus, he pointed to groups of students
gathered under trees and near buildings. He likened their tendency to congregrate near a
particular structure to social behaviors in natural settings. Consequently, as he noted,
understanding "the natural rhythms and routines" of his students makes it easier to
recognize behavior that is inconsistent and potentially problematic.
A case in point emerged from a story Mark related about two boys "sneaking over
into some of the [abandoned] buildings" on campus. When asked how he found out about them, Mark explained that while walking across campus one day he noticed the
boys walking in a direction inconsistent with the usual pattern of movement on campus.
"Blessed with some excellent peripheral vision, ...I saw their heads [turn] to see if my
head was turning which I don't need to do to see. I just sort of kept my head straight,"
139 and continued to follow their movement until he entered another building. Once inside, instead of returning to his office. Dr. Davidson proceeded to a location where he could resume his observation. Later, after confirming his suspicions through other sources,
Mark set up "one of Davidson's stings" to curtail the boys' visits to the abandoned buildings. By gathering observational data and comparing it to his knowledge of typical student behavior, Mark was able to avoid a potentially harmful situation.
In addition to observing students. Dr. Davidson attends to teachers' behavior as they engage with students, parents, and colleagues. Mark uses formal observation as a process for evaluation and "professional growth." Such observation involves Mark's presence during instructional time, watching as the teacher delivers the lesson and interacts with students. He explains.
I spend time looking at what their practices are. ...And I don't go in for twenty minutes and walk out. I'm talking eighty minutes or [more]. I write the whole time so that 1 have good data on which to base my decisions and reflections. ... Then, I sit down and meet with them and talk them through my log as to what I observed, giving suggestions or commending them.
Other observational data, used to improve instruction, is gathered more informally. Here, Mark casually observes student and teacher behavior, looking for indicators of success or struggle. For example, in an effort to assist a new teacher who had come to Dr. Davidson for help with an unruly class of twelfth graders, Mark set out to gather observational information.
So, I went over there the other day and just stood outside the room to watch behaviors and see visually without hearing anything that was going on. ... I didn't want to - it's tough enough when you're a new person and [the students] were writing and so forth. So I just stood outside the room to watch behaviors and see visually without hearing anything that was going on.
140 Given that one entire classroom wall is bounded by floor-to-ceiling windows, Mark was able to observe the class from a distance, watching students interactions without disrupting the flow of the lesson or altering student behavior. Later, as a result of the observation, Mark was able to offer several solutions to the problem based on his knowledge of the situation.
Listening. Dr. Davidson is also a good listener. In fact, in his own words, "I'm probably more of a listener than a viewer." According to the data. Dr. Davidson listens purposefully to others, extracting information that helps him find and solve problems.
For example, arier describing a particularly challenging encounter he had recently had with a parent, Mark explained that the key to resolving such a situation is "being able to listen and think ahead of them."
I was told a long time ago, and I've tried to practice that, that one can think faster than one can talk. Let the other person do the talking, and you do the thinking. Then, if you've been a good listener and are with them, you'll have a one- sentence, three-word response. You're always there at the end. So, think fast and let them talk. I try to practice that, and I try not to engage in argument.
In this case, Mark's listens strategically. Rather than engaging in verbal combat, he allows the parent to talk as he gathers and processes what she is saying. Having used the time to think, Mark is ready with a plan to resolve the situation.
Dr. Davidson also uses his listening skills to grasp the tone of faculty opinion.
When faced with a decision about whether to move ahead on writing the school improvement plan, Mark listened for clues to staff sentiment.
I worked as long as I could in veiled ways of collecting information and data all the way through last school year. But you say, "Well, how did you know?" Well, you ear's to the ground, you hear people talk, you read the union newsletter. You know there was resistance.
141 Here, Dr. Davidson gathers decision-making information much like a reporter, investigating sources and listening for implicit messages.
Finally, the data suggest that Dr. Davidson uses his listening skills when in collaborative problem-solving situations. Whether working with staff at department chair meetings or inservices, or with parents and community members at school improvement team or advisory board meetings, Mark takes on the role of member, listening intently to the conversation and interjecting as the situation warrants. When asked to describe Mark's demeanor during a collaborative situation, an assistant administrator replied, "He'd be quiet and he'd listen to everybody. Then if we'd missed something, at the end, he'd say, "Now what about...?' and everybody'd go 'Oh, yeah.'"
Inquiring. Davidson actively seeks information by questioning and consulting with others. Frequently, when faced with a problem, Mark asks for time to "do a little fact finding."
I don't like to make decisions instantly if I don't have to. I would rather think about them, deliberate, look at the consequences, bring information to the table to say is this the right thing to do? I'd better rethink where I am because if I'm going to have to go to the wall on this decision, I cannot have a hole in my information that [someone] can counter me with - something that I hadn't thought about or I can't support.
Dr. Davidson uses the time to investigate the situation by consulting knowledgeable sources. As one teacher puts it, "He always comes back if a parent has called or something, double checks and asks before he makes any decisions about your classes or anything." Evidence of Dr. Davidson's utilizing inquiry can be found in a recent problem he faced regarding a distraught parent who wanted to withdraw her child
142 from school. Although Dr. Davidson believed that his decision to deny her request was best for the child, he reconsidered in light of new information.
It was the mother's persistence that caused me to say, "Now, wait a minute. I'd better rethink where I am." If I'm gonna have to go to the wall on this decision, I cannot have a hole in my information [such] that she can counter me with something I hadn't thought about or I can't support.
Therefore, in preparation for a meeting with the parent and district-level administration,
Mark gathered information to support his decision. He reviewed her permanent record and took an inventory of her classes "to be sure there wasn't a class in there we'd overlooked." He also talked with the safety and security specialist who "filled me in on some other kinds of things which just reinforced my conclusions and the information I had."
I needed to be prepared to defend where I am. So, I collected information, informal information that would strengthen my case because I was wondering - am I doing the right thing? I felt strongly that the information I had supported my conclusion, but maybe I'm too headstrong - maybe I should think about this. So I benchmarked with a couple of folks - informally... [and what I discovered] just reinforced my conclusions and the information I had.
Having corroborated his findings through additional inquiry, Mark stood firm on his decision.
Beyond using inquiry to substantiate decisions. Dr. Davidson employs questioning to gather feedback for future planning. One source of staff input Mark regularly employs is the evaluation form that staff members are asked to complete and submit following each of their monthly inservice programs. The eight-item survey questions staff about their perceptions regarding the quality and worth of each inservice.
ELEC's inservice programs follow a collegiate model through which teachers select from a list of colleague-facilitated workshops, an activity beneficial to their own professional
143 development. Therefore, he uses survey data to assess staff attitudes, to improve upon delivery and format, and to plan future programs. At the beginning of the year, Mark shared the results of surveys from the previous year's inservice programs with his faculty.
If you look at [the results], this faculty has rated those sessions very high - an overall rating of 4.2 - some of them slipped up to 4.6s. A part of that is also the information related to how we have done professional development in the past two years - the collegiate model... [where] we have faculty members choose [the sessions they would like to have and attend]. ... It's certainly important that we have the expertise around to help us grow in the skills we need to do our jobs better. So, 1 would value very, very much if you would take the time to respond to each of those questions or if you don't like it, say it. You won't offend me. This is nothing personal. ... I will use your input for designing where we're headed for the rest of the school year.
Dr. Davidson interprets for his staff the feedback gathered through his inquiry. The results of Mark's inquiry serve not only as support for continued employment of the school's professional development model, but also as validation for how he uses and applies their input. And, as Mark explains, "That encourages me to take more and more challenges."
Reading. In addition to observing, listening, and inquiring, the data suggest that
Dr. Davidson gathers information by reading. In particular, Mark Davidson infuses his practice with current educational research, reading professional and academic journals and considering their findings when making decisions that impact student performance.
From the data emerge many indicators of Dr. Davidson's penchant for "theory to practice, knowledge to experience." Here, Mark offers evidence from his own experiences that knowledge o f theory is an effective problem-solving tool.
As organizations contract and expand ...protecting the core and all those issues, you see it. I mean you really see theory play itself out, and that's the fun for someone like me who enjoys watching it. But you can also predict it, and using that information, you can be there ahead of them, having already aligned your
144 organization either to buffer it or mount an attack against it so that you don't get as much impact as you would have gotten if you didn't know it was coming.
Dr. Davidson's belief about the value of theory within practice is reflected in his consumption of current educational research and his preference for sharing research with
his staff. In the words of a teacher,
1 think he's the first [principal I've had] who's actually kept up with research - kept himself current. He brings these things to meetings to bring them to the attention of other people and engages people in dialogue about projects.
In doing so, Mark models professional development, increases the collective knowledge base, advances the discussion to a theoretical level, and grounds any decisions in sound, educational research and practice.
The data also suggest that Dr. Davidson's use of current research inspires others to adopt similar habits. Here, a teacher indicates that members of Mark's administrative team also encourage reading and careful consideration of applicable research.
Certainly, [our assistant principal] does too. I think they function as a team, so if it's not personally coming from Mark, then it's also coming from one of the people on the administrative team. If you develop a certain notion of what you want to try or do, it's not unusual to find articles in your mailbox [that] somebody has seen and given to you. [They] really support you in what you're doing,... coming often with new ideas, buying materials to support, encouraging faculty.
And, as this teacher remarks, Dr. Davidson's focus on current research and sound theory has created a rare culture o f inquiry among staff at ELEC.
I still find a culture in which there is a great deal of interconnectedness of ideas. People who actually think along educational lines as practiced by a university and bring research to their teaching. Probably not as much as you'd like on a given day, but it goes on here, and sometimes I'm just amazed by that
Intuiting. Evidence emerging from this analysis seems to indicate that, in addition to the foregoing information-gathering tools, Mark Davidson employs his intuition when
145 collecting problem-pertinent information. As reported in Chapter Two, intuition, or an immediate way of knowing, produces a range of multi-level information and provides an spontaneous cue for action (Agor, 1986). în the context of Dr. Davidson’s practice, intuition manifests itself as both a "gut feeling" and as the union of his own knowledge and experience. A case in point emerges one morning as Mark relates his observation of several students outside his window.
Many folks who are talking about this business think it involves books and programs and rhythms and routines, and that's that management side. But you know, I look [out of this window] - as you look out and see your kids - right now there's a girl pushing on a guy and your intuition tells you there's not a fight there, there's nothing there. But, in another situation, I would be exiting this room.
Here, Mark's intuitive sense helps him distinguish between an innocent push and a potential problem. Absent a gut feeling telling him to respond, Mark concludes that there is no problem. Dr. Davidson continues.
That's how you have to operate a part of your school. You leam your rhythms and your routines ... and you start reading people, and you go, "Something is wrong - something's not right" - or the teachers are slower today, or using firmer language - or your administrative team are calling you more frequently. Then you try to say, "Ok, what are the indicators? What's happening?" and you try to get there before something jumps off.
As Mark explains, the ability to read people and situations is essential to school leadership. From his perspective, intuition provides pieces of information that, when synthesized with his existing knowledge and experience, are useful for identifying problems that elude purely rational methods.
In other situations, however, Mark's intuitive sense resembles more the synthesis of experience and knowledge. For example, here. Dr. Davidson describes his intuition
146 about the district's failure to adequately plan for the impending influx of instructional computer technology.
It's my instincts that tell me what may take place in terms of bringing in the computer technology. I've never been there, it's gonna happen next August, but 1 can tell you instinctively, if we don't do some things, we're gonna be on the front page of the paper. I've stated that, put it right on the table, and I've been beaten on a little.
Here, given Mark's administrative experience and knowledge of computer technology, his prediction may be more a function of his expertise than sheer intuition. As Mark explains, "Knowing your opponent sometimes can create that intuitive sense."
Whether emanating from a feeling or a union of knowledge and experience, information gathered intuitively frequently is challenged. In Mark's words, "[People] don't really want to hear, I went with my feelings, or my gut, or my intuition.' They want a rational explanation as to why we got there because that bureaucratic, rational model is always in place, and it dominates us." He continues.
But, if you're into natural systems, then you have some understanding of how there's activity that's not rational - it just happens because. So when you get into a business like this, you know the general behaviors, the natural systems of how things work [such that] when there's a deviation, you sense it Wait a minute That didn't feel right. That didn't look right. And you can't necessarily explain it. ...But then you look at what happened and what may have happened, you say, "No," and you keep on going, based on your instinct.
Mark shared a recent problem in which his intuition has played a role. The problem involves a parent who is pressuring the district, against Dr. Davidson's professional judgment, to provide his child special education services. However, Mark's intuition has told him that the problem is more complex than what the surface reveals.
I think this is a deep problem. I think it's created in the family. I think there's significant stress. I don't have any facts, but it's baring itself out. I felt that way when I first met the parent and the child, and it has never gone away. There is
147 nothing I can prove here, but right now I’m judging this is going to get far more ugly.
When asked how, if at all, his intuition has affected his response to the problem, Mark replied,
1 never challenged the parent because the parent was very domineering, and 1 would only end up escalating the conflict at my desk and 1 didn't want to break the trust. As long as 1 have the parent talking, 1 can gain information. If the parent broke off relationships at this desk - I'm the only connection that 1 have with the family for the preservation of the child, and I don't want that to happen.
In this case. Dr. Davidson's intuitive sense influenced all aspects of the problem solving process. The intuited information alerted Mark to the larger problem, causing him to reshape his interpretation of the problem, and, accordingly, the goals, values, solution processes, and affect he employed. Davidson stepped back from his efforts to advise the parent against special education in order to maintain his connection with the family. "I'm going to see if time will play itself out and, then, reinvolve myself and maybe keep this kid moving forward." Here, by fusing intuitive with analytical information. Dr. Davidson identified and addressed a critical feature of the problem that otherwise might have gone unnoticed.
According to Dr. Davidson, the need for leaders to employ intuition is growing.
"As we have a more diverse organization and there are more values at play, conflicting, you have to rely on your instincts to know when the rhythms change." However, he notes, "to rely on it all the time could be an excuse for not being thoughtful, not planning, not doing the work." He concludes, "I guess I'm arguing for a balance, but [intuition] needs to be acknowledged."
1 4 8 Thinking
Tool People and Processes Analyzing Looks for patterns to discover and/ or and create problems Synthesizing Strategizing Proactive problem solver THINKING Employs ready-made strategies Strategizes in action and on action Forecasting Uses information to predict problems Forward thinker - "visionary" Reflecting Independently In collaboration with another As a group process
Table 4.3 Thinking
Information alone is not enough. As Dr. Davidson explains, "It takes someone
who can manage information once you have it and make sense out of it." The data seem
to suggest that Dr. Mark Davidson is, above all, a thinker (see Table 4.3). Examples
abound of his propensity to think about and seek patterns among the information he
gathers. As one supervisor explains, "I see him as a thorough person, one who researches
the issues, and thinks it out rather than jumping in, coming to a conclusion, and leaving
all of the tidbits for someone else to deal with." Such reliance upon cognition finds Dr.
Davidson frequently engaged in careful analysis and synthesis of pertinent problem-
finding and problem-solving information. Upon such meaning making, Davidson typically addresses problems proactively and strategically. Data also indicate that Mark,
in the words of several colleagues, "is a visionary," anticipating problems before they occur. Finally, the data seem to suggest that Dr. Davidson invests significant time
reflecting on his practice and engaging others to reflect upon theirs.
149 Analyzing and Synthesizing. Haying gathered information pertinent to a particular problem, Mark Davidson regularly engages in analysis and synthesis. He studies the information, looks for patterns, and combines component parts of the information into a coherent whole. According to the data, analysis and synthesis seem to come easily to Davidson, or, perhaps, with so much practice these skills become second nature. Mark explains.
1 don’t know, I've just always had, and 1 can't explain it - you can almost see next week, so let's do this. 1 will catch myself sometimes, ... and you share it with someone and they, "Oh, my God, 1 never thought of that - that makes it a lot easier." 1 don't know what that is. It's my state of mind. I don't know why it happens. I've been analytical like that for a long, long time, trying to find what makes it work or how to make it work.
Davidson's ability to scrutinize and make sense of information appears to facilitate his skill with, and enjoyment of, problem solving. Colleagues seem to agree.
As one administrative team member explains.
He remembers and draws conclusions and he sees patterns. Many, many times I'll make a suggestion - what about such and such and he'll see the ramifications in the long run. He'll see a picture that never dawned on me. He has both the [details] and the broad picture.
The data suggest that Dr. Davidson employs analysis and synthesis primarily when finding and interpreting problems. As reported in Chapter Two, three categories of problems exist: presented problems, discovered problems, and created problems (Getzels,
1979). Presented, or well-defined, problems have a known formulation and solution process, thus demanding little analytical attention. However, discovered and created problems are typically ill-defined, requiring the problem solver to engage in thorough analysis and synthesis in order to formulate the problem. This comment from Dr.
Davidson seems to suggest that many of the problems he faces fall in the discovered and
150 created categories. "Sometimes the problem comes to me in a raw state, and I have to
define it." At other times, the problems "are either created or they develop [such that]
there is a realistic problem that's emerging, or a direction of change that needs to be
addressed, or here's where I want them to go, so we gotta create this problem."
An example of Dr. Davidson's use of analysis and synthesis can be found in his
account of a discovered problem that emerged from a newly implemented attendance
practice Mark had designed. In an effort to reduce the paper involved, Mark eliminated
the hand-carried, excused-absence slip that students would produce for teachers'
signatures. As Davidson explains, when he introduced the plan during a summer retreat,
"for the most part, everyone thought it looked good." He continues.
So, I made a few edits and handed it out. And 1 mean this thing is rolling along and people are trying to make it work, and it was probably in January when folks said, "This isn't working." I'd been drifting along thinking this is working, and I started to leam that it was not really a solution.
Through analysis and synthesis of staff feedback, Mark identified a problem with the attendance system. As a result, "1 had to step back an operation 1 thought was working, and [try to] figure out what to do to make the framework of the operation functional."
As mentioned, created problems also require analysis and synthesis. A case in point can be found in Mark Davidson's very development of Evans Local Education
Center. When assigned the problem of creating a school. Dr. Davidson carefully
"thought through the work plan, so I knew what I needed to get done."
I had projected what I would need before I ever walked onto campus. When I met with the assistant superintendent, I asked him what he wanted me to do. He said, "Create," basically. I opened up my briefcase and I had all these papers. 1 had already thought it through. I had sketches of what I needed to get done, of thoughtful planning or looking at the details. I had information that I had 151 projected. Some of it was just obvious, [like] food service, but there were some areas that weren't. I used that basically as my guide, because when you're on the run and in the heat of battle there's not a lot of time to sit down, rethink, and plan.
Davidson's thoughtful analysis and synthesis of information were integral to the
creation of ELEC. Here, Mark describes his thinking about facilities planning. As he
mentally moves from analysis to synthesis, his knowledge of human behavior and his
questioning technique advance the process.
Facilities can determine human movement. You can design it and people just fall in. ... I had to get really get hands-on in how we would manage our movement of students. Where would they run up against walls? Where would they put stress on this pole? Facilities can landlock you in terms of programming which happened out of the 50s and 60s and why we're in some of the messes in school we're in - space is defining. So facilities I had to think through in great detail about what I needed to do to make it happen, anticipating the conflicts and the work.
Strategizing. In addition to analysis and synthesis, Davidson regularly engages in
strategizing. Upon interpreting a given problem, Mark employs the available information
to devise a plan to meet his goal. According to the data, Davidson's overall problem
solving strategy is proactive. He endeavors to find and resolve problems before they
occur. As a veteran teacher explains.
[Dr. Davidson] probably puts out more fires than we ever know about. So, I don't think you see as many problems here because he takes care of them before they actually happen. He's just on top of it. You don't see him put the fires out because he gets them out before they go anywhere. ... It seems like we get around them before problems actually happen.
According to the data, Davidson's proactive position on problem solving is enhanced further by his political sense. As he explains.
Politics can be the right thing to do. It's that, how do you influence people them to get to them where they need to be? I have long stated that politics needs to be out there in organizational theory [along with] the bureaucracy of open systems, natural systems. I've been in politics for a long, long time now. I've watched it and worked i t ... as a means of operations. 152 Evidence suggests that Mark employs his substantial knowledge of district politics and skill with political strategy to the benefit of his organization. In the words of a teacher.
He really understands the politics and the big picture as well. I think people here have a hard time seeing what this encompasses. ... Sometimes he moves very slow on things, and I think some people have a hard time with that, but I know he's just looking at the big picture [and thinking] down the road, if you make this action, there's going to be this reaction. He's really smart in that way ... and [it's] something you can leam from. He's got that political savvy that's really important.
An example of Davidson's knowledge of and skill with political strategy emerges from his decision to discourage staff interest in pushing forward a portfolio entrance requirement for Evans Local students. Here, Mark recognized that the district's current political climate would not be amenable to a prerequisite that would be interpreted by some as insensitive to economic, racial and ability differences. Davidson explains, "This is not the time. So I've got to do a little bit more controlling of that issue so they understand why, ... because as soon as we get [racism and elitism] hit on us, it'll never go away."
Davidson not only utilizes political strategy skillfully, but he relishes it. One afternoon as Mark discussed the political struggles inherent in his work, with a grin on his face he remarked, "Don't get the idea I don't like it." He talks frequently about how much he enjoys successfully negotiating the hazardous terrain of politics. For Davidson, it's all about knowing how to play the game and the joy of being able to say, "Yeah, I gotcha."
153 Recently, Mark talked about his strategy to influence district planning for computer technology.
The district's gonna unload boxes and then they're gonna say, well in two months you need to write a plan. . .. 1 want our teachers empowered with information so that we can influence that decision, so it's in our best possible interest. And 1 don't want others out there making that for us. So when we start looking at these committees and one in English and so forth, I can get one of our teachers there to just do one of these. We just need to be there so we have the most information to influence them in decision making.
Evidence seems to suggest that Dr. Davidson's strategic cache ranges from ready made plans to plans developed in action. Among the ready-made strategic plans Dr.
Davidson applies is his "gunslinger strategy." Here, he shares the plan with a teacher struggling to establish classroom control.
In the old wild West, if you're a gunslinger [you'd] walk down the street wearing the biggest gun you've got and that's the one you shoot and nobody else would take you on - nobody else had a faster draw. You could walk wherever you wanted to - you didn't have to worry about begin shot in the back because you took on their best and they buried him. Well, that has a strategy that you go for the biggest problems first ...you go for the biggest [troublemakers] first and you meet with them individually in another location and you put it all on the line in a very positive way, this is your expectation. And after you do the biggest gunfighter, you start down the line - never tell them where you're going to go next. ...What you're going to show is every time they act, there's a little more happening.
As Mark tells the teacher, he learned the strategy as a classroom teacher and continues to apply it to his administrative practice.
I do it here. 1 do it from this desk. I take on the biggest and the baddest. 1 want the kids to know that I'll go after anybody. The worst employee - 1 want ’em. The rest, get in line. I want the most difficult kid, and I want 'em because the rest are [thinking] he's probably the first one to take 'em on.
Another example of Dr. Davidson's strategic thinking emerges from his response to the school board's turnabout on a promised district-wide purchase of instructional
154 computers. In the fall, as the staff busily prepared for the arrival of over one hundred
student computers, the school board reneged on its plan to purchase. Consequently, Dr.
Davidson was faced with a problem - how to recover from the disappointment and
continue to move the staff forward with their plans to technologically infuse instruction.
"[1 had] to pick people up to create that hope that it's going to be here - it's coming, it's coming, and get people to start to ponder, "How are we going to apply, how are we going
to use it?" To do so, Mark reframed the problem and changed his strategy.
My performance moved towards, rather than an acquiring mode, a preparing to acquire [mode]. 1 dropped back and tried to think, "Well, folks, if we had 120 computers at this campus, would we be ready to receive them in terms of our thinking and location?" So 1 allowed myself to go into a strategy of retreat for the purpose of preparing a little bit.
By framing the disappointment as an opportunity to revisit their readiness, Mark maintained staff focus on the goal ahead. Here, flexible thinking and new strategy transformed what might have been an end to progress into a means for change.
Not all of the problems this administrator faces present themselves with ample time for proactive strategic planning. Consequently, Dr. Davidson also employs strategic thinking in action. A particularly cogent example emerged as he described his thinking and actions during encounter with an agitated parent. One day after school, while conversing with a teacher in the hallway. Dr. Davidson was approached by a counselor who had just excused herself from a particularly heated parent conference. The counselor sought Mark's assistance with the parent who was extremely agitated and had "personally
[verbally] attacked" her. In an effort to intervene and to protect the counselor, Mark entered the room.
I really orchestrated my entrance in terms that I wanted to be calm, slow, and deliberate. 1 pulled up a chair in the middle of them, separating the kid and the 155 parent. The counselor was on the other side so that I could at least turn the warfare towards me and get [the counselor] out of this. The first thing the mother said to me was, "Who are you?' which surprised me to some degree, but it also gave me a clue. Here we've been together for four years and she's trying to figure out who 1 am. So, it gave [me] a disconnect immediately.
