TELLING THE STORY: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF

THE LEWIS AND CLARK JOURNALS

by

Deborah Malony Dukes

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of Humboldt State University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Social Science

Emphasis: Teaching American History

May 2006 TELLING THE STORY: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF

THE LEWIS AND CLARK JOURNALS

by

Deborah Malony Dukes

Approved by the Master’s Thesis Committee:

Delores McBroome, Major Professor Date

Gayle Olson-Raymer, Committee Member Date

Rodney Sievers, Committee Member Date

Delores McBroome, Graduate Coordinator Date

Donna E. Schafer, Dean for Research and Graduate Studies Date ABSTRACT

The collective journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition have been objects of fascination and interpretation ever since the Corps of Discovery’s homecoming in 1806.

Despite President Thomas Jefferson’s direction that Meriwether Lewis prepare the journals for publication, Lewis’ untimely death in 1809 left the editing of the expedition’s records – and much of the storytelling – to a series of writers and editors of varying interests, abilities and degrees of integrity.

Understandably the several major editions and many other versions of the story have reflected the lives and times of the editors. For instance, ornithologist Elliott Coues was the first – 89 years after the fact – to acknowledge the expedition’s many scientific and ethnological observations. For their own purposes, successive generations of activists have appropriated iconic expedition members, emphasized or even invented anecdotes, and supposed discoveries.

Scholarly and public interest in the journals has peaked during this bicentennial period, as often happens around the times of major anniversaries of the expedition. Past cycles of interest have encouraged more scholarship and occasionally have led to amazing discoveries of previously lost or forgotten journals, collections of letters and papers of the principals, and other documents related to the expedition. Most recently this has culminated in the completion of the edition of the journals generally recognized as the most complete and accurate to date, Gary E. Moulton’s thirteen-volume Definitive

Nebraska Edition.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks go to the volunteers at the William P. Sherman Library and

Archives in Great Falls, Montana. Lois Baker, Dick Smith and his grandson Tanner,

Ralph Pomnichowski, and Lorna Rivard offered valuable guidance when I showed up at their facility knowing only that I wanted to research a topic related to Lewis and Clark.

Without exception they made me feel both welcome and much more knowledgeable than

I was at that time. Dick and Tanner (a master photocopier) graciously invited me to a picnic of the Portage Chapter of the Lewis and Clark Trails Heritage Foundation, where I met a number of other very helpful local enthusiasts.

The staff and volunteers at the Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center, also in Great

Falls, especially Dick Boss, were delightful as they shared their own interests with me, suggested areas for further research, and made sure I got to many sites in the area – and back.

I am sure I am not alone in my gratitude to the late Stephen E. Ambrose, whose labor of love, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the

Opening of the American West was the only assigned book that I read completely through, then promptly read again for the pure pleasure of it. He got me hooked.

My thanks go to my Teaching American History instructors, Professors Dee

McBroome, Gayle Olsen-Raymer, and especially my advisor, Rod Sievers, for keeping me writing when I would much rather have just continued reading and traveling. Their passion for American history has been contagious.

iv My fantastic students in Room 5 at South Bay School gave me prompt feedback about what parts of my lesson plan worked for them – or did not. As they are now the school experts on Lewis and Clark, I hope they continue their interest continues.

Thanks, too, to the many friends and family who feigned interest as I recounted with great glee new tidbits about some obscure edition of the journals or what had occurred along the trail precisely 200 years previously. My sister, Kay Dukes Weeks

(The Smart One), set the example when she earned a doctorate. Randy particularly gets my gratitude for keeping me proceeding on – and fed.