Here, Dr. Davidson plans the most productive course o f action based on the information relayed by the counselor and his encounter with the parent. Based on the parent's volatile behavior. Dr. Davidson strategically positioned himself physically and symbolically in such a way as to protect the counselor and to "turn [the parent's] anger on to me." In addition, he employed a calm manner, speaking slowly and deliberately, and addressing the parent respectfully as "Ma'am" throughout the conversation. Dr. Davidson in-action analysis of the parent's lack of knowledge about the school coupled with his observation that the student, although present, "appeared to be sleeping ... and had not entered the conversation at all," further influenced his strategic plan. As the situation continued to escalate, Mark changed his strategy.
[The parent's words] were just laced with emotion. She's yelling. And at a point, I had to move to a very pointed style, rather than nurturing and quiet. You have to get direct with some people because they see that as a weakness, and I needed to get [the counselor] off the hot seat
Although Dr. Davidson continued to respond respectfully and with consistent answers, the parent refused to listen. As her remarks moved from questions to personal accusations, Mark moved to end what was no longer a productive exchange by changing tactics again.
Half way through the conversation, when she wouldn't let me answer her questions, I first mentally said I'm retreating. 111 attempt to answer. When she cuts me off. I'm not going there again. I just purposely started to answer, she cut me off, went [to another subject], and I never went back. I just let her guide where she wanted to go to just let this forest fire bum itself out.
156 After carefully listening to and observing the parent throughout the interaction, Mark's strategy to end the encounter capitalizes on the parent'sovkti pattern of behavior. Within minutes, "it just sort of wound down to the point where I said, 'Ma'am, is there any other area that I need to address?"' Upon replying that she wanted to take the issue to the superintendent, Mark responded, "What you choose to do is what you need to do. 1 welcome anyone to review my decision. I'm not uncomfortable with that, and I will wait to hear from you."
The foregoing narrative offers one example of Dr. Davidson strategizing in action. When engaged in such, this administrator analyzes events as they develop and crafts his responses accordingly. Another perhaps more dramatic illustration of Dr.
Davidson's thinking in action occurred one afternoon as a meeting of Evans Local's advisory board was dismissing. Although most of the members had excused themselves for home or work, Mark and one remaining board member cordially discussed an issue raised during the meeting. Suddenly, one of his assistant principals rushed into the small meeting room, reached for her coat, and told Dr. Davidson that there was trouble on the other side of campus, in the east parking lot - something to do with a weapon. Calmly, yet purposefully, Mark grabbed his walkie-talkie, excused himself without words, and hurried from the room. As Dr. Davidson ran toward the parking lot, several police vehicles with lights flashing entered campus, some driving over the grassy areas between buildings to gain quick access. Meanwhile, overhead, a police helicopter circled. Given that the incident occurred during class time, students were mostly inside buildings; however, several students gathered outside, watching at a distance. Within minutes, one of the local news stations arrived on scene complete with a camera and videographer.
157 Arriving on the scene. Dr. Davidson was met by Stan Williams, ELEC's on- campus police officer. Officer Williams explained that, during his regular tour of campus that afternoon, he had noticed a man sitting in the backseat of an unfamiliar car parked in the east lot. Upon approaching the car and looking inside, the officer saw a bag of cocaine and a syringe sitting on the seat next to the man. When Officer Williams questioned the man, his behavior became erratic, so the officer pulled his weapon and called for backup, setting off the entire "weapon" incident.
Back in his office. Dr Davidson described his thinking that affemoon as he ran across campus toward a possibly dangerous situation.
You observe. The whole time, on the way over there, I was observing. 1 was thinking, ok, they’re gonna do this, they're gonna do that, they're gonna run around this way, so I'll go this way. It's all about paying attention to what is that car doing over there? and what's happening over here?
Faced with an unknown predicament, Mark thinks ahead of events. He does so by creating likely problem scenarios based on observation and experience and then devising corresponding strategic tools for immediate use should they occur. Here, Dr. Davidson interprets in action, framing a problem before it's revealed and strategizing potential solutions.
As Dr. Davidson brought the events of the day to a close, he had one, last strategic move to complete. "You watch me, " Mark exclaimed. "I'm gonna do some mopping up." With that, he picked up the phone, dialed a number, and said, "Hey, Bob.
This is Davidson at Evans Local. Just wanted to let you know we had a little trouble here earlier..." and he recounted the entire experience, explaining exactly what had happened.
"I want you to know that there were no [district] students involved. [The Incident] had
158 nothing to do with the school. I don't want the school to take a hit. 1 don't want the kids to take a hit, and I don't want the district to take a hit."
Mark explained that he had just called the district communications/community- relations specialist. Knowing that the incident might make the local evening news. Dr.
Davidson wanted to inform central office in advance. In addition, Mark was confident that Bob, the community-relations specialist, would call the media who were on campus today and give them the correct information, thereby averting any negative press. Mark's actions illustrate once again his strategic thinking in action. By acting strategically in advance of a problem, the problem may never occur. And, in Dr. Davidson's words, "I’m doing this to protect my school. "
Forecasting. As mentioned earlier, Davidson is a proactive problem solver. Such a strategy requires a thinker who can forecast events based on analysis and synthesis of available information. Mark Davidson is such a thinker. "I guess I have some degree of enjoyment in trying to pick things off before they happen. You see something coming and you go, 'Whoa. What impact will it have on me?" As a teacher explains, "He sees future problems and [resolves] them. He knows things that are coming up and he's on top of it. He gets involved in things he knows would be good for the school."
According to another teacher, Davidson combines his ability to identify problems with his strategic sense, selecting precisely the right time to respond.
He is a good anticipator of problems. He can see where conflict is coming. I don't think he necessarily works to divert it, [but] after years of watching him, ... that’s probably as politically right as it is annoyingly [time consuming] at times because sometimes you have to let things come to a head.
159 This teacher articulates both Mark's ability "to see where things are going and to know how he has to use them" and her accompanying frustration with "how long it takes" problems to ripen sufficiently for Dr. Davidson to act. As the data indicate, Davidson hears her concern, but remains committed to strategic resolutions.
I've got some teachers that say, "You're so deliberate, so slow." They don't get it. You have to be. You can't just bull your way through people who have authority, because they're gonna tell you no. It takes time to construct and develop big things.
Davidson recognizes the value of forecasting and works to hone his skill. "I'm a weather watcher. 1 enjoy that because it trains my forecasting." He talks about his use of weather watching as a forecasting tool.
My team knows 1 watch the weather and I have fun with it. But several weeks ago, I started to see the beginnings of a storm coming and I went around near the end of the day advising some people we're probably not going to have school tomorrow. I set up the emergency pieces - if this then we're gonna respond this way and a few people chuckled at me. Well, I went home and not a problem. And that night it hit, and we got some serious snow. I had to sit there in the chair and laugh. [But], I didn't go back and point my finger at anybody. Because the next time, I want them to believe me and establish that credibility that, man, when he talks he says something.
Mark’s correct prediction of the storm, much like his identification of other problems, emerged from his skilled and knowledgeable analysis of the data. In this case, his prediction facilitated preparation for a cancelled day of school, a luxury not often afforded with snow days. In addition, it demonstrated to faculty that Mark's predictions of coming events have warrant, thus reinforcing the credibility of his word.
According to the data, Davidson's forecasting has played a significant role in the acquisition and utilization of computers at Evans Local. An assistant administrator talks
160 about the impact of Mark's visionary thinking on the technological capacity they now enjoy.
This is his foresight. Years ago he had this place wired - fiber optics. He had this place trenched and dug, and we were ready when everybody else [was not even aware of the potential need for upgrading wiring]. We're off. We're wired. He had each room receptive and ready for what was coming. He knew this. I didn't know. [The other administrator] didn't know it. Nobody knew it.
Here, Dr. Davidson's knowledge, experience, inquiry, and forward thinking created a vision of computer technology that is still driving decision making about instruction.
I think I see where the future's going [with computer technology] and my obligation to students is to get them there as quickly as possible in terms of foundational skills. So I'm a real advocate of pushing that forward for these kids and, therefore, for the adults to bring it into the school.
And, his knowledge and experience predict a problem with the impending arrival of district computers if district facilities are not ready to accommodate the technology and if educators are not instructional ly ready to utilize the technology.
I think there are some serious infrastructure questions that are going to have to be answered, or [the district] is gonna end up on the front page of the newspaper in a very negative way.
In sum, forecasting enables Mark Davidson to identify problems and create the vision he uses to advance his school organization.
I would easily equate [my job] with being an orchestral conductor. You take that vision which is the composition in front of you and you make sense of it. Everybody else has a component out there. Nobody sees the full score. You see the full score as principal. You have to work to solve the problems in order to get this vision out there, to get the performance played.
Reflecting. Evidence from the data seems to indicate that Mark Davidson values and employs reflection as an integral part of his problem-solving practice. He recognizes the potential consequences of the decisions he must make and thus, the importance of their careful consideration.
161 At my desk in the office of the principal, everything I do has ramifications. Everything. I'm talking about decisions that impact people and you just can't respond in quick, irrational, or unthoughtful ways. You have to contemplate how it's going to impact the people in your organization and others that are on the peripheral.
Dr. Davidson is also very practical about reflection, having a good sense of the difference between problems that require careful thought and problems that don't.
"Now, every decision I make I'm not going to suggest that I'm reflecting. I mean I'd be reliving my life. It's the important decisions, or one’s that I know were very successful, or [those that] just fell on their nose [on which I reflect].
Here, Dr. Davidson chooses to reflect upon the problems he perceives to be most significant and upon those from which he can learn the most. In this way. Dr. Davidson uses reflection primarily as a form of self-evaluation.
It can reaffirm a decision. What could we have done that would have changed - what decision could we have made that led us to the outcome that we have, and pondered that. They call it second-guessing in baseball - Monday morning quarterback. But you're in the heat of battle and you've got to rely on experiences, knowledge, and instincts to make the right decision. So reflection time allows you to self-assess, given the same scenario, and now the given outcome, ... reflection allows you to reaffirm or to think, no, shouldn't have gone there.
Dr. Davidson reflects upon decisions he makes in order to improve his problem solving. He does so by analyzing his thinking and actions in light of the outcome. An example of this can be found as Mark narrates his reflection during a conversation with two students who had not been accepted to the National Honor Society.
I had to think about what I was going to do. I had to think about a strategy to reveal this to them without destroying them. Then, after I talked with them, I had to reflect, "Did I do what I said I was going to do, or did I allow a moment of emotion or time to short circuit this piece so I could get them to class on time?" And, "Did how I handle it have the right outcome?" measured by [whether I] have parents sitting in my office the next day or the school district asking for our constitution.
162 Here, after carefully considering and employing a strategy for breaking the news. Dr.
Davidson reflects upon the outcome. He responds cognitively to a series of pertinent
evaluative questions and, then, using specific measures, he assesses his effectiveness.
I thought about it for about three or four days and, I thought, the district hasn't called me. Customer relations hasn’t called me. The parent has not made a phone call. The student has not come back to renegotiate. The student hasn’t contacted a faculty member. So whatever I did, worked.
Having concluded through reflection that his solution was successful. Dr. Davidson adds the experience to his knowledge base.
Now I know what I did, so if I try it again, I will probably move in that same vein to try to help them understand. I reaffirmed the decision I made, so reflection is sort of self-teaching. You're constantly a learner by decisions.
In addition to self-reflection. Dr. Davidson employs reflection as a collaborative endeavor. The data suggest that Mark engages in collaborative reflection in several ways. When assessing validity of his own solution process, Mark sometimes turns to others for their assessment of his decision. Wanting to confirm his thinking on a recent problem. Dr. Davidson asked a superior to reflect upon his conclusion.
So I continued to review I sent all that information to my [superior] so that she could see the same set of information, data that I had made my decision from, so I had a second opinion. I believe in that physician's model. Give me a second opinion. I might not see the x-ray the same as you. When the process was completely done ...[my superior] stated to me very clearly, well, that's exactly where she would have been.
In this way. Dr. Davidson moves from self-assessment to collaborative assessment as he extends the reflective process to other individuals. By consulting with his superior, Mark affirms his thinking and gains support for his decision.
Dr. Davidson also experiences reflection as a group process. He describes an incident of collective reflection at a meeting of district administrators. Following a rash
163 of tragic shootings at high schools across the country. Dr. Davidson and his colleagues engaged in some reflection about possible ways to protect students. For instance, the principals discussed potential sites to which students could be evacuated. "Individuals volunteered, talked about what they did, and then we processed it and were reflective."
The collective knowledge and experience of these individuals provided solutions that, reflected upon individually, might otherwise have gone undiscovered. For Mark, the reflective process provided him with solutions he had yet to consider, but would now employ. "I will remember that ... when I'm under pressure - when something might happen that way."
Finally, the data suggest that Dr. Davidson encourages and facilitates reflection among his staff. In his words, "I want a faculty that constantly are self-assessing or assessing the work, or me, or the school so that we're improving." Mark addresses with his faculty the notion o f reflection as an effective in-action, teaching tool.
The strongest teacher is one who is able to teach and assess themselves as they are doing it. That's the highest level of the professional. As you're working, you are able to step back and in and out of that process and are able to determine, "Am I doing what I'm supposed to be doing?" Rather than just delivering it, and hopefully they'll [get it], you'll get some reaction or a test so you can figure out if you did.
Mark explains the value of teacher self-assessment. He describes the process as developing an awareness of one's instruction, reflection upon instruction as it occurs, and looking to students' reactions for clues as to the level of one's effectiveness. From Dr.
Davidson's perspective, reflection-in-action can influence the quality of instruction.
164 As evidenced by a sample of objectives listed each month at the top of the inservice agenda, Mark sends a clear and consistent message to his faculty about the value of self and collective reflection.
Engage faculty in information gathering and processing; stimulate and gather thinking; ...engage faculty in individual thinking and group brainstorming; ...advance faculty thinking about school programs and improvement; . .propel faculty reflectiveness today and throughout the year; [and] ...activate faculty creativeness.
In accordance with these objectives. Dr. Davidson works to facilitate staff reflection through collective dialogue.
Frequently, Davidson uses collective reflection to process and plan for impending change. During a staff inservice, Mark sparked a discussion among faculty about the need to think about and develop a ten-year, technologically-infused educational plan for
Evans Local.
Either we're gonna work a plan for change, or change will come and direct where we're headed. Either we re gonna be in control of our destiny and help shape it, or we're gonna sit back and it's just gonna come flowing on top of us and then we re gonna say, "What happened?"
Armed with a starting point for discussion, teachers moved to small groups to share their thoughts. One group of teachers focusing on assessment reflected on the need to determine outcomes before assessment. As one teacher remarked, "I've been concerned about what are the students like when they leave Evans Local. What are they gaining?
Who are they? Where do we want them to be and are they there?" When she suggested,
"I think we should have our own curriculum" and asked, "Don't you agree with that?" another teacher replied, "Positively."
165 When asked how he encourages reflective dialogue, he replies, "By putting stuff
out for them to react to. Keeping it before them. ... I put out an issue or topic or problem
or my thinking, and they will begin to reflect based upon their belief or their position."
Sometimes dialogue begins over information Dr. Davidson presents to the group.
During another inservice. Dr. Davidson engaged faculty in collective reflection regarding
ajournai article he distributed.
Rather than to start saying, "Here's what we're gonna do, and here's how it's going to be done," [I will ask them to] think about this and get the article and start some of that dialogue, cross talk with people that they trust or may have some ideas and start generating the thinking. And from that, start to collect what we could do, and then begin to organize that information into our plan.
After distributing the article, Davidson provided the staff time to read, reflect in writing,
and then engage in dialogue regarding their thoughts. Dr. Davidson's use of current
research as an ignition point for discussion not only facilitates the reflective process, but
also grounds the discussion in solid instruction practice.
Communicating
Tool People and Processes Verbal One on One Through Values Through Storytelling COMMUNICATING With Groups Written Core Communication For Influence Non-Verbal Gestures/Facial Expressions "A Little Theatre"
Table 4.4 Communicating
166 The third problem-solving tool employed by this craftsman is communication.
Davidson uses communication to support his proactive approach to problem solving by providing information conducive to discovering, creating, and solving problems. As an artful communicator, Davidson communicates judiciously with others, imparting information as it informs and advances the mission of his school. As this comment suggests, Mark is thoughtful about when to convey what information.
I don’t get into the politics with my teachers. Their job really needs to be talking about teaching and learning and the affairs of the school. So I don’t give them all of the information [pertaining to the larger political struggles I face] - it only creates more noise in your local organization, and why do that? I can’t control it right now, so why unload that information for no purpose? If you’re going to give them information, data, it has to be for a purpose to make change or improve the organization.
The data suggest that among the information Dr. Davidson shares are the mission, expectations, traditions, and values foundational to ELEC’s organizational culture. In fact, 80% of those responding to the staff survey agree that Dr. Davidson clearly articulates his vision for ELEC to all school community members. To students, Mark stresses personal responsibility, self-discipline, hard work, and the value of an excellent education. During his opening-school message to freshmen, he talked about his expectations for their success.
I'm gonna expect you to do your best whether that is personal behavior, academic performance, or social interaction. If I’m not expecting that, then all of your parents should be lined up at the board of education to complain about me, because 1 expect it of me, and 1 will expect it of you. 1 expect good manners, good behavior, hitting the books, and doing the right thing. This is your job everyday. Everything you now need to be doing is toward graduation, earning your high school diploma.
To staff, he expresses his appreciation of their talents and professionalism and the importance of taking risks, building relationships, and engaging in collegjality. Phrases
167 such as "nurturing a school that cares about all of its people" and "relationships impact learning" peppered Mark's comments during the first staff inservice. In addition,
Davidson frequently remarks that "teamwork, innovation, and risk taking" are integral to advancing Evans Local. And, to all members of the school community his message is one of excellence, pride in their school, and continuous school improvement as evidenced by his remarks to freshmen students during a fall presentation. "You're sitting in a school that's nationally known. It's true! We have a national reputation. We are a school within the Moffit Public Schools. We love to think we're the flagship."
The data also indicate that Dr. Davidson employs three primary modes of communication to transmit information vital to the forward movement of his school: verbal, written, and non-verbal (see Table 4.4). It is to those three communication forms that this analysis now turns.
Verbal. Dr. Davidson communicates verbally one on one and with groups. When engaged in dialogue with another individual, Mark listens purposefully, "searching to find where other people are so that the decision, if it can be, can be interpreted through their value set."
1 have to shape [the decision] in a way that they see benefit. So you try to customize the actual solution that you know needs to happen, and customize it in a language that you can communicate with the person. You try to do that through trying to learn who they are.
And, for Dr. Davidson, learning about people involves identifying their core values and crafting one's language accordingly. Much as an interpreter translates from English to
French, in situations where communication has failed, Mark relays his message through the common language of values.
168 You've got to have some common cross-cutting issues or goals that touch as many of your constituencies as you can. That's why you hear me talk about expectations and high achievement because, when I turn to it, I can say to a parent, "You don't want your child to do these things?"
An example of this emerges from Dr. Davidson's account of a recent interaction with a parent wanting to withdraw her child from Evans. Firmly believing that Evans was the best place for this child and knowing that the child wanted to remain. Dr.
Davidson set out to defend his position and district policy. During the several encounters
Mark had with the parent, he listened for the core of her argument.
Well, the thing that [the parent kept saying] was, "You don't understand. 1 care for my child." It was her genuine, or what she professed to be, her genuine interest in her child getting out of school and being successful.
Having identifiedsuccess as one of the parent's core values, Mark prepared and shared a list of fourteen factors indicating that Evans Local was helping her child be successful.
Among the factors listed were the child's attendance at Evans for the last three years; significant friendships among classmates that would lead to her success; the school's location near her current employment and future career site; and having the support system to promote her success. As he shared the list with the parent, Mark presented each factor as evidence that remaining at Evans offered her child the best opportunity for success.
So those were the points I tried to wrestle with after hearing the parent talk about how we weren't caring about her child as much as she did [and] that she wanted [her child] to be successful. You just put it back through the very channel she's laying before you, but you've got to read her language. Where's her core? Find that center and what she's valuing.
169 Dr. Davidson also employs storytelling as a form of communication with students. He talks about the "power" of sharing a story about his own life with students who are struggling or in trouble.
My line always is, "1 bet you think I had a perfect life because I'm sitting behind this desk," because kids frequently do. They don't understand that we've all been through these same challenges, different situations, but same kind of challenges. When you can share a story and connect with them, I think it relaxes them. They see more of a presence, a place for them, that they're not unusually different.
Dr. Davidson's group communication consists primarily of collaborative problem solving situations and presentations to groups of students, parents, faculty, and community members. In fact, due to the prominence of collaboration across his problem solving practice, Davidson's use of collaboration warrants further coverage in a separate section. When communicating on behalf of collaboration, Mark listens carefully to what others have to say and interjects as the situation dictates.
I don’t talk a lot when I'm sitting at the head of the table guiding the forum. I will guide the discussion, and, then, you can see, non-verbally, they may look at me for, "What are you assessing, and, where should we be after we've heard all this dialogue?" I may chime in when I see it starting to happen and, again, that's the part of that intuitive piece - "Ok, ladies and gentlemen, seems like our position is the following. Is that what I'm generally hearing from the group?" Youll see [nodding]. "Ok, now, let me say that again, and could I have a consensus vote? I want to know if we’re in the ballpark. And all saying that we are from what I just captured from our discussion, could you say 'Aye?' Is anyone opposed to where we are with that concept? Ok, good, now let's refine it.
With regard to large group presentations, Davidson's message, as discussed earlier, is consistent with ELEC's mission. Here, he communicates for the purpose of transmitting or receiving information, educating, and "proclaiming Evans Local." The upcoming section on collaborating includes specific examples of this communication on behalf of collaboration.
170 Written. In addition to verbal communication. Dr. Davidson engages in written
communication. "I’m always trying to improve my writing - communicational skills are
foundational." The data indicate that Mark crafts all of the written communication
related to what he calls hLEC's "defining moments."
There are some core pieces that are foundations to this school that 1 will not surrender,... that I - must - do. It's something that I can't hand off to a counselor because I feel that they need to hear it from the guy who sits in the principal's seat. That's what's dominating this campus, and I'm not sure it can be shared in the forcefuiness from a coimselor, a teacher, or even an assistant principal.
The core pieces Mark refers to include opening school information, open house, parent
conferences, new student orientation, graduation, and closing school information. In addition, this administrator composes agendas for each of the department chair, advisory
board, and staff inservice meetings. And, as Mark declares, "I do a lot of my own letter writing."
One story Dr. Davidson shares, vividly illustrates his ability to blend information gathering, strategic thinking, and written communication into the perfect mixture of
influence.
Central office asked me about four years ago to address the board of education regarding the need for administrators. The tone in the community was anti administration, and the superintendent was concerned that they were going to cut too deeply. So I went about writing a persuasive piece that would provide influence to change their thinking - to look at administration differently. I knew that one member has a military background, so I ended with a military quote so that I could touch him because he would equate it with administrators. I knew if I could connect with where he had the most experience. I'd have a friend.
Non-verbal. In addition to verbal and written communication, Mark Davidson frequently employs non-verbal communication. Here, he explains the source of his skill.
Having been in front of an orchestra or a band, you do a lot of non-verbal cues, a facial expression or a hand gesture, or a nod of the head - setting people up for impending change. And people know. People react to non-verbal cues. The 171 research indicates they're probably more powerful than the stated word. So if you know that, then use them, [but] you've gotta understand what you're doing.
Clearly, Davidson recognizes the power of non-verbal communication. During a staff inservice meeting, in response to staff members who were reported arguing in front of students, Mark reminded them that their behavior whether audible or not was pronounced.
Right now all of us are communicating right now and we're not saying a word. And kids pick up on that. They see it in the classroom, they see your behavior, your eyes, your statement, how you work with your friends, the custodian, everybody can pick up on that. We're communicating all of the time, not just in language.
In addition to gestures and facial expressions. Dr. Davidson occasionally employs, as he puts it, "a little theatre." In these instances, Mark uses his expressive skills to enhance his verbal communication in order to resolve a problem. Here,
Davidson offers an illustrative example as he assists a teacher with a classroom of unruly students.
I walk in and I look around and say, "I've had the last problem I'm dealing with in this class. You're not learning ..." So, I go through my [speech], and I'm directing the teacher right now, "Any of these students give you one problem, you're to write it up and put it on my desk, because I'm sending you home for ten days. Is that clear? I'm declaring this period an unruly class - anything, if it's talking, if it's late, I don't care if it's one second, if it comes to my desk you're [out]" and I just turn and walk out.
In another case, Mark used expressive skills to work through a problem with a mother unhappy about her daughter's recent suspension. According to the incident report,
"Emily" arrived late to choral music class to find another female student's feet on her chair. When Emily ordered the girl to remove her feet, the girl kicked her in the mouth, to which Emily responded by knocking the girl off the back riser and pummeling her
172 repeatedly with her fists. Because Emily had been suspended for ten days and the other girl for two, Emily and her very angry mother had come to appeal the punishment.
Dr. Davidson began the conference by asking Emily to recount the incident.
When Emily claimed that the other girl had kicked her on purpose rather than accidentally, as the report indicated, Mark responded purposefully with a confused look on his face. "Emily, I'm having a little trouble understanding this. 1 need to know what happened, and 1 just can't make any sense of this." He then verbally reviewed step by step the report's account of the story. "It says here, 'Emily entered class late.' Is that true?" to which she replied, "Yes, but class hadn't started."
"Ok, that aside, let's go to the next one." He returned to the report. "When Emily arrived in class, [the girl's] feet were on her chair and Emily told her to get them off. Is that correct?"
"Yes."
"Ok, in the process of removing her feet, [the other girl's] foot came up and hit
Emily in the mouth. Is that true?"
"No. She kicked me in the mouth."
"Ok. I'm not sure 1 understand that, but we'll come back to it." As he led her through the rest of the report, Emily acknowledged the events. Suspecting that Emily's account of the story might have a few holes, Mark employed a strategic approach, asking
Emily to help him "recreate the incident" Grabbing a piece of paper, Davidson, with
Emily's help, drew an illustration of the choral room including the two chairs, the risers, and all other pertinent information. At this point, Mark recalls, Emily became very
173 involved in the story. "Ok, you came in, you saw her feet on your chair. What did you do?"
"I told her to get her feet off and she started to move her feet."
"Ok, but how did her foot come in contact with your mouth when you were standing up?"
"Well, I told her if she didn't get her feet off, I was going to bite her on the ankle."
"Ok. What happened next?"
"I leaned down to bite her and she kicked me in the mouth."
At that point. Dr. Davidson explained to Emily that when people are physically threatening, they instinctively respond to protect themselves. He asked her if someone were to draw back a fist and threaten to hit her in the eye wouldn't her hand come up to protect her face? "Would the two of you make contact, and is it possible that [the other girl's] foot came up in response to your threat of biting?"
In the end, Emily agreed that what happened was probably an accident and the problem was resolved. Here, through a combination of verbal and non-verbal communication, Mark opened the lines of communication, engaging all parties in the solution process.
Another forni of non-verbal communication emanates from an individual's affective demeanor. As reported in Chapter Two, effective problem solvers demonstrate a positive attitude toward problem solving, a calm affect, and a strong sense of problem solving self-efficacy. According to the data, Mark Davidson demonstrates a positive attitude and a calm demeanor when solving problems. For example, 94% of staff-survey respondents agree that Mark "maintains a calm, affective manner in the face of difficult
174 problems." In fact, one veteran ELEC teacher describes Davidson as "almost
unflappable. He can keep it together so much. It's amazing to me."
Evidence of Davidson's calm demeanor emerges from the earlier mentioned
incident involving a weapon. Throughout the entire episode, Davidson remained calm,
interacting efficiently and effectively to resolve the problem, thereby suggesting, as one
administrator said, "in crisis, he's excellent." However, upon returning to his office,
following the incident, Davidson's after-the-fact reflection revealed a variety of affective
responses underlying his calm exterior. As he recounted his thinking and actions, it
became clear that his concern for students' and staffs safety and his desire to protect his
school's and the district's reputation informed his conscious decision to adopt a calm
demeanor. This suggests that Mark strategically employs affect as a tool of his cognition to achieve the goals determined by the range of his affective response. Says Davidson,
I’ve trained myself. The more pressure, the quieter 1 get, so I'm in total control. I will not allow my emotions to take over. ... I see people lose control when there's emergencies or pressure, and I just don’t want to do that. Somebody needs to be calm, pull everybody together, and I've learned to do that and I think that's a learned thing.
Likewise, in Davidson's account of purposefully dramatic or expressive responses to problem, he shows how exhibiting anger before one's temper is actually lost or shock
prior to surprise is a means to applying affect appropriately and effectively.
Given the situational nature of administrative problem solving, the effective
application of affect requires a range of responses. As Mark explains, there are certain situations that demand a more forceful response.
When 1 know I'm going into those battles, 1 get myself mentally prepared. Music will do that for me. 1 just put it on, and 1 am ready. 1 take on pretty much anything. 1 can go into a meeting ready [to] cut your heart out, throw it down, 175 stomp on it, and keep on going. ... You need that. There has to be a part of you that's vicious, because in today's society people just run right over you and attack the organization and bring it to its knees just through a weakness and you can't afford that. Not a school.
He continues.
Now do 1 get there frequently? No. No. Do 1 like going there? No. But if I've got to take that journey. I'm packed. I'm gonna do what's right. There is a point you have to declare that I’m in charge. I'm the one running this school. I've not said that very frequently, but by case, 1 have to really proclaim that.
In addition to a positive attitude and affect, the data suggest that this school administrator demonstrates a strong sense of problem-solving self-efficacy. According to the staff survey, 86% agree that Mark is "confident in his ability to solve problems."
When asked to describe his own sense of confidence to solve the problems he faces,
Davidson replied,
I have a lot of confidence about [my ability to solve the problems I face]. I 11 about wade into anything if it's legal and ethical. 1 won't shun the battle. Now that doesn't mean I might not have some fear or anxiousness doing it, but when 1 know I've got to do it, let's go. I'm not interested in dragging something out when we've got a mission to accomplish. Take 'em out, move on, or fix the problem and get to the kids.
He continued. "Now does that mean I've not choked a couple of times and cuffed a few notes? No, I've had my cuffs, but I've always finished the chart." As Mark concludes,
With risk-taking, innovation, research and development, it's not failing so much as it is that you've eliminated something you don't have to try again as you find the right path in opening these doors. Failing is not ever making the effort or putting the work in to meet the challenge.
Despite Mark's strong sense of efficacy, there are problems he feels he has not been able to solve.
The ones that I've run into are those that are strong personality or professional conflicts. Deeply held beliefs or positions where people are unwilling to move - they're polarized. I struggle with I, and I have been ineffective in some of those situations. I'm in one now that I have been absolutely ineffective with persuasion, 176 with rationality, with counsel and guidance, with modeling, with some letters of direction. I have - not - solved - this - problem.
The problem Mark refers to involves a staff member whose difficulty with building and sustaining positive relationships with students and staff is negatively affecting his instruction and causing him "to drift into isolation." Mark clarifies that what makes these problems so difficult to resolve is "people."
People are the problems in the organization, and people create the product. So when you are challenged with people who ... will not compromise ... [or] see another's point of view, ...you are put to task. Other people think you can just masterfully solve the problem, but it doesn't happen that way. I'm being blamed for not being able to decisively fix this thing. "Well, just tell him!" It's more than just telling people.
As Mark explains.
It takes me some time to work through the process. 1 have to lay a framework to be sure that I'm not being domineering. And that's what creates in other people, "Well, you're not addressing the problem. You just don't care. You don't know how to solve it."
Mark's account suggests that although problems involving interpersonal or professional conflict present a formidable challenge, his strong, general sense of problem-solving efficacy provides the necessary confidence to persist to a solution. As with the aforementioned staff member, Davidson continues toward resolution, confidently applying emergent strategies designed to improve the teacher's behavior.
177 Educating
Tool People andProcesses Collegial Interaction Professional Others Development Instruction EDUCATING Interaction with Individuals Through Study Himself From Experience Formal Instruction
Table 4.5 Educating
Dr. Mark Davidson applies education as a tool for problem solving. He creates learning opportunities across the school organization, advancing individual and collective knowledge and problem-solving capacities (see Table 4.5). Such a perspective seems to reflect the research presented in Chapter Two that expert principals view problems as opportunities for individual and collective growth. In addition, Davidson sees teachable moments among the problems they face and, whenever possible, crafts those into educational experiences. In his words.
That's why I enjoy the visits to classrooms. There's an opportunity for me to see [the teachers'] work and then be in a position to coach, to urge, to motivate, to inspire, to teach, to open up something new for these teachers - even the most veteran, which is a challenge.
As one assistant administrator explains, "I feel very grateful to have worked with him. I think I have grown tremendously and continue to." Finally, Mark identifies opportunities to educate himself, considering his role as learner equally important to his role as leader.
178 One of the ways in which Dr. Davidson creates learning opportunities is through
professional development designed to increase knowledge, develop problem-solving
skills, and promote collegiality. Mark explains.
Development is just what we're doing - getting people to understand each other, where the school needs to be, where we've been, and creating our own knowledge base, our own culture. ...That's development with the school that's going to move it forward.
For example. Dr. Davidson employed two forms of professional development to
educate his staff about instructional computer technology. One method involved bringing
together groups of teachers with their more technologically skilled and knowledgeable
colleagues to learn about computer capabilities.
We have been bringing folks into the [staff members] that really know technology and attempting to develop a greater awareness or skills in those areas. We're not totally there, we re constructing how to use as we're acquiring it, so when it comes in, we're ready to do it. We're ready to do something. And to get people excited about this is as a vehicle for increasing learning rather than just something that is coming in and now we've got to sit and figure out what to do with it. It's getting people starting to talk about it and getting information in their hands.
The other involved facultv' inservice meetings designed to "stimulate and gather
thinking about approaches, strategies, activities, [and] integration of computer technology to teaching and learning." During one of the meetings, Mark distributed two current
articles on the instructional use of computers and an accompanying worksheet designed to encourage and guide reflection.
[I wanted to present] articles that would talk about some technology in a very user-fnendly way that would start to lay out why it's needed, some examples of how it can be utilized - that would challenge everyone's thinking. Oh, how could I use that in pharmacy? Oh, wow, I never thought of it that way. I wanted to also bring myself up to speed regarding software.
179 Staff members were provided thirty minutes to individually review the articles and respond in writing to several questions prompted by the worksheet. Upon completion, teachers were asked to share in small groups their thoughts regarding "the use of technology in the classroom and its improving teaching and learning." Dr. Davidson asked that the group select one member to take notes on the discussion and ideas and submit them to him for later compilation and distribution to the faculty.
Here, Davidson employs a typical instructional model, facilitating individual as well as group processing. He starts out with individual study of and reflection on the material, incorporating information gathering and synthesizing. He then moves to group work, encouraging the sharing of individual ideas and the growth of collective knowledge.
In addition to inservice meeting, Mark finds teachable moments in less formal interactions. Whenever he can, Mark makes himself available for casual conversation with staff or students. As one veteran teacher explained, "You could approach him at eight o'clock at night, and he'd stand up, give you a courteous welcome, and invite you into his office."
Another veteran teacher talks about her conversations with Mark and how they have contributed her professional development.
Having his music background, we've had a lot of conversations about the arts where he really knows what he's talking about, [and] ... I've had some really great discussions with him about education and where it's going. He's a brilliant administrator as far as a vision that he has and knowing what's going on in the field and knowing what's happening. I mean, he's right on target.
180 From this perspective. Dr. Davidson engages staff in collegial discussions of professional
significance, serving to provoke thinking and increase knowledge. Still other teachers
perceive of Mark as a mentor, supporting their practice and modeling professionalism.
I really have enjoyed the relationship I've had with him. He's really bent over backwards for my program and for me being here. And he's very professional. Yes, he does have high standards, but he's willing to go that extra mile to get you to meet those standards or get to where he envisions this school - to get you to meet that.
Many teachers seem to agree. According to the staff survey, over 80% of those responding indicate that they "view Dr. Davidson as mentor - one who supports their development and a teacher and professional." In the words of one assistant administrator,
"He's a strong model. Just a strong, strong model."
In addition to staff, according to this veteran assistant administrator, he also invests time working with students.
He takes whatever time is necessary to work with them. The kids that we feel that we can't, that I've felt 1 haven't touched, that are beyond me, 1 pass them on. And he'll take an hour, two hours, whatever, and then he'll follow up on them. Now, do they all change? No, but hell take that time. I've had it with them. 1 don't want to give them another second. Get them off! He'll take them. Then he'll go back
As mentioned, Mark Davidson not only employs education as a tool for solving problems, but he employs problems as a tool for education. In his words, "Problems that come in can move people. You get a chance to talk with people ... a chance to expand their thinking." For example, when teachers come to him for help with individual issues,
Mark uses the opportunity to advance their problem-solving skills. In this way, he employs notion of collegial rationality as he collaborates with teachers on behalf of a solution to their problem (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
181 He's very good to talk to if you have a problem. ... It's kind of like he gives you some feedback, but let's you make your decision and come up with some answers. ... He doesn't give you answers. ... I've gone in there and said what do I do about this, and he's given me some ideas. I've had student teachers who have gone in and he's given them great ideas and they come back excited, "Oh, he said this and this and this!" and that's been great. So he does give some answers. I think his leadership style is kind of an open-ended guru kind of thing.
Here, "Amy," a second-year teacher, shares her story of going to Mark for advice
on a classroom management issue she was facing. She explains that this particular group
of foreign language students had experienced "some negative things" with the teacher she
replaced and "really began with a bad start with the language."
When I came in, they were not motivated. Academically, they were not performing up to par, and, discipline wise, they were not as respectful. It all stemmed back to what happened before I came here. I kind of babied them a little my first year, but this year, there was no reason for what they were doing. I wanted to do something about it. So, right at the beginning, I went to Dr. Davidson and said, "This is what's happening. What should I do?" And he gave me some very good advice and steps to take.
Dr. Davidson offered Amy his "gunslinger strategy," providing her with a specific tactic to add to her own collection of management tools. She explains the process Mark shared.
First, I think, the step was to have individual conferences with each student. And then, if that doesn't work, go on with parent conferences. And, if that doesn't work, come back to me, and [the student] might not get credit.
Mark reports that as he instructed Amy in the finer points of the process, she listened carefully and "wrote like crazy, nodding and so forth." Weeks later, Amy returned to report her success.
We went through each step, and it did work - mainly discipline wise in the class. I [still] can't get them to do the work at home, but at least in my class they're motivated and they're on task and they want to be.
Mark used Amy's report of success as opportunity to extend the learning experience.
I said, "Well, now, let's reflect. What you've done, you've gotten them out of their peer element. You're gradually taking back control so that they don't know what 182 the next squeeze will be. You've got their attention, and you're gonna play that for awhile. . ..By pulling them out [so as not to disrespect them in front of their peers], you gave them respect by preserving their dignity, so when you put them back, you've got a personal relationship with them. You've repacked them in a different, more personalized way, and you've been able to say what you might not have been able to say."
Mark thinks aloud about the outcome of Amy's actions, thereby encouraging her to reflect on her own problem-solving process. Here, Dr. Davidson's instruction seems to resemble the notion of cognitive apprenticeship during which thinking is made visible by the teacher who recounts the cognitive processes he or she engaged in to solve the problem (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991). Having taught Amy an effective strategy- works to increase her confidence to address further potential problems. Further, he has taught her that coming to him with problems is a worthwhile exercise.
In another similar situation, when considering block scheduling for ELEC, Mark sent staff members on school visits to learn about different ways to implement the change. "We visited some different schools. We saw different kinds of block scheduling
[at a network conference in Pittsburgh] ...and we've seen it right around here too. ... I think we did enough research and took our time with it enough that we've done it in the best way we could for here."
In addition to educating others. Dr. Davidson educates himself. When questioned about the source of Davidson's problem-solving expertise, an assistant administrator replied, "He's learned. He's astute. He didn’t go to school to get his Ph.D, he went to school and absorbed his Ph D." The administrator then offered this example of Mark's demeanor during a recent computer training session they had attended together.
I mean [the administrative team] sat in the training session and we're all sort of [goofing around] and Mark is [focused on the computer saying] "Let's see. You
183 can do this. You can to that." You can just see it. They're spinning. [He’s thinking about] where we can utilize a lot of this.
From the data emerge several examples. As mentioned earlier, Mark studies current publications for information that informs his thinking. He knows that as the instructional leader he must be knowledgeable about current materials and practices. In this illustrative example, Mark explains the need to make sound educational decisions about computer software and acknowledges the gaps in his own knowledge base.
We've got to start thinking about what is it that we want put on this computer that's gonna be beneficial. That's where I'm weakest. I've just never had the need to know this stuff. And 1 don't ever plan to know it all, but 1 plan to have a background where 1 can direct the people for more information and depth. Because where I sit, 1 can't, 1 just can't specialize in a lot of this area, but I've gotta stay on top of it.
This comment indicates Davidson's ability to determine his educational needs and, thereby, focus his study.
Mark also learns from experience. As reported in Chapter Two, when individuals interact socially and cognitively with their environment, they construct knowledge by transforming what they already know. In this comment, Mark describes a lesson learned and transferred to his own practice.
I will remember areas that impact my work or decision making. 1 can remember a principal situation years ago [where the principal] exercised poor judgment and was in everybody's space in overturning decisions. I remember it vividly [and] that's part of my tooIWt. There are experiences that I remember because they are lessons. They always go into my box.
Finally, along with study and experience, Mark Davidson leams from formal instruction. In the fall, all district administrators were issued a new IBM ThinkPad computer as part of a plaimed, district-wide update of technology. Hence, Mark was
184 required to attend a training session in order to receive his laptop and learn about its
features.
Shortly before the 9:00 A.M. session. Dr. Davidson arrived at the district data
processing center. After some friendly conversation with colleagues, Mark took a seat in
front of the placecard identifying his computer. Within moments the session began as
Jeff Harris, an employee at the data processing center, introduced the laptop and its
operating system. Jeff explained that all of the administrators' offices should have been
equipped with the necessary lines and devices to access the district network.
At that point. Barb Lindsey, the session facilitator, took over, explaining that the
superintendent had ordered all district administrators on email by September 1, nine days
earlier. Barb then moved to explain some of the computer’s software and hardware
features and began the training in earnest. As Mark booted up his laptop for the first time
and the Microsoft Windows chime issued forth from the computer's speaker, Mark commented delightedly, "Music?" Later, as he discovered that his laptop could play
CDs, he mused about the discs he would play. He was truly impressed. He told me of a
former music student who sent him a CD (complete with music and video) that he had yet
to play. Now, Mark noted, he could finally take a look at it.
Shortly after the facilitator began her presentation, an elderly gentleman entered the room quietly and took a seat next to Mark. They greeting one another, shaking hands and exchanging a few friendly words, after which, Mark leaned over to help his colleague
get caught up with the rest of the group. Throughout the session, Mark assisted the administrator as needed.
185 As the training proceeded, Mark kept up, with only a few exceptions, and was
ahead of the others at times. He seemed to enjoy the session and was actively engaged,
asking questions as needed. And, at one point during the session, Mark reflected on his
efforts to upgrade computer technology within the district. He quietly uttered to himself,
"I can't believe I’m actually sitting here."
Building Relationships
Tool With School- Staff Built on Integrity Community Members and Credibility To Support Change Students Built on Caring and Knowledge BUILDING Among School- Between Staff By Modeling RELATIONSHIPS Community Members By Communicating Message Between School Shares History Community and School Reaches Out to Community Interdisciplinary Projects
Table 4.6 Building Relationships
Mark Davidson sees relationships as fundamental to educational excellence and
"essential in student achievement and advancing Evans Local." He works to create and
foster, among all school-community members, strong alliances that support collaboration
on behalf of continued growth. In Mark's words, "School improvement increases through
positive companionships at Evans. I'm not talking about necessarily friendships, but I am talking about companionships that will grow with us at school."
The data seem to suggest that Dr. Davidson concentrates his efforts on building
and nurturing three, primary "companionships": (a) his own relationship with school-
186 community members; (b) the alliances between and among school-community members, and (c) a cultural connection between organizational members and the school. Through his behavior, public remarks, and written communication. Dr. Davidson sends a clear and consistent message that "schools are people ... [and] this school is nothing more than relationships."
Relationships with School-Community Members. Evidence from the data indicates that Mark Davidson works to develop relationships with his students, staff, and school community. In 1988, as a young administrator charged with starting a new high school within an already established career center. Dr. Davidson was faced with the challenge of "mending the bridge between the high school and career center [staff]."
People can bring down many quality organizations, and coming from the performing arts, one can very easily see how excellence was destroyed because the people couldn't get along. The Beatles broke apart because they couldn't live together, co-habitate, and seek the quality of excellence. So I knew 1 had to cut through and manage and facilitate and nurture and mediate all the relationships involved in terms of the adults that are serving the kids.
Anticipating struggles over space and resources, as well as the difficult process of necessary staff reductions, Mark recognized the need to develop a relationship with his faculty built on credibility and integrity.
When you're in a leadership role, people bet their life on you for a period of time, whatever that may be. ... People came in and said, "Yeah, 111 take an assignment here," based on my word, and the same with parents and kids. We didn't have anything. We didn't have school. There was nothing here but the shell of a career center, and those folks were doubtful. I mean, [they wondered] what’s this guy doing?
Consequently, Dr. Davidson set out to create an alliance with staff that would support his leadership through change.
I tried to go around and meet everybody. I didn't want to be distant. As a matter of fact, my very first day the two assistant [administrators] and I walked and 187 talked all day long. I just kept moving and talking and introducing myself and meeting people and trying to be conversational so that they didn't perceive me to be distant or authoritative because that is not my style, and they'd been a part of that early on in this school.
Dr. Davidson initiated the relationship by acquainting himself with staff and engaging in friendly conversation. Armed with knowledge of the existing staff mindset regarding administration, Mark was sensitive to their need to understand him as an individual and administrator. Later, when staff reductions began, Mark "worked through the intensity with full disclosure. Everybody knew all the time what 1 was going to do - there weren't secrets." In fact, as Dr. Davidson explained, when decisions were made in meetings where some teachers couldn't be present,
I was always referencing the teachers' point of view. What will be their concerns? Because 1 know that in meetings, it will get back. There's no such thing as a meeting where people [don't disclose what happened]. So, send things back. Send messages back. Take care of the people that are most impacted.
By demonstrating explicitly and implicitly his openness, integrity, and concern for the individuals involved. Dr. Davidson planted the seeds of a relationship with his staff. "I would say that started to build credibility. I walked my talk. If I said I was going to do something, 1 did it."
Dr. Davidson also seeks to foster relationships with his students. In his words, "If you have good relationships with kids, and they know you care about them, they'll do anything for you." An example of Dr. Davidson's commitment to building strong principal/student relationships can be found in his interactions with students on the first day of school. As Dr. Davidson toured the campus that morning, he cordially greeted students, many by name, and stopped to talk with them, welcoming them to back to school and reminiscing about past experiences. He complemented students on their new
188 hairstyles or shoes, asking one young man with an unfamiliar logo emblazoned on his T- shirt, "Who or what is Silverstreak?" Mark spoke encouragingly and respectfully to each student, stressing his expectations for their success and stating to a few that "this is serious business." At one point, a female student who realized she had inadvertently missed her first class approached Dr. Davidson as he talked with a teacher in the hallway.
In a friendly, yet matter-of-fact manner, Mark reassured her, but added that all of the other students in her biology class were now one day ahead of her and that she would have to work that much harder as a result.
Here, Dr. Davidson interacts to develop connections with students on several levels. Through his friendliness and respectfulness, Mark inspires new relationships.
Through his personal knowledge of students and concern for their well being, he strengthens existing relationships. And through his message of hard work and the value of education. Dr. Davidson endeavors to shape the relationship between student and academic success.
Alliances Between and Among School-Community Members. In addition to developing his own relationships. Dr. Davidson expects staff members to work on building relationships. At each inservice program throughout the school year, Mark focused on the importance of fostering relationships with students and coliegiality among staff. In September, he shared with staff a journal article on the influence of positive relationships. After reading portions aloud to the staff. Dr. Davidson remarked, "Now, if we keep that in mind this year, under the most stressful situations, perhaps we'll be able to take more ground in terms of getting to excellence." Further, in an effort encourage
189 and model relationship-building behavior, Mark described to staff how he would alter his own behavior on behalf of building stronger relationships with incoming students.
In this notion of relationships, how am I going to change? ... What we're going to try to do is go out to every classroom and take some time. We don't know where we're going with this - no research and development, but I'm committed to stop at every classroom to hand out the student handbook and then to deal with some quickie rules [or maybe] some questions. If I'm gonna stand up here and tell you about it. I've got to somehow show you that I'm involved in it as well.
Here, by changing his interaction with freshmen from the traditional group distribution of handbooks to a more personal encounter in individual classrooms, Mark models his commitment to building relationships and his willingness to take on the extra time and effort such a commitment requires.
Despite Dr. Davidson's clear, consistent message about relationships and his modeling of desired behavior, fostering interpersonal alliances at Evans Local has proven challenging. According to the data, some staff members discern a lack of "real caring about each other and what each other's doing." One teacher explained,
I see it as a problem that we're not working together, that we're not as cohesive as we should be. Whether it's egos, or whether it's that we're spread too thin, or whether it is the physical plant and that we're all separated, we're just not working together.
This teacher's comment indicates her awareness of the importance of coliegiality, and it suggests that she perceives an absence of the coliegiality necessary to work together. In an effort to account for the situation, the teacher alludes to several barriers to building relationships at ELEC, an observation shared by other members of the faculty. Some teachers believe that the lack of cohesiveness fluctuates dependent upon the eruption of staff egos and old notions of high school departmentalization. As one teacher explained,
"There's times when we all work together and have the same philosophy, and there's
190 other times when everybody's pulling for their own discipline." Others remark that because of the number of "over achievers and workaholics" on staff, many don’t have the time to invest in collegial relationships.