The Northern Humboldt Teaching American History grant, with Gilder-Lehrman and its many other partners, made my study financially feasible, and provided me with opportunities to travel and learn from true masters of the history of this nation.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi

TELLING THE STORY: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK JOURNALS ...... 1

“The Writingest Explorers”...... 1

“The Work Which I Am Myself Preparing For Publication” ...... 3

“Journals Remarkably Open To Interpretation”...... 13

“A Westering People ...... 16

Serving The Cause: Sacagawea And York ...... 18

“The Course Of Empire”...... 21

“The Journals Of Black Cat”...... 23

Conclusion: Shared Stories ...... 25

LESSON PLAN PROCEEDING ON ...... 28

Introduction ...... 28

Lesson Content ...... 30

Prior Content Knowledge and Skills ...... 39

Evaluation ...... 40

APPENDIX A...... 41

Social Studies Standards Addressed...... 41

vi APPENDIX B ...... 43

Assignments ...... 43

APPENDIX C ...... 45

Materials List...... 45

APPENDIX D...... 47

Annotated List of Sources Consulted ...... 47

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 54

vii TELLING THE STORY: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK JOURNALS

“The Writingest Explorers”1

It should come as no surprise that Meriwether Lewis and William Clark kept copious journals on their famous expedition. The president who sent them west on their

Voyage of Discovery was mystified by government officials who did not keep notes of their work, claiming that without records, “history becomes fable instead of facts.”2

When Thomas Jefferson charged Meriwether Lewis regarding recordkeeping on the expedition, he left no doubt about the importance he attached to the task and its products:

Your observations are to be taken with great pains & accuracy, to be entered distinctly & intelligibly for others as well as for yourself, to comprehend all the elements necessary . . . . Several copies of these as well as of your other notes should be made at leisure times, & put into the care of the most trustworthy of your attendants, to guard, by multiplying them, against the accidental losses to which they will be exposed.3

Lewis, William Clark and several literate enlisted men took their president’s commission to heart. According to Robert B. Betts, the expedition journalists “penned an estimated

1,123,445 words, or 349,699 more words than are to be found in the Bible.” It stands to reason that the recordkeeping tasks of the expedition were every bit as daunting as its other trials. He cites Donald Jackson: “They wrote constantly and abundantly, afloat and

1 Donald Jackson, ed., Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition with Related Documents, 1783-1854, 2d ed., rev., vol. 1. (Urbana, 1978), vii. 2 Donald Jackson, ed., Letters. Quoted in Robert B. Betts, “’The writingest explorers of their time’: New Estimates of the Number of Words in the Published Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition,” We Proceeded On (August 1981), 4. 3 Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806, 8 vols. (New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1904-05), vol. 7, 248, quoted in Paul Russell Cutright, A History of the Lewis and Clark Journals, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976, 5.

1 2 ashore, legibly and illegibly, and always with an urgent sense of purpose.”4 Historians ever since have been grateful for President Jefferson’s foresight in demanding a wealth of written material from the Corps of Discovery.

Gunther Barth suggests “The sheer bulk of the journals has repeatedly lured writers to act as guides through them or to make excerpts available for new generations of readers.”5 These guides have included editors and dreamers, activists and scholars, novelists and charlatans since the expedition’s return to St. Louis in September 1806.

What is it in this journey that has led such a diverse group of storytellers to recount all or, more often, selected chapters of it? How have the voluminous notes of these few men been interpreted and reinterpreted in the 200 years since they recorded their discoveries and experiences along the trail? Which of these retellings have been most influential in shaping scholarly and popular accounts of Lewis, Clark, the other members of the Corps of Discovery, the tribes they encountered, and the scientific and anthropological discoveries they brought to the European-American body of knowledge?

The current bicentennial period provides rich material for a survey of the successive editions of Corps members’ journals and of the mythology that has sprung up around the expedition.

A review of the accounts of the expedition reveals several general motivational themes among writers and editors since 1806: relating (often with high embellishment) the romance of the adventure; emphasizing either the early potential or later actual

4 Beverly D. Bishop, “’The Writingest Explorers:’ Manuscripts of the Lewis and Clark Expedition,” Gateway Heritage, The Quarterly Journal of the Missouri Historical Society (Fall 1981), 23, 25. 5 Gunther Barth, “Timeless Journals: Reading Lewis and Clark with Nicholas Biddle’s Help,” Pacific Historical Review (1994), 500. 3 westward movement that followed in the century after Lewis and Clark; appropriating certain persons or events to advance a social or political cause; and focusing on the natural and ethnological knowledge the Corps brought back to European America. As

Kenneth Foote summarizes, “What is accepted as historical truth is often a narrative shaped and reshaped through time to fit the demands of contemporary society.”6 Not surprisingly, the perspective of the presenter often corresponds closely to those demands.