However, for the most part, faculty members seem to feel that "the distance between buildings more than anything else, ... simply the physical space between" is what makes building relationships at Evans such a challenge. One veteran teacher sees it like this.
Maybe it's the fact that there are so many buildings. You find your little niche, your little pod, and then you sort of get to grow up like an extended family. But somewhere in another building are the cousins from Atlanta that you never see but twice a year.
Dr. Davidson agrees. He, too, faces challenges trying to build relationships with others in a multi-building facility.
It's tougher in a campus style because [I] can come to work and people may never see [me]. In the regular one-building plan high school, people are going to see you go into the building and being around. There's lots of access. But in a campus, that's a challenge.
ELEC's non-traditional physical plant makes visual and interpersonal contact between Dr. Davidson and his staff and students more challenging, a factor with which several staff seem to struggle. As one teacher puts it,
I think sometimes we don’t see him enough and the kids don't see him enough. I've had a lot of kids say to me, "I didn't see him for the whole first year I was here." I mean kids jokingly say, "Is he a phantom?" I think that most of the time, you know, you come from a middle school or another high school where it's one building and you see the principal walking around a lot. I would like to see him in the buildings more during the day. ... I think he needs to be more visible. I really do - for the kids and for the staff.
Others perceive his lack of visibility as the result of his involvement in school-related issues at the district and community level.
191 He's not around very often, and that's one thing I don't like because I think the kids need to see him more. But I also understand his role, too, because he is so big in the community. He's really trying to save our school, save our jobs. He doesn't want too lose any faculty. He wants to fight issues that he believes in and so he's doing those things.
Interestingly, however, this perception seems to support Dr. Davidson's fervent commitment to establishing and nurturing staff relationships with students. He explains.
1 have thousands of kids on this campus. 1 don't know all these kids. I don't have the time to have meaningful interaction with all these kids. [Therefore], I trust that 1 have adults out in the school having those relationships, and I can get a second hand understanding or appreciation for the child.
Despite the barriers to and struggles with building relationships at Evans Local,
Dr. Davidson continues to revisit his expectations and model his own interactive practice for staff. This comment, from his February inservice, is indicative of his effort to keep staff aware of and working on their relationships with others.
As we opened up the school year, we talked about building relationships. And if that hasn't connected with you yet, these are some things that you need to think about - we need to think about - 1 need to think about when 1 get the hostile parents. How can 1 improve the relationship, the communication? Most frequently it's an unwillingness to share at all, or it's the tone of voice, or it's a personal agenda trying to get someplace rather than just pure, honest efforts to try to improve a situation.
Connections Between Organizational Members and the School. Dr. Davidson seeks to connect school community members to Evans Local Education Center in ways that support the mission of the school. For Dr. Davidson, the school community not only includes students, staff, and parents, but it extends beyond the perimeter of campus to surrounding industrial, cultural, educational, and civic organizations. Dr. Davidson's task, therefore, is to find ways to connect school and community.
192 From the data emerge several examples of Mark Davidson's efforts to this end.
First, the data suggest that Mark seeks to establish community relationships based on cultural connections. Given that Evans Local Education Center populates a former military base, the campus is rich with history that Dr. Davidson eagerly shares with all members of the school community. He utilizes the fact and folklore of Evans's past to weave a connection among the school community and between community and school.
Here, Evans Local has a history, a broader purpose, an important role in the community and even the nation.
In May, at the freshmen orientation for upcoming school year. Dr. Davidson presented a video outlining the rich military history of the campus. He explains his thinking about the benefit of focusing on the school's past.
We purposely went back in history to create a sense of place and time and significance of this institution because if people value it for its significance, it will sustain itself - people will protect it. So the folklore and myths may be a preservation strategy - showing these kids and their parents that this dates back a long time when there was a lot of honor, dignity, and all of the core values that support the destiny of this country.
Dr. Davidson shares that one of the major thoroughfares abutting school property originally served as a part of the Underground Railroad. Mark sees that piece of history as a particularly timely and valuable connection between the past and the present.
I think that's important for people to know that this military base helped bring African Americans out of the South and get them to freedom. In a time when we're stressed about racial relations in this country, I think it's important that people see this school having a legacy of always supporting freedom, supporting some of the issues that still are paramount in our country. I think that legacy is important.
In addition to the documented history of Evans Local, several legendary accounts endure. One such tale claims that the spirit of a soldier, accidentally shot by a cannon
193 during a military salute as Lincoln's body lay in state at the nearby capitol building, still roams the grounds. Still another undocumented tale regards the original purpose for the building that currently houses Dr. Davidson's office and the visual art gallery. The tower at the center of the building was said to be a shot tower, used to create vanous forms of ammunition for the cannons and muskets used during the Civil War. Mark gave an impromptu account of this story to several confused freshmen during a scheduling mix up on the first day of school, not only calming a few jangled nerves, but also offering a source of common knowledge and school pride.
Another way in which Dr. Davidson seeks to make connections between his school and the community is by reaching out to neighboring organizations. Mark explains.
In and around 1989, when we were looking at how to connect this school with the neighborhood, a reporter called about the school because it was new and interesting to everyone. I said, '’We don't have a school in a conventional neighborhood, meaning in a residential community. We're in a downtown area surrounded by manufacturing, a community college, and so forth. So what I really need right now are people - sort of like Mr. Rogers - won't you be my neighbor."
A few days later, a story about ELEC appeared in the local metropolitan newspaper with the title, "Won't You Be My Neighbor?"
So people started calling saying, "Til be your neighbor." That led us to seeking a grant from the state department of education for community connections, and that led to reaching out into the community and saying, "Ok, what makes up a neighborhood and who do we need here to help us?"
And that led to the formation of the Evans Local Advisory Board, comprised of local business, design, and legal professionals.
The executive board meets every month. The larger committee, the full board, meets every other month and they take on a focus. We have coinmunications and marketing committee. We have an educational programming committee which 194 takes on some of the educational issues. And our third piece is long-range planning.
Since its inception in 1989, the advisory board has supported such initiatives as mentorships, interdisciplinary programs, and the renovation of one of the buildings on campus. "People fail to realize that a lot of hard work overcomes what you don't have as you try to collect, gather, organize those resources so that you can be successful."
Tlirough the resources made available by the advisory board, Mark continues to make connections with other public and private sector organizations that will strengthen
Evans's bond with the community and move her closer to her mission. In the words of one veteran teacher,
Mark’s really reaching out to them. 1 think people are wanted to be supportive in the business world, [but] often they're not asked and they don't know what role to play. I think we've been able to provide - and certainly Mark's direction on this - an outlet for people who want to feel they're contributing to a better community.
One final example of Mark Davidson's efforts to create cultural connections between school and community is a current interdisciplinary project involving students at
Evans and a local work of art. As Mark explains, a multi-agency task force contacted him with the opportunity for Evans art students to work with a conservator to "uncover" a sixty-year-old mural ordered whitewashed in 1938 by the principal of the school in whose auditorium it hung. Dr. Davidson jumped at the chance to engage students and school community in an interdisciplinary service endeavor. From Mark's perspective, by "linking
American history, local history, culture, art, math, science, and all areas that are a part of what we re about at this school," the mural project presented yet another opportunity to foster the relationships among students, staff, community, and the goals of education.
195 Cultivating Change
Tool People and Processes Through Teacher Cultivates Instructional and Assessment Curricular Change CULTIVATING Through Teacher Interest Cultivates Personal and CHANGE Organizational Change Through Collaboration Cultivates School Improvement
Table 4.7 Cultivating Change
Mark Davidson cultivates change to advance the mission of Evans Local (see
Table 4.7). Creating "expectations of excellence," as the mission states, requires change bom of vision as the organization seeks continual improvement. As Mark told his faculty during a recent inservice meeting, "Our growth is coming from innovation. It's coming from risk taking and letting down our guard towards change and our role in it." Hence, it should come as no surprise that this administrative craftsman finds and creates opportunities to encourage change and, thus, foster growth.
Davidson perceives the work of school administration "as a concept of scenes or stages," each necessitating its own form of leadership. For Davidson, effective school administrators "are constantly interacting among" three, primary roles: leader, manager, and change agent. Such a notion seems consistent with research presented in Chapter
Two that reports the need for leaders who can adapt to the continuously changing context of school (Greenfield, 1995; Hoyle, 1997). Mark explains his concept.
196 The leader, to me, is one that knows where the people are headed and [he or she] jumps in there [to] help them get there quickly. It's almost like a parade. They need a drum major to jump in there and everyone's following and everyone's happy because they have some type of direction.
He moves to change agent.
If people are talking about the leader trying to make that direction happen, 1 see that as a change agent role. ...You're able to get people ...to make the change mentally, physically, structurally, ...to build consensus so then you can lead theme where you've all agreed to go.
And finally,
I also see a manager’s role in all that. Stop being a leader. The parade's not going anywhere. Something's happened up there. Now manage the organization while we've got this temporary time out. They know where they're going. There's been a horse fall or something in front of the parade. We don't know why the momentum has stopped, but it has. Let's get back in and become a manager. Sort things out. It may be you have to put on your change agent hat again, or, we're starting to see movement again. Now lead and go as far as you can.
Mark's conception of school leadership locates the change agent at core of school improvement, cultivating opportunities to transform his organization. However, Mark stresses the importance of carefully considering the impact of change on those who will implement it. As he puts it, "There are some things we want to do, but the timing is not right."
When the lead dog wouldn't pull, [the rest of the dogs] just decided we're not going any farther and they quit. I've seen that scene where the dogsledder said, "I just can't get them to go and I'm stopping" because the dogs either wore out, did not want to go, whatever caused them to lose their energy. There is no way the whip is going to make them go any farther. You're going to create pain, anger, and you've lost your dogs forever. ... Hopefully, you're smart enough to know [when] to back off.
Evidence from the data suggests Mark Davidson utilizes problems to cultivate growth. In a survey of staff, over three-quarters agreed that Dr. Davidson "views
197 problems as opportunities for change." That said, one of the ways Mark encourages instructional and curricular advancement is through his observations and évaluations of teachers.
1 enjoy watching good teaching and learning, and I'm able to share with a teacher something I saw in another classroom and try to hook them up. It's one way I think about interdisciplinary work and cross-disciplinary work is by saying, "Are you aware that [teacher's name] is doing this? 1 saw that you're doing such and such and.. - sort of be the honeybee [for] pollination and getting some cross talk started.
Here, Mark's observations foster individual and collective instructional growth as he plants the seed of interdisciplinary collaboration.
Davidson also strategically employs teacher interest as a way to cultivate change.
A few years ago, Mark became interested in implementing block scheduling at Evans
Local. As he articulates, "I continued to tell [the staff] unless we change the way we organize time in school, we're not changing schools." When approached by a teacher who shared his curiosity, Mark seized the opportunity by enlisting his help. The teacher explains.
When I first approached him with [block scheduling], I think he'd already done some work in the background - he knew a little bit about all those things. He wanted a paradigm shift. In fact, he's got some other ideas that I've bought into, but he hasn't gotten across yet. And that's why he liked me, because there was this flame out there, wanting to do something he wanted to do. I was out there proposing it, and it wasn't coming from him. He was behind it, but you'd never know it because it was all pipelined underneath with him supporting me in private.
Similarly, after attending a nearby university's presentation of a computer application for teaching calculus, Mark recognized its applicability for Evans students and shared the idea with his math department chairperson. Consequently, as the
198 chairperson explains, "I kind of saw how it would work, and we started it - this is the fourth or fifth year we've done it. It's grown and I've learned how to do it better in terms of what's my role as a teacher in this whole thing." Here, by sharing his knowledge and his leadership with teachers, Davidson empowers his staff to effect personal and organizational change. The chairperson expounds. "He's out there looking for things, and if he sees something, he doesn't demand it. He never demanded that I do it. 1 took it upon myself, but it's still - he presented the fact that it existed."
In addition to empowering individual teachers, Dr. Davidson cultivates change collaboratively. He seeks to engage faculty in developing a collective vision toward which change may be directed. Such a claim is supported by the majority of staff-survey respondent who indicate that their collaborative problem-solving experiences have resulted in productive change that reflects their collective interests. However, as this teacher notes, the process of change is slow.
I've been doing a lot of work on assessment, and he's really excited about that although people are really slow to get on the bandwagon here. He really knows what he's talking about, and he tries to bring people along with him, without making it sound like he's dictating to them what they need to know. I think it frustrates him when he really wants things to happen and [they don't].
Consequently, facilitating collaborative change requires thoughtful plaiming. As
Mark explains, "In order to begin the process, there has to be an issue, a topic, a problem that people can rally behind." Mark employs education as a catalyst for change.
You bring information forward to people and, hopefully, their interest and their intuitiveness will guide them in similar thinking that you have. "Ah, we have to change the way we're teaching mathematics. We've got to do technology in there." And that's a little tough.
199 Once the need for change has been established collaboratively, the process for change moves forward. In this example. Dr. Davidson seeks to create change that will promote continued school improvement by "refocusing everyone" on the future of Evans
Local. As he explains to staff, "We've been in ten years of development and rapid growth. We've been so busy growing and trying to get better that we have not taken a lot of time to take stock in ourselves and our direction."
Recognizing the futility of standing before his very busy staff and directing them to develop a plan for the future, Mark employs, what he termed, "somewhat of an artificial stimulus to frame the problem." He utilizes their current work on the mandated school improvement plan and the upcoming state evaluation "as a set of circumstances to solve the problem of where are we going to be five or ten years from now. "
Here, Dr. Davidson identifies the need for change, creates a problem to facilitate that change, and interprets the problem in such a way "to motivate people to contribute to the process of [change]."
Mark notes that there are challenges inherent in cultivating change collaboratively. At times the collective body deviates and moves in directions inconsistent with the vision. But, as Mark explains.
Even if it deviates from what you thought needed to be the decision, it’s better to have everybody going maybe a little off center but in the same direction, not in the exact same path, but all headed west. No one's going east or north or south. I mean we're all headed west, but if we slid sort of southwest, ok. We're still headed west. I can get them back home because my experience tells me they won't be on that trail very long. They're gonna turn and say, "Something's wrong here. Come on over here" and guide them a little more due west than they were. So as long as we're flowing in the right direction, in the appropriate direction. I'm not disappointed in that because the organization can't be what I want it to be every moment of the day.
200 Collaborating
Tool People Processes COLLABORATING Problem One on One Zone of Solving Proximal Development In a Group As Facilitator As Member Shared Empowers Encourues Risk Leadership Individual Taking and Leaders Interests Creates Vehicles for Shared Leadership
Table 4.8 Collaborating
Dr. Mark Davidson is a collaborative leader. He values the collaborative process, viewing it as a means to solve problems, develop common goals, build commitment, and strengthen his school organization. In Davidson's words, collaboration facilitates dialogue aimed at "getting to understand each other, where the school needs to be, where we've been, and creating our own knowledge base, our own culture." He continues.
It's also a teaching and learning experience. It is a professional development exercise beyond the obvious problem solving and getting it done. There is [learning] that goes on. Folks leam from each other and start to see where the expertise in this area can apply. They see some informal leaders start to emerge that they rely on.
From Davidson's perspective, collaboration is much more that a collective task.
Similar to notions of organizational learning as reported in Chapter Two, collaboration engages individual members in inquiry and interaction on behalf of the organization results in individual professional and organizational growth.
201 The data suggest that, when appropriate, Mark Davidson solves problems collaboratively (see Table 4.8). As a teacher explains, "The [major issues] that involve teachers he passes by the department chairs, and then, if he sees it as a necessity, he works with the whole staff on it." In addition to solving problems collaboratively, Mark encourages collaborative leadership. By empowering his staff to solve problems and make design decisions. Dr. Davidson shares his leadership with others. He articulates his thinking. "People who are going through my interviews hear me talk about instructional leadership, and that's so important. Leadership is a shared piece, not just one individual trying to make things happen. It has to be shared."
Collaboration, however, has its challenges. And, as Davidson observes, the biggest barrier to collaboration is time.
It's time consuming, and it's stressful because people want it done now. ... It takes time to bring people along - to get solidarity along issues. ... I have the time, but the organizational demands may not afford me all the time 1 need to get complete solidarity, or close to i t ... a consensus type of direction.
The time required for collaboration can make consensus more difficult and frustrate participants expecting immediate results. He explains further.
Frequently we are under these time issues - this instant society. We want things to happen now. We never allow the time for genuine conversation. Most people want something productive, a product at the end of a meeting, or it was of no value. They don't see the value of the dialogue, of the exchange leading up to, maybe six months from now, ...a solid product.
Finally, structural constraints challenge collaboration as well.
Teachers aren't afforded the time in the day to get the work done. You're always stealing time or extending the workday in order to get the job done which is very, very unfortunate. It does not happen in business. It's only in an area such as education that we don't see that as a primary role for the people who work in the school. [Consequently], we don't get the time to do the added planning and developmental processes that make the organization strong.
202 Despite the structural and attitudinal barriers, Mark Davidson engages in the
collaborative process. In his words, "That's how I've chosen to lead"
Problem Solving. As mentioned. Dr. Davidson regularly engages his staff in
collaborative problem solving. In his own words, "If you’re a real problem solver, you’ll
be involving teachers ' According to the data, Davidson collaborates with teachers either
one on one or as a group. When working one on one, as this teacher explains, "He's
very, very, very good at helping you see the problem, sit down, be calm, and resolve the
problem. He gives you different suggestions. He's very good at that when you're one on
one." Another teacher concurs, articulating Mark's developmental approach to
collaboration.
He figures out situations. He's able to give you ideas. He'll lead you in a direction, and he may not point it out to you, but he's very good in leading you in a direction that you may be able to solve it yourself. ...I think he wants you to solve it yourself, and he gives you ideas on how to do it. He's really into letting you be your own person. I've really noticed that. And for everyone to kind of solve their own problems.
Dr. Davidson not only engages in, but also enjoys collaborating with teachers.
Following a year-end evaluation conference with "one of [his] high performing
professionals," the teacher engaged Davidson in a collaborative problem-solving session.
As Mark explains, his instrumental music teacher had been trying to develop a way to
utilize computer technology to assess the embouchure, fingering, and other musical skills of his students. Not having any immediate ideas, but a strong experience and knowledge
base from which to draw, Mark suggested that they brainstorm. And, as Davidson concludes, "We problem-solved ways to use technology to assess these skills. ...It was a
wonderful way to start the day. "
203 The foregoing seems to suggest that a "zone of proximal development," as
described in Chapter Two, was created when Mark and his music teacher collaboratively
solved a problem. As the two professionals shared their knowledge, experience, and
thinking, each contributed to and was informed by the other. Here, the shared experience
was superior to what either participant could accomplish independently.
In addition to one-on-one collaboration, Davidson engages his faculty in group
problem solving. As a teacher remarks, "He fosters the team approach and encourages
staff to give their options for the decision-making process." Others seem to agree. In
fact, 86% of respondents to the staff survey indicate having participated in collaborative
problem solving while at Evans Local, and over half agree that their collaboration
resulted in productive change. Davidson involves the staff in collaborative problem
solving in order to develop shared goals, achieve consensus, and, thereby, build
commitment. As Mark explains, "If everyone's involved in the solution, then it's going to
be long lasting. If it's by compliance, as soon as I walk away, the problem is still there."
If you want a school to sustain itself, then there has to be the groundswell of agreement so that the rhythms and routines remain for a longer period of time than [dictated] by compliance, because when the leader [leaves] it all falls apart. If you're really constructing a school, it should survive with or without the leader.
From this perspective, when shared goals emerge from collaborative efforts.
Teachers take a degree of ownership in the school and where it's going. It's beyond commitment. They are part of the work team now. ...They already know the plan. They developed [it]. ... It's one thing to be committed, but it's another to see that Noah's ark actually gets going.
For Davidson, collaborative problem solving allows him to "work through the process
with them [and] .. .delegate responsibilities to see that there is a crew there to make the program fly."
204 Davidson also recognizes the power of a decision bom of consensus.
As long as I had the teachers with me, I knew that we were invincible. ... If you can report to students or parents that the faculty has made this decision, it’s hard to take on the faculty - it's a pretty strong body. People tend to surrender when they feel that the group has decided. ...There's power in that collective because you have a stronger voice.
According to the data. Dr. Davidson engages in collaborative problem solving as both facilitator and participant. As facilitator, he guides the process gently, listening to the discussion and inteijecting as appropriate. A representative example of Mark's facilitative behavior emerges from one of his weekly department chair meetings. As participants moved through the agenda items, Davidson actively listened to the discussion, taking notes and advancing the process by encapsulating the discussion with comments such as, "Here's what 1 think I heard you say." Mark periodically validated teacher suggestions. In one case, when a teacher's suggestion was shot down by another,
Mark interjected, "I'm always interested [in that]. I see what you're talking about." Later, when asked to explain his response to the event, Davidson remarked,
I know that when somebody speaks, they may get stepped on, and as I said earlier, there's an equal participation rule that I'm gonna protect. I'm gonna use my position to protect them, to say whatever the language needs to be to protect them - to give them some status.
Here, Davidson's facilitative behavior seems to emulate Leithwood's and Steinbach's
(1995) description of expert problem solvers as synthesizing, summarizing, and clarilying the views of others while gently moving the process along.
In another instance, Davidson used the discussion to not only offer positive feedback but to also encourage professional development. After a lengthy discussion of one department's proposal to change the master schedule, Davidson remarked to the
205 department representative, "Debbie, when you go back to your team, because I know you work really well together," and he suggested some research they might review regarding the change's potential impact on their current population.
Toward the end of the meeting, in an effort to address a serious national issue,
Mark posed a question to the group regarding the previous day's tragic high school shooting. "Is there something we should be doing of a formal nature to address this?"
After expressing gratitude that Mark had broached the subject, nearly all of the teachers shared that they had discussed the tragedy with the their students, allowing the students to talk about what had happened and articulate their concerns. Mark complimented their handling of this sensitive issue and asked if there were anything else they felt needed to be done such as calling in counselors or making a formal statement. The group decided that, at this point, nothing else was necessary.
Davidson's demeanor throughout the meeting reflects his facilitative approach to collaborative leadership. From this standpoint, Mark seeks to create a problem-solving climate that invites participation, allowing each member to be heard. As he explains.
Everyone has to have an equal voice. They might not choose to exercise it always, but everybody around the table [must feel] valued, that their viewpoint is respected. That creates an effective group. ...It's allowing people to speak their mind, not being offended by it, recognizing that if you have 25 people you're gonna have 25 potential perspectives. But then allowing people to talk and trust the process that if I talk long enough and you talk to me, we are going to find some moments that, "Oh, yeah, I understand what you say." You have to allow the dialogue to flow.
Over the course of two inservice programs. Dr. Davidson engaged the faculty in the earlier mentioned collaborative proactive problem solving for the purpose of "creating a design, developing plans, and contributing to making a difference in education [at
206 Evans Local]." Throughout the process, Davidson served as facilitator and participant, moving between roles as the situation indicated. Dr. Davidson's first role was as facilitator, introducing the task at hand and guiding the process participants would follow.
Once again, as reported in Chapter Two, Davidson's behavior is indicative of the expert who begins problem-solving sessions by clearly outlining the nature of the problem and offering a process for its solution (Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995). He began the first inservice meeting by reviewing the history of ELEC's development and accomplishments. He reread some of his past opening-day remarks to staff, outlining the challenges they have overcome and those they still face. He then introduced the problem and the process toward its solution.
This is a session, as the objectives clearly say on your agenda, for thinking about the future. This is time to dream. It's time to put some of those thought processes on paper and see what may or may not happen. Our work in this area is not an exercise. This is not some hour and a half bit of work that'll just be set aside. This is not practice. This is real. This is work, a beginning to defining our future.
He continued.
Before we begin our work, please examine, you have it on your table or you picked it up, a draft document that describes what an Evans Local graduate should look like. In the afternoon, if you wish to add an attribute that should be used in defining a Evans Local graduate, please write it down and forward it to me, either on that piece of paper or on another note. Or if you want to, line out something that you just feel that’s not appropriate, that shouldn't be there. At some point this document will resurface again for us to review and work on and refine in terms of where we need to be with this across the next 5-10 years.
When preparing for collaborative problem solving. Dr. Davidson thoughtfully considers the group's composition. Here, he shares his thinking about the influence of group membership on the outcome of their work.
If I want open dialogue immediately, to get people talking and sort of ignite the fire, you got to let people be with folks that they're gonna be comfortable having conversation with - let them self-select and then give 'em the topic. [Maybe] the 207 chit chat that's informal is not right on the focus of the agenda, but, there is an excitement that I was with my buds, and we got to really work on a problem.
However,
[If] I'm more interested in how is it you bring the organization together when you've got all these populations of people, then, for the most part, 1 will go through a checklist to be sure that the various disciplines are around the table as we again approach a particular topic. And then 1 try to balance with some personalities as well. So it's knowing your personnel and knowing what you want to accomplish that particular night. But 1 do it both ways to energize, to stimulate, to get the cross talk for professional development reasons.
For this particular situation. Dr. Davidson's goal was best served by selecting each group's composition. Therefore, on each worktable lay a list of "design group" members, consisting of at least one staff member who had been at Evans since its inception and staff members representing high school and career programs. Mark asked one veteran
ELEC staff member at each table to facilitate what he termed was "an edited version of the nominal group thinking process." As he explained further, "Everything is scripted so that we're all working from the same basis, ...[and] it's adapted to address our time limits." Davidson continued, restating the task's objective and emphasizing the importance of each member's participation.
Our objective is an important one. At the conclusion of this meeting we should be able to anticipate and address any needs which may help the development, advancement of Evans Local Education Center. During today's meeting, it is important that each o f us fully participates. Success will depend on our equal and full participation. Each of us is here as an important group resource. There are not status differences between us in this particular meeting. Whether a veteran or a beginning teacher. Our success depends on every member fully sharing the insight of his or her professional and technical perspective. I appreciate therefore the willingness of every one of you to fully share your ideas and work intensely during the next 90 minutes we are together. The ideas you generate in this meeting will become the basis for follow-up, development, discussion and implementation o f educational programming at Evans Local.
208 Having articulated the problem at hand and encouraged participation within the collaborative process. Dr. Davidson distributed to each participant a worksheet bearing the following question. "Over the next ten years, what programming and staff behaviors, both personal and professional, are required to increase student achievement, develop a complete graduate, and advance Evans Local?" He asked participants to take five minutes to independently consider the question and list their responses on the worksheet.
Teachers appeared to be engaged in the task, working quietly to record their ideas. When time was called, Mark gave further directions and encouragement.
Now I would like to have each of you share your ideas with other members of the group. This is an important step because our list of ideas will constitute a guide for further discussion. Help us understand the richness of ideas we have to work with and stimulate additional ideas.
Davidson then outlined the round robin sharing procedure each group would undertake and asked if there were questions. Finding none, they began.
Throughout the small group process, Mark participated as a member of his group.
When called on by the teacher facilitator, Mark responded with such suggestions as
"project based learning" and "classroom applications of computer technology." Group members seemed comfortable with sharing their ideas, and, at times, clarifying questions were asked. Having completed the first round of suggestions, the teacher facilitator continued, giving directions to "go back and briefly discuss each idea [and] clarify the meaning [as necessary]." Once again, as the dialogue ensued, Mark listened quietly as others talked and engaged in the discussion when called upon.
209 Additional data suggest that Dr. Davidson's quiet demeanor as a participant may reflect his awareness of the influence of positional authority. Here, Mark explains that even in situations where he sets his leadership aside, the power of his position remains.
1 know, in groups, that whenever I'm present. I'm not an equal partner in their eyes. Much as I want to be an equal partner, I can never be because I sit in the seat of authority. I mean. I'm the point person for the school, regardless - by law, by formal leadership, and hopefully, mostly informal leadership too. I know that at the table, so I will sit and listen so I don't exercise my dominance, my position.
Here, Davidson's commitment to collaboration and sensitivity to the norms that prevent teacher participation cause him to step back and try, as much as possible, to be just another participant.
As the discussion wound to an end, the teacher facilitator instructed the group to select and rank their top five priorities, at which point, Mark returned his facilitator role and led the collective through each group's presentation of priorities. Next, he instructed each individual staff member to take eleven adhesive stars, move to the lists of priorities posted on the walls, and "vote your stars." As Mark explained, "However you wish to spend your stars will designate the highest priorities in terms of beginning work." When all members had completed the vote, Davidson reflected with them.
Ok, that's how folks have rallied around and you can sort of see from the grouping where the most consensus has grown out of these 35 ideas. Think of what you created within your group as a level - now you’ve moved from one level of prioritizing at your table to the full group, and, as a mass, you get a sense of where we're headed.
In closing, Mark explained that the next step in the process would be to bring the instructional team together to review and focus the priorities for further collective consideration during the next inservice meeting.
210 Two months later, after a snow day cancelled the interim inservice, the process
resumed. "Designing the Future of Evans Local - Part 11," as the agenda indicated, began
with Dr. Davidson introducing the background and purpose for the "day's work."
Originally, one of the department chairs was to have taken over facilitation duties, but his
absence required that Mark continue to lead the meeting. Davidson explained that the
instructional support team had met and examined the list of priorities from which five
areas of concentration emerged: (a) curriculum/interdisciplinary and technology, (b) assessment and technology, (c) career/school-to-work/service learning and technology, (d)
professional development and technology, and (e) communications/public relations and technology. He continued.
May I say to you that technology follows every one of the areas of concentration because in our dialogue it was not apart - it's not a standalone piece, it's connected to what we're doing. It's a part of our foundation. So you will always see "slash" technology.
For this collaborative session. Dr. Davidson asked each member to self select a group "that you have a preference in contributing to, or discussing, or looking at the information we gleaned from all that you said [during the last inservice]." Davidson then asked each group facilitator to keep discussion notes for a report at the end of the meeting
"so that we can redistribute them tomorrow so that everybody has the same information."
I made a commitment [at the last meeting] that we're all going to walk along and you're going to have information. It's not gonna be collected, then we're gonna hide away and do something with it and then pronounce something. No. It is simply we’re gonna continue to wrestle with this so that we can come up with a very strong plan. So be in a position to give a very brief highlighting of what you covered and hand in a piece of paper or two or three or four and we'll copy it so that everybody has the same information.
211 As faculty members moved to their selected groups. Dr. Davidson joined the group
discussing assessment and technology The facilitator, a member of the instructional
support team, began the session by explaining how the team arrived at the five areas of
concentration. She then described their task. "So, I guess what we need to do is look over
the [information], decide what's a priority, what we need to work on, and what you think is
a process we could use to go about it." She also shared with the group an article on art
assessment that "applies to all areas ... [about] different things you can think about when doing assessment and making assessment meaningful." When another teacher challenged
her statement about applicability of art assessment to other disciplines, Davidson entered the conversation. Referring to the article, Mark said.
Let's see, if you took that opening paragraph and you put any discipline, dropped it in place of where it says art, it would - just like it would in Ann's area developing sound physical education and health assessment. Easy as asking yourself what's the common value. But, if you dropped in any discipline it seems that that paragraph would hold.
Recognizing that the discussion of her article was going no where, the facilitator returned to the task at hand. "So what do you think is most important? Where should we go from here? What do you think we need?" She then shared her own concerns.
I've been concerned about what students are like when they leave Evans Local. What are they gaining? Who are they? Where do we want them to be and are they there? And I'm not sure we have an answer to that.
There was no response. After waiting patiently for what seemed like a long time, the facilitator tried again. She refocused their attention on the information sheet.
Well, if you look at the second page, I guess what you want to think is what do we need to assess? Another thing is when I look at the district art curriculum, I think [it really needs to be improved]. When you think about your own curriculum, don't you think the same thing?
212 This time, the discussion of a few group members led to national standards. Dr.
Davidson reentered the conversation, and the session concluded with members discussing the relationship among curriculum, national standards, and assessment practices. Upon completion of small group sessions, all staff returned to the meeting room to share their group's work.
The foregoing analysis illustrates two very different collaborative processes. The first inservice session was highly structured. Discussion groups were prearranged and the process scripted to accommodate the limited time frame. The round robin format facilitated the contribution of each member, encouraging collaboration and resulting in a rich discussion. The second inservice was much less structured as participants self selected their groups and their level of participation. Here, they seemed to struggle somewhat until the discussion turned from broad assessment and student outcome issues to narrower curricular topics.
This analysis also presents the range of behaviors and methods Mark Davidson employs when solving problems collaboratively. Across the two inser\ice sessions.
Davidson serves as facilitator and member, simultaneously, at times, as circumstances warrant. Recognizing the effect of positional power on staff participation, Mark adopts a restrained approach to membership. Yet, in situations where discussion stalls, Mark will enter the conversation carefully in an attempt to restart collaborative activity.
Leadership. In addition to solving problems collaboratively, Mark Davidson encourages collaborative leadership. As reported in Chapter Two, an institutional approach to leadership positions the construct at the organizational level where influence is not confined to particular position, but emerges as organizational members share their
213 valuable resources (Ogawa & Bossert, 1995). Davidson encourages such influence by empowering individual staff members to assume leadership roles based on their interests
and the mission of Evans Local. A veteran staff member explains.
Mark is a risk taker. He allows us to be risk takers also. He's allowed me to do that and trusts what we do will make sense for kids and is educationally sound. You just present it to him, show him where you're going, and he supports you in any way he can and then he lets you go. I mean, it's your thing.
Eighty-three of those responding to the staff survey agree that leadership at Evans
Local comes from teachers as well as administration. An example of Davidson's shared leadership emerges from the words of an assistant administrator who has worked with
Mark since the inception of ELEC. She shares her story.
Over the years. I've had an interest in multiple intelligence theory. Actually, when we started this school this was probably one of the first conversations I had with Dr. Davidson. 1 asked, "Have you read Frames of Mind?" He [said he had], and we started to talk about it and he encouraged me to continue in this interest. We've done a lot of staff development in that area. [Later] I became interested in brain research, so again, [he said], "Go on, go on," and encouraged my own interest.
That interest led Evans Local to implement a long-term, professional development curriculum focused on multiple intelligence and brain theory research that continues today. According to this assistant principal, "I can feel comfortable [with Dr. Davidson] to say, 'Let's do this.' He has allowed for leadership in various areas. He has encouraged and given me sort of free reign to do what can be done in those areas."
Tim, a veteran teacher and math department chairperson, also seems to revel in the opportimities presented by Dr. Davidson's shared leadership philosophy. When recounting his extensive work to help implement block scheduling, Tim proudly remarked.
214 I'm like a junior administrator, you know? I love to do those things, but 1 love to be in the classroom. So I can come up with ideas, then 1 can go back in the classroom and teach and not worry about the details.
According to Tim, Davidson's commitment to shared leadership affords him the opportunity to participate in administrative duties without forgoing his work as a teacher.
However, in those instances when sharing leadership moves beyond generating ideas and making decisions, it can become problematic even for the most willing participant. Tim says, "Unless we have consensus of the school,nothing happens here. I'll give you a for- instance." Tim explains that, a few years ago, the math department found themselves in need of a new math lab. Consequently, a decision was made that the best solution to acquiring the necessary lab space would be for the math department to take over a nearby
English classroom. Considering that such a move would induce a sort of room-changing domino effect, its success required the consensus of several teachers and their departments. In Tim's words,
[I] could not get him to just say, "Tim, you're right. This is the best way, and I'll make it work. Just go ahead and get everything else worked out." 1 mean, he left it up to me. 1 had to basically make six departments happy in this schoolin order to get the change made, and 1 finally got it done. So he was absolutely no help. He was not against it. If you can do it, fine. But he does lead by consensus. 1 mean, it had to come from the staff.
Tim's comments reveal the frustration teachers feel as they adjust to the demands of shared leadership. Even teachers like Tim who embrace the concept, when faced with
"the details," as he puts it, can become resistant. Says another teacher.
There's a lot of teachers who want to leave everything up to someone wholl do it, you know? 1 think it's a bum out factor or a time factor. 1 could have a pretty easy life if I just went into my classroom and did my thing and was a good teacher in my classroom and didn't worry about these things.
215 Dr. Davidson has created several vehicles to facilitate shared leadership. As
mentioned, Evans Local Advisory Board, a forty-member organization of community
members, school administrators, and teachers, assembles bimonthly to assist with long- rang planning and support ELEC’s educational program. In addition to the advisory
board, a nine-member school improvement team, comprised of three teachers, two parents, one classified staff member/parent, one community member, and Dr. Davidson congregates once a month to examine and assess progress on the plan. Finally, to address teaching and learning across the education center, Mark gathers an instructional support team consisting of all eight department chairpersons and two career center representatives.
Evidence suggests that the weekly department-chairperson meetings play a significant role in the day-to-day leadership of Evans Local. As a faculty member observes, "The things that involve teachers he passes by the department chairs, and then, if he sees it as necessary, he works with the whole staff on it." According to Dr.
Davidson, the department chairperson group "has always been a leadership group in this school. I think we created it that way."
I wanted the dialogue around teaching and learning, not drinking fountains and rules, and I've spent a lot of time nurturing that culture early on. Now it's sort of operating itself and there's a degree of pride.
As Mark describes, careful thought and planning went into developing a group culture conducive to focused, and educationally sound, discussions and decision making.
Further, Mark worked to create an efficacious culture, confident in its ability to solve problems as a collective, apart from his formal leadership.
216 Such a sense of confidence was evident at a department chair meeting to which
Davidson arrived late. After waiting for a few minutes, one of the chairpersons picked up
the agenda and began the meeting. When Mark quietly entered the room, some twenty minutes later, the group had already addressed several items on the agenda.
It's good sometimes I'm not there. I'm always proud when 1 get the minutes that they've created work, they've done work. Feels very good because then you know the group can support itself. They're not there because they're complying and I'm taking attendance. They just do the work.
Fostering a strong, lasting culture of shared leadership within the group is particularly important when considering member turnover. Since department chair representatives may rotate from year to year, consistent norms and expectations increase the likelihood of sustained group effectiveness. Hence, for Evans Local, the rotation of department chairpersons is perceived to advance the course of teacher leadership rather than impede it.
Some of those seats are going to change next year, which is ok because that's sharing leadership and that's good. They're trusting each other to go there and represent their department which tells me it's spreading - that leadership is spreading a little deeper into the organization.
However, traditional notions of leadership among some faculty members challenge teacher leadership. As one veteran staff member observes,
I think faculty, at times, need to grow up a little. Mark has expected that the faculty take instructional leadership - that the faculty provide leadership. So, generally, when I'm finding the discontent it's from people who will say things like, "Well, he's never here to make the decisions." Well, no, but that decision didn't have to be made by him. In fact, he's the first person to say, "I empower you to make some decisions," and people don't.
Another teacher agrees.
There needs to be more leadership where teachers say, "We need to change this. We can do this change. We don't need [Dr. Davidson] to do this change for us."
217 They are blaming him for not making the decision. ... I think that's our responsibility.
Evidence of resistance among some Evans Local teachers emerges from the words of a twenty-six-year teaching veteran and department chairperson.
I know that [Dr. Davidson] is very strong on site-based management, but I think we need a leader, a pusher, a let’s-get-things-done leader within that site-based management. And sometimes I think he let's us flounder too long and that bothers me. Not that I want somebody to make all the decisions and tell me this is what I have to do, but 1 do want him to lead more than he does.
Here, the teacher perceives Mark's patience with collaboration as a lack of leadership.
Within that shared-leadership model, she wants Mark to retain his positional influence and direct the course of activity. "Sometimes 1 just want to say [to Davidson], 'Make a decision! Let's do it - let's go with it.'... 1 want him to say, 'Let's see how we can do this or let's really get this moving - let's really follow through on this.'"
Despite these challenges, Davidson persists in his commitment to collective leadership. He believes deeply in the collaborative process, and yet, he recognizes that his staff members are at various levels of readiness. Hence, Mark seeks to provide collaborative opportunities through which his organization will advance and his staff will develop.
Not all members of the organization understand the notion of leadership. They assume it means you're gonna direct them - you're gonna be a director. You're gonna make the decisions and they will follow and if you're not doing that, [you're] a very poor leader. And that's ok. Some people need a lot more direction than others. Some even suggest they're going to go up in smoke, and so you work with them another way. It's the same as running an orchestra or a band. Every instrument classification has really a very different personality, and the key is blending them to fit the composition lying in front of you. To [create] what vision the artist had as to what the sound's to be. So you are an orchestrator. It's just balancing all those things.
218 The Computer; An External Tool of the Trade
Accompanying this craftsman's internal tools is an external tool of the trade. Dr.
Davidson applies computer technology as a support tool for the internal problem-solving
tools he employs, utilizing the computer to access and synthesize information, to
communicate, to educate, and to cultivate change. Says Davidson,
With regard to leadership, we need to access information and create a knowledge base with current information - it's updated, and it’s not rag tag and so forth. That builds confidence among the troops. Computer technology allows you to stay on top of whatever that may be, then to create it, so you have polished documents, you have good graphics when you need them. And when you are in that position of a leader, that image is so important.
It is important to note, however, that this craftsman does not apply the computer to every
problem he solves. From the data emerge two explanations. First, as an artist, Mark
understands that tools are designed for specific tasks and a tool that may successfully
complete one task may make another more challenging. For this craftsman, the tool must
be appropriate to the task at hand. As Davidson explains.
The computer is a tool. It's an instrument. It's the same as the artist's palette, the artist's brush - same as the trumpet and the chalk in the classroom. It is an instrument to communicate - a resource for transmitting or creating information - purely that.
Consequently, Davidson artfully applies the computer to those problem-solving tasks best
accomplished with a technological response. Yet, as the data will indicate, there are tasks
to which Mark would apply computer technology were it not for limitations of capacity.
For clarity, the analysis now turns to an account of the computer capacity at Evans Local
Education Center.
The data seem to suggest that much of the computer capacity at ELEC can be attributed to Dr. Mark Davidson's technological interest and vision. In fact, the majority
219 of staff survey respondents credit Dr. Davidson with building ELEC's current computer
capacity. Davidson was introduced to the personal computer during his doctoral work in
the early 1980s. \Miile working as an administrative associate for the university's school
of music, Mark was encouraged by a colleague to learn how to use the computer for word
processing, a skill that would become invaluable when writing his dissertation.
And I started using this thing. Nobody in the school of music had them, but, [my colleague] had one, and he allowed me to use it. Weil, I then saw this great need - wow - and I threw out a chunk of change to buy an Apple III, software, and an impact printer. I had this wonderful set up, and I began to use it.
Recognizing the capacity of computer technology to support his work, Mark invested
time to teach himself about the tool and money to acquire hardware and software for his
own application.
Some months later, Davidson and his colleague began collaborating on a software
application designed for scheduling the music school's facilities.
[My colleague] and 1 had an idea. 1 know all this information about scheduling and he knows all this stuff about technology ... [so] we decided, "Let's write a software program," which I'm still using today, here, scheduling this whole campus. It was based on my knowledge of what you really need to do, their need at the university, and [my colleague's] knowledge. We got a consultant to actually key it in. So we worked this software package, and I've been using it since we published it.
Here, Dr. Davidson blended his knowledge of scheduling and his awareness of the computer as an administrative tool to craft a technological solution.
Upon completing his doctorate in educational administration, Mark took a position as a high school assistant administrator.
1 saw the handwork with attendance. 1 couldn't believe all the paper they were handling, so I started asking questions. Why couldn't we do this on the computer? There was a guy there who introduced me to the Macintosh. So I started playing around with the Mac after hours, if 1 could, trying to write documents and other things, but 1 continued to say we've got to do something about attendance. 220 Again, the expert identified a problem that could be managed with computer technology.
Davidson continues.
Lo and behold, [someone from the district contacted me] and said, "We're looking for a pilot school for an attendance program. We know you're interested in technology. What do you think?" I said, "Oh, my God, I'll do it! " 1 went to [a colleague] who was doing attendance and said, "Can we do this together? I'll work with you. I don’t know what we're doing, but they want a pilot." He said, "Oh, yeah!"
Before long, the district brought in "all the terminals we needed, ... and we started to apply it." As Mark reflects, "1 didn't do anything except have an interest. Everybody said, 'He's got an interest. Bring it to him. He'll do it. Let Mikey eat it!"'
Davidson's growing knowledge of computers and their applicability within the classroom directed his next efforts toward instruction.
When I worked with English teachers they would tell me, "We could get these kids writing better if they didn’t have to rewrite their stuff." I said, "If we get computers, they could go in and do cut and paste." "What?" They didn't know anything about this, so I put in a grant for a writing lab and it got funded. Found a room in the school, painted it yellow because theory said if it was yellow, it's a better learning color. 1 put this thing together.
However, as Mark realized, effective instructional computer use requires more than gaining interest and capacity.
It was hard to get people started using it. I had to get to the user piece of it. I had interest, but then, oh, it's here? Well, as soon as they got the kids in there, they started to realize [how the computer could help with writing] because all these kids wanted to get in and redo [their work] and change it - it was fun.
That grant led to another grant for a visual arts lab with twenty-five Macs and a laser printer. In the spring of that year, Mark Davidson was appointed principal of the new arts and academic high school. A few months later, Davidson received a call from the director of art education informing him that no one at his former school was
221 interested in continuing the visual arts computer project and asking Mark if he would be
interested in moving it to ELEC. Eagerly, Davidson replied, "Yes! We’ll take it! Just have them deliver it right here."
Aside from the visual arts lab, computer capacity at ELEC was limited to the career program's data processing equipment. For help acquiring hardware. Dr. Davidson turned to his community partners, one of which donated used computers to Mark's commercial arts program. Davidson also collaborated with staff on an academic enhancement lab, "a way of computers enhancing and individualizing student teaming. "
The twenty-five-station IBM lab was funded by state vocational money "through the creative work" of another district level colleague. As the wave of technological interest spread, other computers were acquired through "candy sales and begging the district."
It just started to grow because people could see that it was a tool to get work done at a higher level of excellence. ...You get it to them, and don't worry about it. They just run with it forever and ever. ...You just nurture and take risks - go ahead, see what happens. It's just commonplace here anymore - now they want more of it.
As the district began to wire buildings for the student/administrative network, a spin-off of Davidson's attendance work, Mark approached the assistant superintendent and suggested, "If you're going to lay fiber, give me four extra strands. Give me twelve- strand cable. You've already got the wholes open ... if nothing else, it gives me back up.
It's looking to the future." Mark continued. "Ok, now I had my backbone. I could brag about my backbone, but I had nothing to run on it." After some dialogue about potential projects aimed at utilizing ELEC’s fiber optic capacity, Ameritech, another community partner, approached Dr. Davidson about Evans serving as the hub for a distance learning program. Thus, in cooperation with career centers across the metropolitan area, the
222 distance learning lab became a reality, and Davidson gained the capability to digitally connect his students with teachers and classrooms across the country.
The current state of ELEC's computer technology represents a broad range of capacity. In addition to the previously mentioned visual arts and academic enhancement labs, a thirty-two-station lab, purchased by yet another community partner, is located in the computer technology classroom where classes such as "intro to typing through the computer," business typing, and computer applications are taught. The library houses 15
Macintosh computers, as does a nearby English writing lab, and ten more Macs can be found in the math lab designed to accommodate the advanced placement calculus program. It is important to note, however, that the foregoing collection of computers is, for the most part, outdated and many stations are not operational. For example, of the 15
English writing lab computers, only two or three are in working order, and accessibility to printers is extremely limited. Few teachers have regular access to a computer, and those who do provide their own.
Dr. Davidson and his staff began the school year eagerly anticipating the arrival of over 120 instructional computers. On opening day, as he addressed his staff regarding the district's promised thirty-million-dollar computer lease program, Davidson declared,
"We have to go beyond the dialogue of acquiring technology to the dialogue of using it."
In mid-September, Mark and all district administrators were issued new IBM laptop computers, and the school board approved the lease of additional laptops for all district teachers. However, within two months, the district backed out of their commitment, and the lease program for student and teacher computers fell through. Dr. Davidson reflects.
223 For me, that whole event was absolutely one of the hardest professional hits I've taken. I fully trusted the people rolling this out. 1 mean, all the factors were there for me to conclude this was going to happen. Opened school, stood before the faculty, and lay that out, and, so, when it was pulled out from under me, it was very damaging.
As discussed earlier, without the promised computers, Davidson refocused his and staffs attention on the future, planning a curriculum that blends computer technology with all aspects of their educational program. In the meantime, the school board approved a new lease program, pledging Evans Local 120 instructional computers and four computer labs in the fall. The new lease does not include computers for teachers.
Davidson faces other barriers to ELEC's technological progress. The district's size and budgetary constraints limit the funding available for computer equipment. Says a teacher, "Moffit is a very big system, so if they make a move, they have to do it for all the schools. You're talking some major money there, and time to get it up and running."
A major concern for Davidson and his staff has been the delay in acquiring local network capabilities. Given Evans Local's expansive campus and her fiber-optic readiness, the lengthy wait for district approval proves frustrating. As this department chairperson explains.
We've been waiting for that $30,000 switch so we can have the local area network in all the classrooms. 1 mean, this is ridiculous what we go through now - we're in the caveman stages as far as how we collect data. ... A local area network would take us up a whole other level [on] knowing where kids are. It's amazing what you can do with the right software. ... Just the idea of having a local email for teachers to talk back and forth instead of putting a piece of paper in a mailbox.
He continues.
Mark's done everything he can. 1 mean, you can't buy technology without downtown. It was supposedly coming in October this year. You know? Remember how he bet his paycheck on it? I asked him if he wanted to go double or nothing on the next paycheck as far as them saying now that [the computer purchase again has passed the board]. 224 Despite the barriers, Mark Davidson continues to pursue and acquire computer capacity, and his ability to do so has earned Evans Local a reputation as the district's technological leader. As Davidson proudly explains, "It's no secret in the district. If you ask where it’s happening, they're gonna tell you it's here."