“The Work Which I Am Myself Preparing For Publication”7

Fittingly, Thomas Jefferson was the first to circulate written news from the Corps of Discovery. In November 1804 he received a letter Meriwether Lewis had written

August 19, 1804 from “850 miles up the Missouri” assuring the president that there had been no accidents (the only fatality of the expedition occurred the day after the letter was written) and that the Indians they had met had been friendly.8 Within a few months, this news was printed in at least two newspapers in Boston and as a short entry in the ambitiously named A Compendious History of the World, published in Philadelphia.9

Another written report from Lewis to Jefferson, sent from winter quarters at Fort Mandan in present-day North Dakota shortly before the Corps resumed their journey in the spring

6 Kenneth E. Foote. Shadowed Ground: America’s Landscapes of Violence and Tragedy. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997. Quoted in Kevin S. Blake, “Great Plains Native American Representations Along the Lewis and Clark Trail,” Great Plains Quarterly 24, no. 4 (2004), 263. 7 Meriwether Lewis, letter to the National Intelligencer, 18 March 1807. Quoted in Paul Russell Cutright, A History of the Lewis and Clark Journals. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976, 19. 8 Jackson, Letters, vol. 1, 218. 9 Doug Erickson, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant, “Mathew Carey: First Chronicler of Lewis and Clark”, We Proceeded On (August 2003), 28-29. 4 of 1805, was included in a February 1806 message to Congress, then issued as a press release that stoked public interest in the expedition.10

Immediately upon their return to St. Louis, both Lewis and Clark wrote letters to

President Jefferson and their own family members.11 William Clark’s letter to his brother – actually written by Lewis for Clark to copy – was widely published, as the captains intended, to serve as a public announcement of the return of the explorers and their party.12 The captains settled into a rented room and, according to Clark’s last entry,

“We commenced Wrighting &c.” According to Elliott Coues, Reuben Gold Thwaites,

Ernest Osgood and almost every other scholar until recently, Lewis and Clark apparently discarded all but two of their field journals after transcribing the notes into red morocco, gilt-edged books.13

Recent researchers – the redoubtable Gary Moulton among them – have drawn a different conclusion. After factoring in the limited time the explorers had available amid the accolades and social whirl that greeted them on their return, letters to and from

Jefferson dating his receipt of some of the morocco notebooks, and internal evidence in the entries, these historians posit that most of these journals were completed along the trail. Based on records of the (presumably blank) notebooks having been packed before the Corps’ departure, and Jefferson’s instructions to seal their records in tin boxes for

10 Deborah W. Bolas, “Books from an Expedition: A Publications History of the Lewis and Clark Journals,” Gateway Heritage, The Quarterly Journal of the Missouri Historical Society vol. 2, no. 2 (Fall 1981), 31. 11 James P. Ronda, essay review “’The Writingest Explorers’: The Lewis and Clark Expedition in American Historical Literature”, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History & Biography, vol. CXII, no. 4 (October 1988), 609. 12 James J. Holmberg, “Getting Out the Word,” We Proceeded On (August 2001), 13 13 Bishop, 23. 5 safekeeping, recent historians have concluded that most journal entries were made within a very short time of the events related. The theory is that there were a few field notes, later collated and crudely bound, as in Clark’s famous elkskin field notebook, which served as the basis for the more extensive narratives the men made during times of rest.