Mark sees himself as the facilitator of ELEC's computer technology, "supporting it, garnering the resources and the manpower to get the work done." His staff seems to agree. Eighty-six percent of staff survey respondents indicate that Dr. Davidson is an advocate for and knowledgeable about the instructional use of computer technology. A few months ago, a state-funded organization, designed to equip schools with computer resources and infrastructure, offered Evans Local Education Center the opportunity to serve as a hub location for a new distance-leaming pilot program. As a hub, ELEC would acquire the necessary technological upgrades to provide and access online student and staff demonstrations of digital audio, video, and multimedia projects. People logging on to the network would have access to descriptions of each project's goals, costs, resources, changes necessary for effective implementation, and types of assessments used by teachers to determine the project's success. Not surprisingly, Mark jumped at the chance to increase the school's capacity, to enrich the education of students and teachers, and to contribute to the broader knowledge base through what he calls "research and development."
Also, ELEC was recently accepted into the Virtual High School (VHS), a nationally funded collaborative of 88 high schools across the country. VHS provides students online academic, technical, and specialty courses taught by volunteering teachers
225 from each member school. According to the agreement, each school may enroll up to 20 students per participating teacher. As Dr. Davidson explains, "When [the vUS opportunity] came to me a year ago. I read through all this documentation and I thought,
God, I’ll bet Sam might be interested in this, so 1 approached him. 'Yeah, I'll try it. So he started to work through the pilot." Sam, one of Mark's skilled computer enthusiasts, piloted the program, successfully teaching a photography course online. As a result, the district recently approved ELEC's official participation in VHS, and Sam is working currently to get other teachers involved. Here, the marriage of interest and opportunity resulted in growth. Marks expounds.
When you know what folks are interested in, help them get to where they're self realized. He has this great knowledge, but he is hindered by not having [the hardware and software] to get where his excitement is. And every time he's learning and doing, he’s helping our kids. So turn these people loose, don't stifle them, make opportunities for them.
In general, Mark Davidson's actions on behalf of building computer capacity seem to reflect the competencies and perceptions attributed to effective technology leaders. As reported in Chapter Two, such leaders develop and articulate a vision of how computer technology can help achieve educational goals, and they aim to provide support structures to sustain the vision. According to the data, Davidson also possesses a strong sense of computer self-efficacy, another personal quality frequently associated with expert technology leadership, and he endeavors to advance his own use of computer technology as it informs and supports his administrative practice.
I'm very comfortable with [using computer technology]. I don't know how to construct a web page, how to construct the digitals that went into our CD-ROM, [or] how to program, nor am I going to learn. ...I have professionals around me that are taking it on, so I haven't found the need to do that work. I see my job as supporting it, garnering the resources, and the manpower to get it done. That I feel confident in doing. 226 Yet, as Mark explains, public perceptions of how effective principals behave will have to
change along with the technological infusion. In his words, "when people see school
administrators hovered over the computer or in the office, there is a perception that
they're not working." He elaborates.
If the principal’s not out pounding the halls, the principal is not performing - not engaging in students. That's how the public may perceive that I need to be functioning to do my work. And I think frequently we're allowing the public to define our work, and they don't even know what the work is as we transition into a new generation of technology.
In light of the limitations and capacity of Evans Local's computer technology, the
data seem to indicate that Dr. Davidson applies the computer to his problem-solving
practice in conjunction with five internal problem-solving tools; (a) gathering and
managing information, (b) thinking, (c) communicating, (d) educating, and (e) cultivating change (see Figure 4.9).
Internal Tools Receiving External Support GATHERING AND MANAGING INFORMATION THINKING COMMUNICATING EDUCATING CULTIVATING CHANCE
Figure 4.9 Internal Tools Receiving External Support
As noted, these five internal tools receive external support from Mark Davidson's use of the computer, support that extends and enhances each tool's contribution to his problem solving craft. For explanation, the analysis now turns to the ways Mark utilizes the computer with each internal tool, beginning with gathering and managing information.
227 Gathering and Managing Information
Internal Tool External Support GATHERING Student/Administrative Network INFORMATION Internet MANAGING Facilities Scheduling Sofhvare INFORMATION
Table 4.10 Gathering and Managing Infonnation with the Computer
According to the data. Dr. Davidson utilizes the computer to gather and manage
information helpful to finding and solving problems. "It allows me access to all kinds of
resources, and it allows me to have a lot more power because 1 have a lot more
information." When gathering information, Davidson regularly taps two, technologically
available resources; the district's student/administrative network and the Internet (see
Table 4.10). The student/administrative network provides individual student attendance
and disciplinary information that Mark uses for "accessing grades to get a printout for a
conference so 1 have a copy in front of the parents, or for a disciplinary [hearing] at
central office." As Davidson explains, "There’s still something about a hard copy in
front of the customer that's rather convincing."
Yet, what also emerge from the data are indications that the information made available by the district may be outdated and/or inaccurate. In Davidson’s words,
"Currently, we have individual information that is very, very tough to get, and 1 would say, very boldly, that I'm not sure that it's accurate." Consequently, Dr. Davidson questions the reliability of some of the data he must synthesize. A case in point emerges from a March meeting of his school improvement plan team during which Mark and his
228 administrative team discovered that the enrollment data listed the arts and academic high
school's total enrollment as 645 students instead of the correct total of 611. All four
administrators, knowing that their actual freshman enrollment was 176, remarked, "We
never had 186 freshmen. Where did they get that number?" Such inaccuracy is
frustrating to Davidson especially in light of increased administrative accountability. In his words, "If you can't read and have access to performance information under this scrutiny of accountability today, how is it that you're going to even respond?"
Dr. Davidson also utilizes the Internet to gather information. He finds the convenience of online research particularly attractive given his busy schedule. "When I needed it on my time schedule, I didn't have to run around looking for volumes." He expounds.
I've started to move into the World Wide Web and seek information from it. Again, I've only had access within this office for the last four months. [When] I was preparing the computer inservice that I did, I had to go out and look for [articles]. Once I had the network hooked up here, I actually went out to see what was available on the Internet and pulled pieces on the use of computers in the classroom, and I found that very helpful.
In addition to gathering information. Dr. Davidson uses the computer to manage information (see Table 4.10). In his words, "It allows me to organize information in meaningful ways." One of the ways in which Davidson employs the computer as a management tool is his through the use of his scheduling program. The software application, as explained earlier, assists in scheduling facilities for upcoming events, a task frequently undertaken given the numerous facilities available at ELEC. To schedule an event, Mark enters information about the event, the user’s name, and the event's duration. Other members of Mark's staff also have access to the screen and schedule
229 events as necessary Here, the computer facilitates information management and information dissemination as well
Thinking
Internal Tool External Support
THINKING Word Processing To Guide Writing Process
Table 4.11 Thinking with the Computer
In addition to gathering and managing information. Dr. Davidson uses the computer to guide his thinking. As described in the upcoming section on communicating, this is most evident in Mark's use of word processing to record and play with his ideas (see Table 4.11). Yet, the data also indicate that most of Davidson's thinking is facilitated internally rather than through external tools. He shares his thoughts about the limitations of computer technology to think for him.
I'm not sure the computer can make that last leap where it currently stands. ... It's only gives me the information that I can share with the customer, and then it's my job to make sense out of it - to help them understand what it means. ...It can probably get a lot of information up to a point, but then it's no different from the surgeon - until you get in there and cut, you don't know, ... [and] they've got some very discriminating technology.
From Mark's perspective, the school principal's expertise, like that of the surgeon, is integral to the sense-making process. The knowledge and experience brought to bear on the information available and the way it is communicated crafts knowledge from information. In fact, as Mark observes,
I think that will be the challenge for principals in trying to respond to and write what [data means]. What does the parent survey mean? What does the student survey mean? And folks that haven't been in a position of reading information 230 and making sense out of if are really gonna struggle. I'm not sure people are being prepared for that in administrative preparation programming.
Although the state of administrative computer technology within the district currently limits Davidson's capacity to analyze, synthesize, forecast, and reflect electronically, Mark shares his vision of computer-enhanced school administration.
Given that I would have a computer with adequate software, I could aggregate information down to where I could see data to make decisions, whether that would be [comparing] each freshman with the average freshman GPA and projecting what may or may not be happening that's causing that variance. Or, from year to year, watching the dips and drops as we try to ratchet up lower performance - as I change teachers, and have a look at that piece.
He continues.
If someone could come in and give me a software package that had every piece of data related to student performance - attendance, discipline, records, and so forth - a data base so 1 could organize it in any way, in a report. I would welcome that. Then I could see over four years how an individual kid has grown, and I can set a benchmark, a framework of measurement that's more beneficial.
In Davidson's words we see the potential of computer technology to advance administrative thinking and problem solving with improved access to more relevant data and with applications that better facilitate its analysis and synthesis.
Communicating
Internal Tool External Support Word Ease, Convenience Processing Better Product COMMUNICATING Reinforces Verbal Communication Electronic Mail To Communicate with Administrators
Table 4.12 Communicating with the Computer Along with data access. Dr. Davidson employs computer technology to communicate information. The data suggest that Davidson utilizes the computer to communicate primarily through word processing and electronic mail (see Table 4.12).
Mark employs word processing to craft written communication to staff, students, parents, and community members. Says Davidson,
Word processing allows me to work on the product. I don’t have to transfer it to a secretary to have typos and strike outs, and 1 can come up with a better product. And 1 am in love with any of that stuff that makes that happen because 1 can create and leave it, come back and re-edit and think it so I can capture it and reduce it down to where I am as direct about [it] as possible. ... If I'm doing it with paper and pencil. I'm probably not going to take the time to edit, to get this nice and clean. I see how technology served that because without it, I don't think I would have been as effective and as efficient to manage the information I had collected to get it into a condensed script.
Here, the ease and convenience of electronically creating, editing, and revising text encourage better written communication, a task Dr. Davidson values. "I'm always trying to improve my writing because communication skills are foundational, so I'm always trying to do that." Striving to do so, Mark suggests that he uses word processing to guide the writing process.
The computer allowed me to access information, to drop things in, come back to it, re-edit, rewrite, cut it to where the time would be - just simple word processing, but it helped me create a little note bank for myself as I read this, ok, that's good. So, 1 wrote it in and retained it. Then, when 1 actually had to put the piece together, 1 wasn't starting with note pads and retyping. 1 was actually writing stuff in along the way of my development of this piece.
As Davidson writes to the screen, he can add electronically accessed information, delete prose he no longer wants, and expound upon thoughts and notations he saves along the way. Such capability fosters improved writing and expedites the process.
2"?2 Mark shared an example of how the computer influences his written communication. After having completed and submitted the written evaluation form for one of his new teachers. Dr. Davidson was visited by the teacher’s district supervisor.
She came by personally to see me. She had sent my form in and said, "I just stopped by to thank you for the completeness of the assessment. It's right on the money." If 1 didn't have word processing, it wouldn't have been as complete. I wouldn't have been about to communicate to others the quality of this professional through writing.
In addition to its influence on the quality of writing, Davidson believes word processing allows him "power over some core pieces that are foundations to this school." such as information about open house, parent conferences, graduation, freshman orientation, meeting agendas, and opening day for teachers.
There are some that I will not surrender, and the computer allows me to keep it right here. I don't have to write and [wait for somebody else] to get it back to me for my edits and updates. I can turn right here, and it's very personal and I can work with it when I can work with it.
By crafting and distributing handouts for each core event, Mark uses the written word to reinforce information he shares verbally. As he explains, "It's dealing visually as well as with the spoken word so people can see [the information] and support it with some handouts so they can walk out with information." Mark offers this example.
For instance, all the documents that went into opening school, I was able to work on, gradually updating, changing, editing, so all the documents I handed out to faculty I personally know what's in them. It helps me to be refreshed in what I need to say or do. I know exactly what I need to do and it reflects the work before us.
Mark also employs word processing to author letters. "I do a lot of letter writing to parents who are challenging. It's personal - in a sense, it's confidential. It allows me to
233 control that information at this desk." And, Dr. Davidson uses word processing to craft
reports or memos to staff.
The reports that I need I crank them out here - reporting is a part of communication. I do memos to the staff here - sometimes to students. And you can make it look a little more graphically pleasing - might get people's attention when they look at it.
As mentioned. Dr. Davidson employs the computer to communicate online. As
discussed earlier, all district administrators were issued an IBM 600 laptop computer in the fall. Since then, the district has employed email as a vehicle for communication among administrative staff. For reasons still unclear to Dr. Davidson, his connection was
not operational until April, but as soon as the connection was made, Davidson took advantage of his new mode of communication. In Mark's words, "I'm very comfortable with [email] now and what it can and can't do, and I save my communications for future reference or print hard copies." In fact, "I sent a survey out [to other administrators], and they're pounding me back with email responses. I sent out the communication inviting [a district official] to a meeting, and we communicated the whole piece [via email] - we never did talk on the phone."
Although Mark's laptop enhances his ability to communicate with fellow administrators and despite the infrastructure he ensured early on, Davidson still lacks the capacity to communicate digitally with his own staff. Without access to the local area network and without teacher access to computers, communication within a six-building campus is challenging. Says a teacher, "The school's got too many buildings, and it's very difficult to communicate here." Davidson agrees. "I think an intraschool email where faculty members could communicate from building to building or in the evenings
234 about lesson planning ... would improve and enhance communication within the adult population on campus."
Educating
Internal Tool External Support Himself Online Resources EDUCATING Hands-on Computer Learning Others Student Instruction
Table 4.13 Educating with the Computer
According to the data. Dr. Davidson uses the computer as a support tool for educating himself and others (see Table 4.13). As revealed in an earlier section, Mark employs the computer to access online educational resources such academic and professional publications and other information-rich web sites. Davidson also employs the computer to leam about the computer. He enjoys the hands-on experience of learning by doing.
I took a PowerPoint workshop in one of the professional development session that we do once in a while with [one of my teachers] who is just awesome with it. My problem is finding the time to sit at this machine. I would rather do it as to hand it off because I want to leam it.
Others notice Dr. Davidson's interest in educating himself on the computer. According to this staff member, Mark views the computer as another puzzle or problem to solve.
I think he's intrigued by technology and ... he wants to be able to manipulate it, so I've seen him work really hard to try to find out where the glitch is, where the problem is and then to problem solve. I think he likes puzzles and problem solving and finding the answer to the unanswerable whether it's the computer or whether it's real life.
235 As reported, the data also indicate that Dr. Davidson utilizes the computer as a tool for instruction and student learning. Davidson remarks, "It's simply one piece of the teaching and learning process that administrators, students, and teachers can access that may improve student achievement and their performance within the classroom." Mark's earlier mentioned effort to infuse the curriculum with technology and plan effectively for its implementation seems consistent with such a claim. He explains.
It is very clear to me that computer technology is one of the instruments of communications that will be dominating the marketplace for probably the next thirty or thirty-five years. Our kids have to get on these things. They have to have this foreign language, and I think of it as a foreign language.
Here, a staff member offers her view of Dr. Davidson's philosophy and vision of instructional computer technology.
He is definitely an instructional person. ... Where he sees the use of technology is in increasing student's academic skills and helping them. He's very aware of that. He's utilized our academic enhancement lab to that effect, and now he wants to expand that into the classroom.
An example of Davidson's effort to employ the computer as an educational tool emerges from his recent use of distance learning. In collaboration with Ameritech, and building upon their distance learning capacity, Evans Local served as the hub for "a virtual book signing which is a whole technology piece that I've just somewhat dreamed about for about three years now." As Mark explains, "We did a linkup with two other schools, our kids, and New York with an author. Ameritech was more than impressed because they hadn't done it before. So we actually were in research and development, and it was exciting." He continues.
The author was there, our faculty, all of these folks from around the country and four or five other countries were there, interacting with the kids. It was the purest authentic assessment, if there is such a term - having people in the industry there to see what you are doing. 236 And, as Mark describes, it was an educational experience for everyone involved.
One of the executive managers of Ameritech was sitting there, and now they're willing to try something again with us because they felt so good and they learned from it. You know, we sent 300 plus people out that learned from it. Everyone one learned from this moment in time about technology and also from what we did with technology.
Cultivating Change
Internal Tool External Support Changing Staff Attitudes Toward Computers CULTIVATING Content and Delivery of Instruction CHANGE Problem Solving
Table 4.14 Cultivating Change with the Computer
Finally, along with gathering and organizing information, thinking, communicating, and educating, Mark Davidson utilizes the computer as a support tool for cultivating change. The data seem to suggest that Davidson views the computer as capable of cultivating change in staff attitudes toward and use of technology, in the content and delivery of instruction, and in administrative problem solving (see Table
4.14). As 91% of staff survey respondents indicate, Mark believes that the computer is a powerful tool for transforming schools. Further evidence indicates that Dr. Davidson cultivates change by encouraging individual staff members to become computer literate.
As this comment from a veteran assistant administrator indicates, Mark presented the challenge and supported her along the way.
When I came here, I had never used a computer. From the very beginning he said, "You've got to get on the computer. You gotta learn." And year after year that was on my evaluation of what I need to do. And I mean, you Imow, I learned it, but I didn't think 1 could and I remember going to my husband and saying, "Oh
237 my God. This man wants me to leam to use a computer!" And he has continued to challenge the staff and all of us to use the technology and be on the cutting edge and to provide, whenever he can, the equipment that they need.
Second, Dr. Davidson uses the computer to cultivate change in the content and delivery of instruction. As this comment reminds, "It's an aspect of planning in every area. With our school improvement plan we have different components and technology is an aspect of every part of that." Mark's ongoing work to build computer capacity at
ELEC also influences change in "the way we do business." As teachers gain instructional access to computers and discipline-relevant software applications, instruction changes to accommodate these new methods of learning.
Last, as Mark thinks about his problem-solving practice in the context of future capacity, he shares his notion of the computer to cultivate administrative change.
With full interactivity [among data], I would be able to get to the information about each student, organize it in various way to make projections, or monitor performance of the student - academic, behavioral, or disciplinary performance. It could be individualized, but generalized to a larger population. I'm anxious to get there.
He continues, describing his vision of computer use as manager and change agent.
When acting as a manager, I could organize the day-to-day information to stay on top of it. Now we're not doing a very good job in terms of access, but that's going to soon change. I could pull up expenditure information and review that, seeing how our allocations and expenditures aligned with where we re trying to move the organization. Computer technology would allow you access to the books in rather rapid form as opposed to notebooks of stuff that you're trying to wade through because the simple dragging of a cursor can get you anywhere. ...As a change agent, the computer allows you access to the information piece to stay on top of your craft with what's happening and then put that back together again so that you're influencing people.
238 Dr. Davidson sees the organizational and informational capabilities o f the computer as key to cultivating change. In other words, knowledge and communication determine both the need for and the path to change. He concludes.
I see technology bringing educators together - being able to dial up someone at another school and talk about problems. Let's say I’ve got [a certain issue we're facing]. Well, there are schools that have faced that issue already. Talk to me a little bit about it. Tell me about the difficulties, so that we can have professional dialogue that's simple, that it doesn't take a half million dollars to construct on any given day. That's some futuristic thinking, but it's closer than distant.
Conclusion
This portrait of a problem-solving craftsman illustrates that effective problem solving and problem finding require the discipline and creativity of art, as well as the scrutiny of science. It also reveals seven problem-solving tools of internal origin, shaped from the craftsman's knowledge and experience and applied in artful combinations according to the task at hand. Further, the portrait delineates an external tool of the trade, the computer, whose support enriches many of the internally crafted tools. Such conclusions have implications for educational administrative theory and practice, implications that approach school administration, its preparation, and its study from a problem-solving perspective. It is to those topics that this discussion now turns.
239 CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Expert educational leadership requires expert administrative problem solving.
Such leadership enjoins cognition, knowledge, and experience on behalf of discovering, interpreting, and resolving problematic situations. It asks that educational leaders frame problems as opportunities for change, addressing each in light of larger organizational purposes. As problem solvers, expert leaders demonstrate habits of self and collective reflection, thinking flexibly about the problem at hand. And, as leaders, expert problem solvers resolve problems collaboratively as well as individually, fostering the growth of organizational members and the organization itself.
This dissertation study has endeavored to explore the problem-solving practice of an expert administrative problem solver and his use of computer technology to support this practice. Following an introduction to the study in Chapter One, Chapter Two reported the research surrounding a problem-solving perspective on educational administration, in particular, leadership of the educational organization, leadership as cognition, expert problem solving in educational administration, and the administrative use of computer technology in schools. Chapter Three delineated the qualitative research design and methodology chosen for this individual case study, and Chapter Four presented a qualitative analysis of the expert's problem-solving practice and computer
240 use. As we proceed with Chapter Five, the discussion moves to the conclusions of the study and their implications for leadership preparation and further research.
The Study of a Craftsman
Dr. Mark Davidson is an expert educational leader, a craftsman in the art and science of administrative problem solving. Problem-solving expertise, like craftsmanship, is cast from knowledge and skill bom of experience and honed through disciplined practice. As a problem-solving craftsman. Dr. Davidson artfully applies his expertise when selecting and utilizing the internal tools of his trade to find and solve problems. Additionally, this craftsman utilizes the computer, an external tool, to extend the performance of the other tools he employs. These internal and external tools, and
Davidson's expert application of them to administrative problem solving and problem finding, comprise the focus of this discussion.
In keeping with the purpose of the study, the findings are explicated herein as responses to the four, dominating research questions:
1. How does this administrator find and solve problems?
2. What is the role of intuition in his problem finding and problem solving?
3. To what extent does he utilize computer technology to support problem finding and
problem solving?
4. In what ways do this administrator’s personal attributes and perceptions about
computer technology influence its acquisition and use?
How does this administrator find and solve problems?
The analysis presented in Chapter Four outlines seven cognitive and behavioral activities, or tools, that Mark Davidson regularly employs when finding and solving
241 problems (see Table 4.1 ). Such analysis affords us a detailed account of the craftsman's tools, close sciutiny of his problem-solving craft. We can identify the individual brush strokes of his work and assess their precision by analyzing his management of individual problems through these tools of expertise. Yet, as with art, for us to fully appreciate this expert problem-solver's craft, we must also stand a distance from his work where individual strokes of paint, distinct actions, blend to clearer more unified images.
Emerging from Dr. Davidson's problem-solving practice are three ways that Mark employs the tools of his trade to find and solve problems. First, Davidson is a proactive problem solver, a problem finder for whom "the unforeseen problem is a joy and not a curse" (Mackworth, 1964, p. 54). He devotes significant effort to discovering potentially problematic situations and strategizing plans to avert problems before they occur. To do so, Mark gleans and processes information from a variety of sources. He observes behavior and listens actively when others speak. He consults colleagues and other knowledgeable sources and utilizes staff feedback in ways that increase his understanding of the problematic. He attends to his intuition, responding judiciously to gut feelings and cues from his own knowledge and experience. Like Leithwood's (1995) problem-solving expert, Mark looks for patterns among the information he gathers, endeavoring to predict the problematic and craft plans accordingly. He spends time reading and educating himself and others about current developments in educational research and practice so as to anticipate and create opportunities to facilitate change. And, in retrospect, Davidson reflects upon his problem finding and solving to the degree that it informs and advances his proactive thinking and actions on future problematic circumstances, a practice consistent with other problem-solving experts (e.g., Leithwood & Steinbach, 1995).
242 Also, in his effort to address problems proactively. Dr. Davidson engages staff in
dialogue, individually or collectively, in the interest of professional development and
school improvement. To the entire school community, through speeches and written
communication, Mark consistently conveys expectations of excellence and hard work,
thereby reinforcing the organizational norms, values, and beliefs on which future
solutions may be built. Further, through shared leadership and collaboration, Davidson
strives to build relationships with and among school-community members that will
facilitate problem-identifying and problem-solving communication. Mark reaches out to
the larger community through the advisory board, creating an extended support system
for advancing the mission of his school. And, Dr. Davidson encourages risk taking on
behalf of school improvement, thereby fostering a culture that is conducive to positive change and resilient in the face of problems. Much like Deal's and Peterson's (1999) cultural leadership, Davidson's proactive approach to problem solving invites other in, engendering a sense of community among organizational members, a connection that binds individual members to a common problem-solving goal.
Second, in addition to finding and solving problems proactively. Dr. Davidson is a strategic problem solver. From the information he gathers, Davidson formulates a goal, maps the solution path, and enacts his plan. Always, his actions are purposeful, carefully conceived of knowledge and experience and designed to achieve the intended goal. As staff indicate. Dr. Davidson uses time as a strategy, working deliberately to gather and consider pertinent data while allowing all relevant facets of the problem to emerge.
Whether solving problems proactively or solving problems in action, Mark strategically listens, observes, and inquires, collecting relevant clues that inform his plan. He thinks
243 ahead of events, in action, as he reads and responds to problematic situations and, on action, as he creates a vision for his school and a design to realize it. Davidson communicates strategically, using his words and non-verbal expressions to narrate, inform, or persuade. He also employs education as strategic tool, sharing problem- applicable information with staff and encouraging professional development. Thus, Dr.
Davidson enriches his organization's problem-solving knowledge base and increases its capability to identify, fashion, and address problems proactively.
Last, this craftsman is a collaborative problem solver, engaging organizational members in collective problem solving and shared leadership. Such collaboration is consistent with notions of transformational leadership wherein leaders seek to develop and foster the acceptance of group goals, to nurture individual development, and to merge the collective talents on behalf of a common purpose (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Leithwood
& Steinbach, 1995). When solving problems collaboratively. Dr. Davidson aims to engage school-community members in professional dialogue around curricular and instructional issues, and he employs their emerging collective expertise to create a vision for the future of the school. Through collaboration, Davidson initiates new relationships and strengthens existing bonds between and among school-community members. Such alliances, Mark believes, foster better communication on behalf of collaboration. Dr.
Davidson also uses methods of collective reflection, as evidenced by his monthly inservice sessions, encouraging colleagues to ponder their instructional practice in light of student outcomes and current research. He strategically designs collaborative problem-solving sessions, planfully composing the focus of discussion, the group's size and structure, and the problem-solving processes they will undertake. In doing so,
244 Davidson provides the opportunity for individual members to interact, sharing their knowledge, experiences, and ideas such that they enrich their own practice and the organization's knowledge base as well. Davidson's focus on the educational outcomes of collaboration seems to reflect the notion of organizational learning wherein "individuals within an organization experience a problematic situation and inquire into it on the organization's behalf. ...Through a process of thought and further action [they] modify their images of the organization, ... thereby changing organizational theory-in-use"
(Argyris & Schon, 1996, p. 16)
As noted, in addition to problem solving. Dr. Davidson collaborates on behalf of shared leadership. Mark encourages individual staff members to assume leadership responsibilities by attending to their interests and talents and enabling them to take the risk, as he did with his assistant administrator's interest in multiple intelligence theory and his department chairperson's interest in securing lab space for the math department.
In doing so, Mark cultivates organizational change, or learning, as shared leadership influences organizational behavior (Argyris & Schon, 1996). Further, Davidson facilitates collaborative leadership by creating organizational vehicles such as the advisory board and the school improvement team through which school-community members share decision-making responsibilities. Here, Davidson endeavors to extend leadership deeper into the organization, creating a community of leadership, inquiry, and learning that will effect changes in organizational practices (Argyris & Schon, 1996).
As suggested at the beginning of this section, viewing the craftsman's product from a distance reveals a clearer image of his trade. Likewise, when we distance ourselves from this expert administrator's practice, we see that Dr. Davidson's problem
245 solving and problem finding extend Leithwood's (1995) notion of administrative problem
solving from closing the gap between problem and solution to creating new gaps, or
problems, beyond solution. Such a conception invokes notions of Deweyan inquiry
wherein "the transaction between inquirer and situation is continuing and inherently
open-ended" (Argyris& Schon, 1996). For Dewey (1938), there is "no such thing as a
final settlement because every settlement introduces the conditions of some degree of a
new unsettling" (p. 35). In other words, as Argyris and Schon (1996) explain, "the
inquirer participates in constructing the situation to which he [or she] also responds, [just
as] the artist makes the painting in which, at any given moment, [he or] she finds
requirements and possibilities that call for further making" (p. 31 ).
Davidson's proactive and collaborative approaches suggest that a more descriptive
notion of his leadership would locate expert administrative problem solving within the
broader perspective of inquiry. Inquiry, like problem solving, intertwines thinking with
action, "proceed[ing] from doubt to the resolution of doubt" (Argyris & Schon, 1996, p.
II). Yet, the process of inquiry results in more than a solution, an answer, a completion.
Inquiry results in a learning product "that is tested by its success in resolving a
problematic situation and by the value inquirers come to attribute to the new problems
their resolution creates" (p. 31). It is an inherently social process, through which
individual problem solvers interact collaboratively, inquiring and learning "in ways that are connected to ... the organization" (Argyris & Schon, 1996). For Davidson, school
leadership is inquiry - a collaborative problem-solving endeavor through which
individuals and the organization leam and discover new possibilities.
246 What is the role of intuition in his problem solving and problem finding?
Analytical scrutiny alone is no longer sufficient for understanding and addressing
the problems created by today's organizational complexity (Agor, 1986; Parikh, 1994).
Hence, in recent years, intuitive thinking has been recognized as an important problem
solving component. Dr. Mark Davidson employs his intuition as one resource among
many for gathering problem-finding and problem-solving data. For Davidson, intuition seems to emanate from a combination of feeling, knowledge, and experience, a possible outgrowth of his expertise. Davidson reads situations and behaviors, listening for and responding to intuitive information. In these situations, a gut feeling intervenes, providing Mark with a cue for action. As with the students outside his office window,
Mark's observation and intuition tells him whether there is a problem, a need to respond.
Here, a blend of information sources helps him diagnose the situation. Yet. in other circumstances, Mark's intuition seems to reflect more the union of his knowledge and experience (Agor, 1986). Mark's projection regarding the district's readiness to implement instructional computer technology is clearly more than a gut feeling. It emanates from his knowledge of and experiences with computer technology and district politics. Dr. Davidson's intuitive sense also draws his attention to significant, yet subtle, features of the problem. If we recall Davidson's impression of the parent pressuring the district for special services for his daughter, we can see where Mark's intuition alerts him to a deeper problem, causing him to refirame the situation and select an alternative solution path. Here, sans intuition, Davidson's choice and the resulting outcome might have been different
247 As with other skills, the effective use of one's intuition requires practice. As Agor explains, "the more we are open to our feelings, [and] the more secure we become through practice in their ability to give us correct cues, ... the more efficient our intuitive cues become" (p. 6). Mark Davidson practices his intuitive thinking as a forecaster and baseball fan, combining the analytical with the intuitive as he endeavors to predict the weather or the pitcher stealing second. Here, Davidson exercises and develops his
"sensitivity and openness to other more right brain cues" (p. 28), thereby increasing his capability and confidence to see the possibilities in any situation.
In sum, this problem-solving craftsman employs his intuition as a response cue to other problem-relevant information. As Mark listens, observes, inquires, and communicates, he remains attentive to his own intuition, heeding indicators of salient cues. Balancing intuitive with analytical thinking, Davidson determines how or whether to respond.
How does this administrator use computer technoloev to support problem solving and problem finding?
From the analysis in Chapter Four emerge two primary ways in which this expert problem solver employs computer technology to support his practice. In the first way,
Dr. Davidson utilizes the computer to access pertinent problem-finding and problem solving information. Davidson gathers data from the student/administrative network helpful to resolving problems related to the four categories outlined by Leithwood and
Steinbach (1995): teachers, school routines, students, and parents. He frequently accesses attendance and discipline records when addressing conflicts with and between teachers, students, and parents and when attending to such school routines as preparing
248 district or state reports. Dr. Davidson also accesses the Internet for information, going online seeking timely educational literature he can share with staff. And, Mark uses electronic mail as a source of information, keeping abreast of district events and gathering feedback on educational issues from administrative colleagues.
Second, Dr. Davidson uses the computer as a communication tool. Primarily,
Davidson employs word processing to communicate information, writing his own agendas, memos, letters, speeches, and reports. When doing so, Mark uses the computer to guide the process, jotting notes or initial ideas that he later develops and revises.
Recognizing the potential of leading from the page - the power of carefully crafted prose to effect change - Davidson pays specific attention to the quality and precision of his written communication, thoughtfully drafting each sentence, each paragraph, each page to effectively convey his message. For Davidson, the editing and revising capacity of word processing affords him a clearer, more succinct product, improving his communication on behalf of a problem's resolution. Mark also employs the computer to generate hard copies of data. These he shares with parents, students, and staff to communicate the facts behind the decision. Finally, Mark also uses electronic mail as a form of problem-solving communication.
How do this administrator's personal attributes and perceptions about computer technology influence its acquisition and use?
The response to this question begins with a look at Dr. Davidson's computer competencies and perceptions. According to research, efficacious administrative computer users are not only technologically knowledgeable and proficient, but also are effective managers of computer technology within their schools (Bozeman & Spuck,
249 1991). From the analysis presented in Chapter Four, Mark Davidson appears to possess knowledge, proficiency, and the necessary management skills. Davidson's use of word processing, email, the student/administrative network, and the Internet demonstrates competence in the computer applications he employs within his practice. His success with creating a vision and building the capacity to support his school’s current computer applications is also indicative of his knowledge and effective management of computer technology. Further, Mark's current work to technologically infuse each facet of ELEC's educational program, and his efforts to plan for the eventual arrival of new hardware signal a knowledge of instructional applications and equipment.
As noted, research also suggests that educational administrators who effectively utilize computer technology demonstrate certain perceptions about computer use
(Bozeman & Spuck, 1991: Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Rice & Aydin, 1991). Chapter
Four's analysis seems to indicate that Dr. Davidson possesses all five of the general perceptions held by effective computer users as outlined in Chapter Two. First, Davidson appears to believe that the computer can effect meaningful educational change (ICearsley
& Lynch, 1994). Dr. Davidson's ongoing efforts to build computer capacity, to develop a technologically infused curriculum, and to encourage the computer literacy of staff suggest that he perceives the computer as a powerful tool for transforming schools. We hear this perception also in his remarks about the capacity of distance learning to influence the delivery of education. Second, Davidson develops and articulates a vision for instructional computer technology (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; ICearsley & Lynch,
1994). It was Dr. Davidson's vision of educational technology that resulted in his request an upgrade of cable in 1988 to support future growth. And his vision is the foundation
250 for ELEC's current effort to technologically enhance their curriculum. Third, Dr.
Davidson believes that data are a valuable decision-making resource (Bozeman, Raucher,
& Spuck, 1991; Trotter, 1997a). Mark's identification as an information gatherer and user is supported by survey responses and staff comments. Next, Davidson seems to believe that computer technology can support communication (Bozeman, et al, 1991;
Bozeman & Spuck, 1991; Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Trotter, 1997b; Spuck & Bozeman.
1988). Mark's extensive use of word processing for written communication, his comments about the computer producing a better product, and his burgeoning use of the
Internet and email are indicative of such a perception. Additional evidence can be found in his remarks about the capacity for email to serve as an online problem-solving tool.
Last, Mark Davidson possesses a strong sense of computer self-efficacy as indicated by his confidence to, ease with, and enthusiasm for learning new computer applications
Clearly, the foregoing attributes and perceptions play a substantial role in Dr.
Davidson's acquisition and use of computer technology. Yet, given our broader understanding of this expert, it becomes quickly apparent that the scope of influential attributes and perceptions extends beyond those directly related to computers, to those emerging from Dr. Davidson's practice as an expert administrative problem solver. It appears that the same cognitive and behavioral skills he applies when finding and solving problems also inform his use and acquisition of computer technology. Davidson's continual efforts on behalf of school improvement indicate a comfort with change, change that necessarily accompanies the computer's application within instruction and administration. Mark's strategic thinking and forecasting facilitate his vision of computer technology and the planning required for its implementation. Dr. Davidson's
251 desire to create learning opportunities for students and staff positions the computer as a support tool for teaching and learning. His focus on collaboration results in richer, more interdisciplinary plans for implementation and promotes the likelihood of equal access across the disciplines. And, the relationships Mark has built between school and community continue to foster the growth of computer capacity at ELEC.
In sum, the response to this question regarding the influence of attributes on computer use seems to be located at the intersection of computer-related attributes and expert administrative practice. In other words. Dr. Davidson's overriding belief in the educational promise of computer technology, his technological competence and use, his effort to build a school culture conducive to change, and his school's alliance with the larger community, together, have created and advanced a vision of computer technology and the capacity to support it.
Implications for Leadership Preparation
From the study of this craftsman's problem-solving trade emerge three considerations for the preparation and development of educational administrators. First, this research seems to suggest that centering the study of school leadership on inquiry might prove advantageous. Leadership as inquiry conceptualizes school administrators as inquirers "who seek to promote productive organizational learning and to understand the nature of their own learning processes and systems" (Argyris & Schon, 1996, p. 43).
It requires administrators who can nurture leadership and a concern for discovery across the school organization and who are adept at finding and solving problems, nurturing reflection and collaboration, and cultivating purposeful change. Current leadership preparation programs ask administrators to be more collaborative, but fall short of
252 training them as organizers and facilitators of the collaborative process. School leaders
must leam how to guide the collective effort toward a purposeful goal, thereby creating a
focus and structure for their work. A problem-solving approach to leadership preparation
offers both. Here, the problem becomes the focus of collaboration and the solution path,
its structure. Hence, administrative preparation programs would do well to adopt the
broader problem-solving perspective of leadership through which learning is the outcome
and problems become specific opportunities, the fuel employed to effect educational
reform.
Further, when we filter the notion of inquiry through Mark Davidson's three
leadership roles - leader, manager, and change agent - we not only emphasize the range of role requirements, but we link, asking questions across the roles seeking to understand
how each might inform the other. In this way, inquiry becomes an administrative habit of
mind that informs all practice, from the mundane to the visionary. Notions of inquiry extend rather than delimit each role such that each administrative task presents possibilities for organization-enhancing discovery. Consider for a moment the educational administrator as manager, struggling with budgetary concerns for the upcoming school year. When addressed as inquiry, this frequently tedious task becomes an opportunity to leam. Questions arising within the budgetary process inform, and are informed by, the ways in which the administrator leads and creates change. If, for example, the new budget must be trimmed and a teacher position lost, the inquiring school administrator might reconceptualize the budgeting constraint as an opportunity to advance team teaching. In this case, the principal's response might be to combine the instructional expertise of two professionals as they team-teach the larger group of
253 students. Although such a move increases the student/teacher ratio, it provides both teachers with support, enhances their professional development, and justifies a move toward collaborative instruction. Here, in consultation with leader and change agent, the manager searches for and creates fiscally and educationally sound ways to implement organizational change. Likewise, when perceived as inquiry, planning the master schedule becomes more than a managerial responsibility. It becomes an opportunity to rethink the use of time in schools, to examine the schedule for ways to restructure the school day. For the inquiring school leader, manager, and change agent, revisiting the need for homeroom or the length of passing periods may capture valuable instructional or teacher planning time.
How, then, might we encourage educational administrators to adopt inquiring habits of the mind? Leithwood and Steinbach (1995) suggest problem-based instruction.
Such instruction, facilitated through authentic problem-solving situations, would provide school administrators models of expert problem solving, practice across a wide variety of problems, opportunities to reflect upon their inquiry and increase their sense of efficacy, and feedback on individual and collaborative problem-solving performance. And, when applied across the preparation program, problem-based methods would encourage school leaders to recognize the connection between inquiry and all aspects of administrative practice.
Second, given the decidedly cognitive nature of inquiry as demonstrated through
Dr. Davidson's practice, preparation programs would do well to provide opportunities for school administrator’s to develop and hone their cognitive abilities. Across the curriculum, coursework should emphasize the power of information to inform decisions
254 and offer opportunities for administrators to gather and make sense of data. Through problem-based instruction, administrators should also be taught to analyze, synthesize, and think strategically about data and how to convert their strategies into action.
Methods of reflective thinking should be studied and practiced, with attention to written, dialogic, and collective reflection. Also, given the potential of intuition as an additional information source, intuitive thinking should be acknowledged and examined through problem-based opportunities to reflect upon and discuss its origin, influence, and effectiveness.
Third, computer education programs for educational administrators should be reconsidered. Current computer courses tend to focus primarily on skill development as it relates to specific computer applications, boasting instruction in applications such as word processing, email, spreadsheets, presentation software, or desktop publishing. Such application-based instruction, although helpful for increasing literacy, provides little opportunity for administrators to apply their newly gained skills to the real-life problems they face. In addition, courses frequently address computer readiness from the perspective of instructional leadership, studying instructional uses of computer technology and procedures for evaluating and purchasing educational software.
While skills and instructional concerns are important to effective administrative computer use, they are not enough. In fact, some suggest that the time has come for preparation programs to "expect that students, upon entrance to a program, demonstrate a basic understanding of computer operation and application and the application of computers to instruction" (Bozeman & Spuck, 1991, p. 525). Such a suggestion implies
255 that preparation coursework should focus on other, more relevant notions of administrative computer use.
This study positions educational administrators as problem solvers and problem finders (Leithwood, 1995). It suggests that learning is the outcome of inquiry, and it emphasizes the prominence of gathering, making sense of, and communicating information in ways that lead to knowledge. If, as suggested, the computer can support administrative inquiry, we need to rethink current notions of computer competence. From a problem-solving perspective, the computer becomes a tool that the school administrator judiciously applies to assist with and extend the learning process. Thus, to foster the development of such a tool, coursework would position data as crucial to the problem solving process, identifying various technologically available information sources and means for using the computer to access, make sense of, present, and communicate data.
Further, given the focus of coursework on problem solving, problem-based instruction might prove beneficial. As students endeavor to resolve authentic problems, they would discover ways to employ the computer as a support tool. And, woven within problem- based coursework, discussion would address other pertinent topics emerging from the study:
• how the computer can support the range of leadership roles;
• becoming a leader of computer technology;
• cultivating change through computer technology;
• decision-making about computers in schools;
• building computer capacity within schools;
256 • the limitations and possibilities of computer technology;
• staff development issues; and
» using the computer to support individual and collective inquiry.
From this perspective, administrative computer competence would be more than application-based skill. It would be the ability to interpret the problematic situation and, in light of the administrator's knowledge of computer capabilities, crafl a solution using the most appropriate tools. As the research suggests, problem solving expertise and the expert use of computer technology are closely linked. Such a notion implies that the more we offer administrators authentic yet risk-free opportunities to practice using the computer, the more likely they are to confidently and effectively employ the tool.
Foci for Future Research
This qualitative case study serves as a departure point for understanding administrative problem solving and the use of computer technology within that practice.
It builds upon the research of Leithwood and colleagues on educational administrative problem solving (1986, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1995) and seeks to extend their work by exploring the use of computer technology within administrative problem solving, the role of problem finding, and influence of intuition on the problem-solving process. This study offers new information about educational administration, problem solving, and the capacity for computers to support administrative practice. Yet, further research is needed to substantiate and enrich this information.
From this study emerges a picture of expert administrative problem solving as proactive, strategic, and collaborative. The role of problem finding appears prominent within the problem-solving process, focusing attention on the administrator’s ability to
257 gather and make sense of information such that potential problems are discovered or new problems are created. It also emphasizes the administrator's cognitive skills, his or her ability to analyze, synthesize, think strategically about, and reflect upon the information gathered. Additionally, the study indicates that effective school administrators endeavor to collaborate with school-community members, establishing strong relationships through which members may collaborate on behalf of the organization. Moreover, this expert's practice seems to reflect many of the tenets of Deweyan inquiry and organizational learning, extending further our conception of administrative problem solving as progressive in nature where solutions are as much beginnings as they are endings.
Collectively, these findings evoke several questions for future research.
1. How do other expert educational administrators find and solve problems?
2. What, if any, differences in problem-solving expertise exist at elementary and middle
school levels?
3. What is the connection between proactive problem solving and school effectiveness?
4. What cognitive skills do other experts employ?
5. What effect does cognitive development (e.g., Kegan, 1994; Torbert, 1991) have on
the evolution of expert problem solving and inquiry?
6. To what extent do typical principals engage in problem finding?
7. How can we foster the cognitive skills of educational leaders?
8. To what extent is problem-based instruction effective for teaching leaders to think
strategically?
9. How does the notion of inquiry influence our conception of school leaders?
10. How are reflective habits of the mind developed organizationally?
258 11. What does problem-solving expertise look like at the organizational level and how
does it develop?
The study also suggests that expert administrative problem solvers employ their intuition as a source of information, as a response cue for other problem-relevant information. Here, the expert blends intuitive with analytical thinking to make judgments about potentially problematic situations. Given the possibilities and limitations of intuitive thinking to influence administrative practice, a deeper understanding of intuition within administrative problem solving is needed.
12. What situations call for intuitive thinking and when should intuitive cues be ignored?
13. What happens when administrators depend too heavily or not enough on their
intuition?
14. How can we foster the use of intuitive thinking among school leaders?
15. What is the role of expertise in intuitive thinking?
With regard to computer technology, this study submits that the computer can serve as an effective support tool for administrative problem solving. Given the capacity, school administrators can use the computer to access and communicate information helpful for finding and solving problems. Through computer technology, administrators can positively influence staff attitudes about technology and cultivate instructional change. This study emphasizes the salience of administrators' ability to create computer capacity within their schools. From these findings emerge research questions regarding administrative computer use.
16. When capacity is not an issue, how do expert administrative problem solvers employ
the computer within their practices?
259 17. How do other school leaders build capacity within their schools?
18. What computer competencies and perceptions do other experts possess?
19. How do we foster administrative perceptions that are conducive to effective
administrative and instructional computer implementation?
20. What is the influence of online communication on collaborative problem solving?
21. How does the public perception of school principals' work influence administrators'
computer use?
The study of educational administrative problem solving is young. Important questions remain about the influence of leaders' thinking and problem solving on school effectiveness. The role of computer technology within administrative practice also demands further inquiry. Opportunities exist for both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Quantitative studies might explore administrative problem solving and computer use across populations, seeking to confirm the findings of this qualitative study.
Qualitative studies might engage in comparative case study, looking at the similarities and differences between principals' practices. The need to better understand these and other questions about school administrators' problem solving and computer use should encourage further exploration. As Argyris and Schon (1996) conclude,
Researchers should join with practitioners ... [to] try to discover what practitioners already know how to do, ...including the questions they know how to ask and the knowing-in-action they may take for granted and be unable to describe. These researchers should ... help discover the hidden rationalities that are often built into everyday organizational practice, (p. 43)
Conclusion
This study of an expert educational administrator portrays problem solving as a craft, the skilled blend of art and science. It identifies and explores seven internal tools of
260 problem solving and inquiry artfully employed to craft problems and solutions that advance the school organization. It presents administrative problem solving as proactive, strategic, and collaborative and locates that practice within the larger, more open-ended notion of inquiry. It finds intuition as a source of problem finding and problem solving information and a response cue to other problem-relevant data. It examines the capacity of an external tool of the trade to support and extend administrative practice. And, it articulates personal administrative attributes and perceptions about computer technology that are conducive to its acquisition and efficacious use.
Such a portrait presents a preliminary sketch of expert administrative practice designed to develop as new information comes to light. Clearly, administrative problem solving is dynamic and no singular perspective fully encompasses its complexity. Hence, further research on how other school administrators find and solve problems, on school leadership as inquiry, on the role of cognitive development in expert problem solving and inquiry, and on the role of computer technology in educational administration promise to enrich our understanding of school leadership and its accompanying influence on educational excellence.
261 APPENDIX A
Pilot Interview Protocol
262 Interview Protocol
Problem-Solving Practices of Public School Leaders in the Information Ace
Introduction Computer technology has come to the forefront in education. Practical examples confirm the value of technology in schools, from the use of computers by physically disabled students to the application of word processing by student writers. Technology also affords significant advantages for school administration Programs are available for record keeping, scheduling grade reporting, and other problem solving tasks made less arduous by the computer’s speed, accuracy, and easy access to an abundance of information. Given technology's problem-solving capabilities, this research seeks to explore the capacity of school administrators to apply technology to solving problems of practice
Background Demographics 1 How long have you been an educator?
2 How long have you been an educational administrator’’
3. How long have you been in your current position?
4 What is your experience with technology’’ Probes: personal professional (possibly outside of education)
5 Do you use a computer at home’’
6 How’’ Probes: personal record-keeping correspondence reference (information gathering) on-line games
7 Describe the technological capabilities of your school Probes: number of computers student and faculty access administrative/office staff access networking other technological features (security, etc.)
8 To what technological applications do you have access’’
9. How did you learn to use technology? Probes: formal education (college program) professional development in-service training self-taught
10. If asked to evaluate your comfort/sldll with technology, how would you respond? Probes: applications keyboarding skills
263 Tools 1 Suppose l spent the day with you. How would I see you using technology'^ Probes in what form where under what circumstances to help in what situations 2 In a given week, how frequently would I see you use: word processing database spreadsheet graphics/desktop publishing integrated software telecommunications (network, e-mail) informational ttxils school management programs
Problem Solving 1. Problems are a natural part of school administration. Although it may sound simplistic, how do you recognize something as problematic? Probes: how do you know you have a problem'’ what are the signs'’
2. Take us to a problem you recently solved. Beginning with your recognition of the problem, describe what you did to solve the problem. Probes: who else was involved'’
3 Research has identified four categories of problems as the most frequently encountered by principals: teachers, school routines, students, and parents. Select one of the four categories Name some ways technology aids you in solving problems related to this category'’
4. Describe the most challenging administrative problem you have faced in the past year.
5 Did technology play a role in the solution to the problem? Probes: information management of information calculations
6. How did you solve the problem?
7 What were the outcomes?
8. Let's look ahead. What do you think will be your most challenging administrative problem in the next five years?
9. How might technology help you resolve that problem?
Accessing and Processing Information 1. When solving a problem, what kinds of information are of most value to you'’ Probes: numeric possible outcomes opinions of others testimonials facts
264 2. What sources of information do you currently use to help you solve administrative problems'’ Probes: other people the media statistics irom such sources as EMIS written materials
Technology and School Administration 1 If you had access to all that technology can offer, how might you use technology in your administrative practice?