Indeed, in an effort to preserve their records, they often discussed the events, and even copied each other’s entries verbatim before sealing the completed journals in the tin boxes.14

It was Jefferson’s instruction to Lewis upon their return that the captains immediately get to work cataloguing the journal entries, scientific observations, ethnographic and linguistic notes, and maps, and prepare them all for publishing. The material constituted the entire body of European-American knowledge of the West, and

Jefferson wanted no delay in its dissemination.15 Historians agree that Jefferson intended for the highly literate Lewis to polish the rough notes into a “full record of their findings to present to the world as soon as possible in a multivolume work, including a narrative of the journey and a full exposition of their scientific and geographic discoveries, with appropriate maps and illustrations.”16 Lewis and Clark, though, had a heady homecoming as heroes: in their honor toasts were drunk, feasts consumed, plays produced, elegiac poetry composed, and speeches made. To top off the honors, Lewis was named governor of the new Territory of Louisiana. The administrative, financial and

14 Gary E. Moulton, ed. The Definitive Journals of Lewis & Clark: From the Ohio to the Vermillion. vol. 2, The Definitive Journals of Lewis & Clark. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1986, 8- 35. 15 Ronda, essay review, 607. 16 Gary E. Moulton, DJLC, vol. 2, 85. 6 social requirements of his new life presented very different challenges from those of the expedition; the appointment was a disastrous matching of skills to job description.

In 1807 Lewis issued a prospectus for publication of the journals in two volumes of narrative and one of scientific observations. Upon learning of the proposed publication of the journals of Sergeant Patrick Gass and Private Robert Frazer, Lewis wrote a scathing letter to a newspaper warning the public about “unauthorized publications relative to this voyage” by two of his own enlisted men, which might

“depreciate the worth of the work which I am myself preparing for publication”.17

Perhaps in response to these outrages, or perhaps to supplement their own journals, Lewis and Clark purchased Private John Ordway’s journal for $150.18

Before his death in 1809 (by suicide, according to most historians),19 Lewis’s progress toward publication could

“ . . . be summed up in the shortness of a sentence. He obtained a publisher, released a prospectus, engaged artists and naturalists to figure and describe his animal and plant specimens, persuaded still other draftsmen to make drawings of Indians and waterfalls, and induced a mathematician to correct navigational determinations.”20

Despite increasingly impatient letters from Presidents Jefferson and later, James

Madison about the delay in preparing the journals for publication, Lewis appears to have

17Cutright, 18-20. 18 Donald Jackson, “The Race to Publish Lewis and Clark” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by James P. Ronda. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 210. 19Murder theorists include Richard Dillon, Meriwether Lewis: A Biography. (New York: Coward- McCann, Inc., 1965) and Vardis Fisher. Suicide or Murder? The Strange Death of Governor Meriwether Lewis. (Denver: Swallow, 1962). Both are cited in Donald Jackson. Thomas Jefferson & the Stony Mountains: Exploring the West from Monticello. (Urbana, Chicago, London: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 291n. For an even more complicated perspective on Lewis’ death, see David Leon Chandler. The Jefferson Conspiracies: A President’s Role in the Assassination of Meriwether Lewis. (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1994). 20 Cutright, 48. 7 suffered a colossal case of writer’s block the rest of his short life. He eventually stopped making excuses, and simply ceased responding to his revered friend and mentor’s increasingly curt demands for progress.21

When the paraphrased version of Sergeant Patrick Gass’s journal came out in

1807, it caused such a sensation that six more editions were published in short order, including three in Europe. The published version was completely rewritten from the

(subsequently lost) journal by Mathew Carey in Philadelphia. Later editions included six fanciful illustrations, “exemplifying what a draftsman may accomplish if allowed to employ unrestrained imagination in portraying subjects about which he knows next to nothing.”22

The Gass publication inspired a number of apocryphal “journals” that borrowed liberally from the published memoirs of Jonathan Carver and Alexander Mackenzie, earlier explorers of western North America. Most of these were copied from an 1809

London publication, The Travels of Capts. Lewis and Clarke . . . From the Official

Communication of Meriwether Lewis.23 William Clark, as the surviving commander and decidedly less eloquent writer of the two captains, realized he needed some help in publishing the official journals of the expedition.