2 If you could commission a computer programmer to create an application you could use to improve your practice as an administrator, what would you ask for? Explain.
3 What do you consider to be the impediments to technology use in your own practice’’
4 As the leader of your school, what is your role in the implementation of technology'’
5 Suppose you are preparing to institute a new technology program in your school The program will impact all staff and students. During a staff meeting several of the teachers have raised concerns about the impact of this program. How would you respond?
Decision Making About Technology 1. What new technology have you instituted in your school in the past three years’’
2. Who was (or is) involved in the decisions regarding technology’’
3. If we were able to observe the decision making that results in the new technology, what would we see and hear’’
4. Please respond to these statements: Many of the choices made about technology in schools have been made in haste, possibly with good intentions, but often with poor results.
"Like all tools, the value of computers and other forms of technology can vary depending on who uses them and how they are used" (Papert, 1980, quoted by Picciano, 1998, p.41).
265 APPENDIX B
Letter to Staff
266 Monday, September 14, 1998
Dear Evans Local Staff Member:
Hello again! I hope this lettci finds you enjoying a productive and pleasant beginning to the 1998-99 school year My purpose in sending this letter is to add a few details to the information I offered during your back-to-school inservice on August 31".
As you may remember, my name is Lynne Perez, and I am a doctoral student in educational administration I will be spending the next several months at Evans Local shadowing your principal Dr. Mark Davidson for the purpose of my dissertation research. Although I won't be here everyday, and I may not interact with many of you, 1 thought it beneficial to share with all staff members the purpose and extent of my presence at Evans Local
Dr Davidson's participation in two previous studies has led to his emergence as the focus of my dissertation case study This study builds on the knowledge gained through a project I worked on last school year entitled "Problem-Solving Practices of Public School Leaders in the Information Age " The project sought to acquire a general awareness of how these twelve, public school leaders currently use technology and the information it generates in understanding and solving problems As problem-finders and problem-solvers, school leaders require a clear understanding of the problem before attempting to solve it, and understanding requires information. Computer technology promises to make simple work of the arduous task of collecting and managing information. Does this promise extend to the principal's office'’ How are school leaders using technology in their daily practice"’
From last year's work, new questions emerged After much consideration, my advisor and I decided that the best way to understand the role of computer technology in administrative practice is to take an in-depth look at an expert school leader and his use of computers in the context of his problem solving. Consequently, believing that Mark is indeed an expert school leader, I asked for his help in this endeavor, and he graciously complied.
As I work to understand Mark's practice as problem-solver and computer-user, it is likely that I will be present during meetings and other events pertinent to the research. Also, it is likely that I will ask to interview some of you for additional insight into Mark's practice or the technological capabilities of Evans Local. At this point, it is difficult for me to pinpoint those with whom 1 may want to talk at length. Therefore. 1 want to assure each of you that what you say in my presence wrill be held in strictest confidence. Mark has been very generous to encourage you to talk openly with me. 1 reiterate his statement that I will not to reveal the author of any comment to Mark. Any references made in the dissertation will be credited to a pseudonym or "the teacher." Attached please find a copy of the consent form I may ask you to sign.
Before I close, I want you to know that those of you I have already met have been very helpful. Mark has bragged about his staff many times over the past two years, and I am coming to see for myself that all he tells me is true.
I thank each of you in advance for your kind cooperation in this work. I have no doubt that my time here will be extremely personally rewarding. It is my sincere hope that you, too, will find something of value as a result our interaction over the next few months. I wish you all a wonderful school year
Sincerely,
Lynne Perez
267 APPENDIX C
Semi-Structured Interview Protocol
268 Initial Questions
1 What role does computer technology play in your work as an administrator'’ When do you use it'’ How do you use the computer as a tool for communication?
2 How do you perceive your work as school principal'’
3 Respond to this statement: "School leaders are problem solvers and problem finders with varying levels of expertise "
4 How do you define the word "problem"'’
5 The literature suggests that found problems come in three forms, presented, discovered, created Which do you work with most frequently'’ What are the sources of your presented problems?
6 When thinking about problem finding and problem solving, in your mind which activity, given a choice, would you spend more time problem finding or problem solving? Explain
7 Is there a way for you to use the computer to help you find problems'’
8 You have shared previously some of your thoughts about collaboration and group problem solving/decision making. On the first day of school you talked about empowering your teachers to be decision makers by empowering them to make mistakes. Talk to me about your philosophy of group problem solving What is your goal'’ How does this impact your organization'’ What is your role in group problem solving'’ How do you decide to employ collaboration'’ Have you ever utilized computer technology in the context of group problem solving'’ What do you see as the possibilities or limitations of computer technology in group problem solving?
9 You have told me several times that you enjoy the challenge of the political battlefield Talk to me about that. What about your feelings toward the other problems you face? How do you feel about problem solving and problem finding in other settings'’
10. How important is a sense of efficacy to the individual'’ Is there such a thing a group efficacy’’ To what extent is it evident here'’ What role do you play in developing such efficacy'’
11. The research suggests that how a problem is interpreted, or framed, influences the quality of its solution. One of the problems you were presented with recently was the directive to develop and implement a school improvement plan for Evans Local. In interpreting that problem, what did you consider'’ What factors and thinking influenced your interpretation? What tools did you employ to interpret or frame the problem? Looking back, in what ways did your interpretation impact the solution and the rest of the problem-solving process?
12. You've mentioned the importance of values in your practice with regard to influencing others. What role do your own values play in your work as problem solver? Problem finder'’ With regard to your work, on which values do you most frequently rely? Where did they come from? Have they changed over time'’ Which is more helpful to you, your values or your intuition’’
13 Cuban writes, "without a practical understanding of the value conflicts deeply rooted in educational administration, . schools will continue to be administered as a they are and face dim prospects for engaging in either meaningful or substantial reform." What do you think about his comments?
14. You frequently use the verb "reflect." What is your notion of reflective practice’’ How does it manifest itself in your work? In your individual and group problem solving? In your problem finding? On what things do you reflect’’ 269 APPENDIX D
Final Questions
270 Key Questions
Problem interpretation:
Think back to 1988 when you were presented with the challenge of creating Evans Local Education Center What was your initial understanding of the problem? How did you interpret or frame the problem? What information and situational factors did you consider when framing the problem'’ What goals did you set'’ What values or principles were inherent in the problem and/or did you apply to solving the problem'’ What constraints did you face'’ What solution processes did you use'’ Use of collaboration? What was your attitude toward the problem'’
In general, which component/s of problem solving do you find most valuable to an effective solution'’
Values in problem solving:
You've mentioned the importance of values in your practice with regard to understanding and influencing others What role do your own values play in your work as a problem finder and problem solver'’ How do they impact your decision making'’ On which values do you rely most frequently? What is the origin of those values’ Have they changed over time’ Talk about your application of one or more of your values to a specific problem Given values and knowledge, which takes precedence for you most frequently’
You've mentioned of value conflicts in other discussions we've had. Such conflicts can occur as competition between two or more values or recognition in the formulation of a solution or between one's own strongly held values and one's actions Give me an example of one of the two types of value conflicts and explain how you resolved it
Reflective practice:
You frequently use the verb "reflect." What is your notion of reflecting? How does it manifest itself in your work? What about in your problem finding and solving? When and on what things do you reflect? What about collective reflection?
Intuition:
Last school year when we asked you how you know when you have a problem, you said" . sometimes it's intuitive. I mean, it just doesn't feel right. Now that's hard to explain to an organizationtd specialist, what do you mean intuitive, but I'm going to say to you, when you're in the business, you just feel like that pitcher is going throw over to first base, you just feel it. There's nothing I can rationally base that decision on, it's just there. Timing and rhythm, there's an energy and you just say, something's wrong." Talk little about your notion of intuition. How do you define it? Intuition functions on four levels of awareness: physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual. How do you experience intuition?
271 What are your thoughts about the use of intuition in decision making and problem solving’’ Do you use your intuition more in finding or solving problems? To what extent do vou use your intuition'’ When'’ How? How frequently'’ Tell me about a time you used your intuition successfully. Has your intuition ever been wrong? Tell me about it. Given your intuition and your values, which do you use more frequently'’ More effectively'’ Should school leaders rely upon their intuition'’
(definitions include: trusting your gut feeling, a way of knowing that combines the factual and the feeling)
Computer questions:
This year you have been working on a plan for the future of Evans Local and a large part of that plan is the infusion of computer technology across instruction. How did the technology piece come to be so important"’ What are your beliefs about computers in education"’ What about their role in school level administration, leadership, and/or management"’
What role does computer technology play in your work as an administrator’ How do you use it’’ When"’ What applications or features do you use most frequently"’ What are most helpful"’
How do you use the computer and it's capacities to help you find and solve problems individually"’ Collectively"’ (email, word processing, internet, data base, spreadsheet, student/administrative network, scheduling software, other task specific software, LCD, etc)
How do you presently use the computer as a communication tool?
What do you think is the capacity for computer technology to facilitate meaningful and information rich communication among staff that may improve instructional practice?
What is your own sense of computer self-efficacy? To what degree do you believe in your own capability to use the computer to complete required tasks?
What factors impact your choice to use or not use the computer in your problem solving’
Respond to this statement: "Computer technology is a powerful tool for transforming schools."
What potential do you think computer technology holds for administrative practice"’
In an ideal situation, what technology would be available for your use everyday?
To what extent are you involved in the selection of software and hardware at Evans Local?
Talk about your role in the implementation of technology here at Evans Local - I remember your request to have fiber optic cable installed in '88.
272 Last year we learned about your work on and success with building technological capacity at Evans Local You also told us that your formal training was very limited and that you prefer to use the human bank teller as opposed to the technological one. How do you explain your actions on behalf of technology in light of your lack of training and feelings about electronic banking?
In the context of your experience to date, when operating as administrator as manager, administrator as leader, or administrator as change agent - how does computer technology fit in'’ Where is it effective, where is it not'’
Efficacy in problem solving:
Fiedler writes, "It is simply not meaningful to speak of an effective leader or of an ineffective leader: can we only speak of a leader who tends to be effective in one situation and ineffective in another " In what situations or settings have you found or might you find yourself ineffective’
What about your sense of self-efficacy with regard to problem solving'’ On a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest, rate your sense of your ability to find and solve the problems you face To what do you attribute your sense of self-efficacy'’
Have you faced a problem you felt unable to resolve'’ What did you do’’
Is there such a thing as group efficacy'’ What role does or should it play in collaboration'’ How does the leader figure into it'’
How does failure impact one's sense of or development of efficacy'’
To what extent do you feel you can control and influence situations in which you practice'’
School Community Culture
What values and beliefs do you think are reflected in ELEC's culture'’
What is the some of the myths surrounding Evans Local and what is there function'’
To what extent do you think you've consciously worked to develop or influence the culture of Evans Local'’
How do you experience or descnbe the culture '
Since I've been here with you. I've put a lot of labels on leadership. We’ve talked about leadership as leading, managing, and change agent. 1 have one more, and that would be leader as mentor or coach. What are your first thoughts about that?
273 APPENDIX E
Department Chairperson Interview Protocol
274 Department Chair Questions
1. Introductions - names, job, time at Evans Local.
2. If I were a new teacher coming to Evans Local in the fall, what would you tell me about ELEC's culture and climate? What about the faculty? Administration? The students? The community? The parents? Dr. Davidson?
3. How important is ELEC's mission statement to the decisions and changes made here?
4. Based on your knowledge of and experience with Dr. Davidson, how would you describe his leadership of Evans Local? His instructional leadership? What is his style?
5. To what degree does Dr. Davidson satisfy your notions of an effective high school principal? Explain and give an example.
6. Talk to me about your principal as a problem solver and problem finder. What is his style? How good is he?
7. What do you think has been the most important change at Evans Local since you've been here? How did it occur? What was Dr. Davidson's role in that change?
8. What is the role of computer technology at ELEC?
275 APPENDIX F
Administrative Team Interview Protocol
276 Administrative Team Questions
1. Introduction; position, administrative experience, time at Evans Local, future plans.
2. Drawing on your personal experience with and knowledge of Mark, how would you describe his philosophy of school leadership? Give me an example to support your response.
3. Talk about Mark as a problem solver and problem finder. How effective is he? What is his style? When does he work alone, when does he involve others? Tell me about a problem solving or finding experience you had with him?
4. What do you think is the most important change Evans Local has undergone in the past five years? How did it occur? What was Mark’s role?
5. What is the role of technology at ELEC?
6. Again, drawing on your personal experience with and knowledge of Mark, how would you describe his thinking about technology? How does he employ the computer in his practice as an administrator? To what extent does he use technology when solving and finding problems?
277 APPENDIX G
Observation Guide
278 Observation Guide (Patton, 1990)
Program Setting/Physical Environment:
Human. Social Environment:
Planned Activities:
Unplanned Activities and Informal Interactions:
Language of Participants (particular to culture or program):
Nonverbal Communication:
Unobtrusive Indicators (worn carpet, lots of coffee consumption):
Notable Non-Occurrences:
279 APPENDIX H
Staff Survey
280 Staff Sun’ey
Below are some statements regarding your knowledge of and experiences with Dr. Davidson. Please indicate your level of agreement with each statement by circling the response that most closely reflects your feelings.
Length of vour tenure at Evans Local: 1-3 4 - 7 years 8-11 years_____ Strongly Diiagrve Uncertain Agree Strongly Disagree Agree
1. Evans Local has a strong and healthy organizational culture 4 5
2. 1 feel that I am a valued member of the Evans Local school community. 4 5
3 If asked, I could identity the norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and myths that we share as members of the Evans Local school community.
4 Dr. Davidson's actions, decisions, and communication reinforce the norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and myths that are the foundation of Evans Local's organizational culture
5 Our school's culture is conducive to continuous improvement, high expectations, commitment, and an insistence that students will learn.
6 My sense of Evans Local's school community extends beyond this campus. 4
7 Dr Davidson's actions, decisions, and words serve to connect Evans Local to her surrounding community 4
8 Dr Davidson works to foster interpersonal relationships among all school community members 4
9 I view Dr Davidson as a mentor - one who supports my development as a teacher and professional 4
10. My interactions with Dr Davidson have increased my self-confidence as an educator 4
11. During my tenure at Evans l ocal. Dr. Davidson has played a significant role in my professional development 4
12. Dr Davidson empowers teachers to be decision-makers 4
13 In general, I know what Dr. Davidson believes about education 4 Slrongt}’ Diiagrec Uncertain Agree Strongly Dtwgree Agree
14 Dr Davidson is a strong instructional leader 1 2 3 4 5
15 Dr. Davidson consistently models his expectations for the statT 1 2 3 4 5
16 Dr Davidson clearly articulates his vision tor h.vans Local 1 2 3 4 5
17 Risk taking is encouraged at Evans Local 1 2 3 4 5
18. If asked, 1 could identify at least one of the values Dr Davidson applies to his practice as principal 1 2 3 4 5
19. When we make changes at Evans Local, they tend to reflect our collective interests 1 2 3 4 5
20 When we make changes at Hvatis Local, they tend to reflect primarily Dr Davidson’s interests. 1 2 3 4 5
21 The changes we make at Evans Local are necessary and consistent with our school improvement plan 1 2 3 4 5
22. The problems we face at Evans Local are less complex than those faced by other urban schools 1 2 3 4 5
23. The students at Evans Local present fewer problems than students at other urban schools 1 2 3 4 5
24. School principals are problem solvers and problem finders with varying levels of expertise 1 2 3 4 5
25 Dr. Davidson prefers to solve problems alone 1 2 3 4 5
26. Dr Davidson prefers to solve problems collaboratively 1 2 3 4 5
27. Dr Davidson views problems as opportunities for change 1 2 3 4 5
28. In the face of difUcult problems. Dr. Davidson maintains a calm atVeciive manner 1 2 3 4 5
29. Dr Davidson is confident in his ability to solve problems 1 2 3 4 5
30 Dr Davidson's solves problems only after considering pertinent information 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Disagree Agree
31 I have experienced a situation in which we, as an organization, used a problem as an opportunity to move 3 4 5 Evans Local forward.
32. What I think about issues itnportant to Evans Local matters to Dr. Davidson. 3 4 5
33. At Evans Local, my input makes a ditïerence. 3 4 5
34. When a problem arises that will alTecl a number of organizational members. Dr Davidson works to get those 3 4 5 aficctcd involved in finding a solution
35. During my tenure at Evans Local, I have participated in collaborative problem solving. 3 4 5
36 My experience/s with collaborative problem solving has/have resulted in productive change 3 4 5 g 37. When collaboratively solving a problem. Dr. Davidson; a. seeks out and takes into account my thoughts about the problem and its solution 3 4 5 b. tends to dominate the discussion 3 4 5 c. encourages us to adopt his way of thinking 3 4 5 d. is prepared to change his views of what the solution should be 3 4 5 e. provides clarification and direction as needed 3 4 5 f. becomes outwardly frustrated with the process 3 4 5
38 Through collaborative problem solving, we, the collective school organization, have gained knowledge 3 4 5 capable of advancing the mission of Evans Local
39 Dr. Davidson demonstrates concern for developing shared goals among our stalT 3 4 5
40 Leadership as Evans Local conies Iroin teachers as well as adininislration 3 4 5
41 Dr Davidson's actions facilitate the potential contribution of all organizational members 3 4 5
42. Computer technology is an important aspect of the educational program at Evans local 3 4 5 43 Dr. Davidson is an advocate for and knowledgeable about the instructional use of computer technology 4 5
Asre* Strongly DUagn-c Agree
44 Dr Davidson engages us in careful planning prior to implementing new aspects of computer technology 1 I 5
45. Dr. Davidsonuses the computer tocotntuunicate iiifortnation to stalT, students, and/or parents 1 4 S
46 Dr. Davidson worksto ensure equal access and opportunity to use computer resources I 4 5
47. Dr Davidson believes that the computer is a powerful tool for transturming schools. I 4 5
48. Dr Davidson shares his vision of how computer technology can help achieve F.vans Local's educational goals 1 4 5
49. Dr. Davidson believes that data are a valuable decision-making resource I 4 5
SO I credit Dr. Davidson's leadership with building Evans Local's current computer technology capacity I 4 5 •i
Typical Expert
51. Please rale your nolion of Ur. Uaviilson's level of problem-solving expertise. 1 5
52. Please rale your nolion of Kvans Local's level of problem-solving expertise. 1 5 APPENDIX I
Consent Form
285 CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN
SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH
I consent to participating in research entitled;
Expert Administrative Problem Solving in the Information Age
______or his/her authorized representative has explained (Principal Investigator)
the purpose of the study, the procedures to be followed, and the expected duration of my participation. Possible benefits of the study have been described, as have alternative procedures, if such procedures are applicable and available.
I acknowledge that I have had the opportunity to obtain additional information regarding the study and that any questions I have raised have been answered to my full satisfaction. Further, I understand that I am free to withdraw consent at any time to discontinue participation in the study without prejudice to me.
Finally, I acknowledge that I have read and fully understand the consent form. I sign if freely and voluntarily.
Date: ______Signed:______(Participant) Signed:______(Principal Investigator or his/her authorized representative )
Signed: (Witness)
286 a p p e n d ix ;
Staff Survey Results
287 StafT Survey Results
Below are some statements regarding your knowledge of and experiences with Dr. Davidson. Please indicate your level of agreement with each statement by circling the response that most closely reflects your feelings.
Length of voiu tenure at Evans Local: 1 - 3 _____ 4 -7 years 8-11 years Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Disagree Agree (InJiCBtes nuinbci of staff responding at each level)
I Evans Local has a strong and healthy organizational culture 1 3 9 10 12
2. 1 feci that 1 am a valued member of the Evans Local school community. 0 5 1 15 14
3, If asked, I could identify the norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and myths that we share as 1 5 3 17 9 members of the Evans Local school community.
4 Dr. Davidson's actions, decisions, and communication reinforce the norms, values, beliefs, 1 3 8 13 9 traditions, and myths that are the foundation of Evans Local's organizational culture
5 Our school's culture is conducive to continuous improvement, high expectations, commitment, and I 2 3 14 13 an insistence that students will learn
6 My sense of Evans Local's school community extends beyond this campus 0 4 5 12 14
7 Dr. Davidson's actions, decisions, and words seae to connect Evans Local to her surrounding community0 0 7 13 15
8 Dr Davidson works to foster interpersonal relationships among all school community members 1 5 6 12 II
9, 1 view Dr Davidson as a mentor - one who supports my development as a teacher and professional 2 4 0 17 12
10 My interactions with Dr. Davidson have increased my self-confidence as an educator. 2 3 6 14 10
II During my tenure at Evans Local. Dr Davidson has played a significant role in my professional development2 7 4 14 7
12 Dr Davidson empowers teachers to be decision-makers 1 2 2 13 17 13. In general, 1 know what Dr. Davidson believes about education 0 2 1 15 16
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Diugree Agree
14. Dr. Davidson is a strong instructional leader 2 2 4 16 11
15. Dr Davidson consistcniiymodels his expectations for the statT. 0 2 4 12 15
16. Dr. Davidson clearly aniculaies his vision for Hvans Local 0 4 3 12 16
17. Risk taking is encouraged at Evans Local I 1 9 22
18. If asked, I could identify at least one of the values Dr Davidson applies to his practice as principal 0 2 2 19 12
19. When we make changes at Evans Local, they tend to reflect our collective interests 1 7 6 14 7
20 When we make changes at Evans Local, they tend to reflect primarily Dr Davidson's interests 4 17 12 2 0 w 'O 21. The changes we make at Evans Local are necessary and consistent with our school improvement plan 1 1 8 18 6
22 The problems we face at Evans Local are less complex than those faced by other urban schools 4 12 10 8 0
23. The students at Evans Local present fewer problems than students at other urban schools 4 10 8 9 2
24 School principals are problem solvers and problem flnders with varying levels of expertise 0 4 6 16 8
25. Dr. Davidson prefers to solve problems alone 5 16 11 2 1
26 Dr Davidson prefers to solve problems collaboratively 0 2 11 15 8
27 Dr Davidson views problems as opportunities for change 0 2 6 20 7
28 In the face of difficult problems, Dr. Davidson maintains a calm aflective manner 0 1 1 20 13
29 Dr Davidson is confident in his ability to solve problems 0 1 4 15 15 30. Dr Davidson's solves problems only after consideiing pertinent information 12 15
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Disagree Agree 31 1 have experienced a situation in which we, as an organization, used a problem as an opportunity to move 1 4 9 13 8 Evans Local forward.
32 What 1 think about issues ini|K>rtant to Evans Local matters to Dr Davidson 0 5 6 16 9
33. At Evans Local, my input makes a din'ereiice. 2 3 9 12 7
34 When a problem arises that will aftecl a number of organizational members. Dr Davidson works to get those1 2 8 15 8 affected involved in finding a solution
35. During my tenure at Evans Local, 1 have participated in collaborative problem solving 1 2 1 21 9
36. My experience/s with collaborative problem solving has/have resulted in productive change 2 6 5 15 6
37. When collaboratively solving a problem, Dr Davidson a seeks out and takes into account my thoughts about the problem and its solution 0 4 8 15 6 b. lends to dominate the discussion 5 20 7 3 0 c. encourages us to adopt his way of thinking 4 14 8 5 2 d. is prepared to change his views of what the solution should be 0 3 14 15 2 e. provides clarification and direction as needed 0 b 5 15 6 f becomes outwardly frustrated with the process 7 19 4 2 0
38. Through collaborative problem solving, we, the collective school organization, have gained knowledge0 2 10 12 10 capable of advancing the mission of Evans Local
39 Dr Davidson demonstrates concern for developing shared goals among our stall 0 2 3 18 12
40. Leadership as Evans Local comes from teachers as well as administration 0 1 4 19 10
41 Dr Davidson's actions facilitate the |K)tential contribution of all organizational members 0 2 4 20 8
42 Computer technology is an important aspect of the educational program at Evans Local 1 1 1 19 12 43 Dr Davidson is an advocate for and knowledgeable abuut the instructional use of computenechnülogy 1 1 3 16 14
Sirungly Dbmgrvc Uncertain Agree Sinngty Disagree Agree
44 Dr Davidson engages us in careful planning prior to implementing new aspects of computer technology 0 4 10 9 10
45 Dr. Davidson uses the computer to communicate information to stalls students, and/or parents 2 8 7 13 3
46 Dr Davidson works to ensure equal access and opponunity to use computer resources I 5 8 14 5
47 Dr Davidson believes that the computer is a powerful tool for transfoi ming schools 0 0 3 19 13
48 Dr. Davidson shares his vision of how computer technology can help achieve Evans Local's educational goals 03 5 15 9
49, Dr. Davidson believes that data are a valuable decision-making resource. 0 0 1 23 11
50. 1 credit Dr. Davidson's leadership with building Evans Local's current computer technology capacity. 0 3 7 14 9 VO
Typical Expert
51 Please rale youriiotioii of Dr. Davidson's level of problem-solving expertise. 3 1 6 13 12
52 Please rate yonr notion of Evans Local’s level of problem-solving expertise. 3 4 7 13 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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