21 Cutright, 50. 22 Donald Jackson, “The Race to Publish Lewis and Clark” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by James P. Ronda. (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998), 31. 23 Bolas, 32. 8 Clark contracted with a privileged young Philadelphian, Nicholas Biddle, to prepare – essentially to ghostwrite – the captains’ journals.24 Biddle spent three weeks with Clark in early 1810, reading the manuscript journals of Lewis, Clark and Sergeant

Ordway, and grilling Clark for hours about such under-recorded details as Sacagawea’s tearful reunion with her brother and Indian reactions upon first seeing a black man,

Clark’s slave York, who was an unpaid member of the expedition. Clark saw to it that

Corpsman George Shannon was dispatched to Philadelphia to assist Biddle with facts and color, and it is logical to presume that Biddle read Patrick Gass’s published account of the journey. As a result of his interviews of Clark and Private Shannon, Nicholas Biddle no doubt knew far more about the methods used in keeping the journals than anyone else not on the expedition, but he did not share any of this knowledge in his writing.25

Biddle condensed the manuscripts into two volumes, collapsing the many voices of the journalists into a first-person plural narrative that emphasized “the West’s two great novelties – wild Indians and animals.” Nor was he above including the erotic details of the Buffalo Dance some Corpsmen observed (and energetically participated in) at Fort Mandan; the story was related in Latin, presumably to limit access to it by readers less educated and therefore more susceptible to its libidinous influence than its highly educated author.26

24 Biddle, in later life, was Andrew Jackson’s “aristocratic” nemesis as the President of the Second Bank of the United States from 1823 until its demise in 1836. See Arlen J. Large, “History’s Two Nicholas Biddles,” We Proceeded On (May 1990), 4-13, or Gary B. Nash, et al. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. (New York: Longman, 2003), 351-353. 25 Moulton, “Introduction to the Journals,” DJLC, vol. 2, 9. 26 Large, “History’s Two Nicholas Biddles”, 6-11. 9 Because of the illness and death of Benjamin Smith Barton, the scientist who had agreed to write it, the promised companion volume of scientific discoveries never appeared. Biddle, after writing the two narrative volumes, passed responsibility for the project to an acquaintance, Paul Allen, who is given sole credit on the title page for having prepared the journals for eventual publication in 1814.27 The edition now known as the Biddle or Biddle-Allen, reprinted several times, was the only authorized version for the next 89 years.28

In 1893 Francis P. Harper published the last of the Biddle reprints after enlisting former Army surgeon and avid ornithologist Elliott Coues to provide annotation. 29

Coues’ scientific background and passion for accuracy and detail led him to track down – and find! – the original journals that had lain neglected among the holdings of the

American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia since Biddle had returned them in 1818.

He was amazed to read of the enormously significant scientific, cartographic and ethnological data recorded by Lewis and Clark. Determined to recognize the Captains’ contributions in these areas, Coues researched and annotated relentlessly. Indeed, Paul R.

Cutright writes that the annotations came “close to outrunning the original text.” He quotes Coues regarding the lack of scientific data in the Biddle edition:

When about to bring out the work, after the death of Governor Lewis, General Clark made a contract with Benj. S. Barton, of Philadelphia, by the terms of which the latter was to produce a formal work on the natural history of the Expedition. In consequence of which, Mr. Biddle, of course, passed over such points in the codices [original journals, DD]. Dr. Barton soon died, having done nothing . . . . This is the simple explanation of the meagerness of the History in

27 Large, “History’s Two Nicholas Biddles”, 7. 28 Cutright, 71. 29 Cutright, 73-95. 10 scientific matters with which the codices are replete – to the keenest regret of all naturalists, and the great loss of credit which was justly due these foremost explorers of a country whose almost every animal and plant was then unknown to science. My notes may in some measure throw back upon them a reflection of what is their just due – but it can never be more than reflected glory, for in the meantime others have carried off the honors that belong by right to Lewis and Clark. 30

In anticipation of the centennials of the Louisiana Purchase and the Lewis and

Clark Expedition, the American Philosophical Society engaged Reuben Gold Thwaites to supervise the first completely new edition of the journals since 1814.31 Thwaites’ well- indexed eight-volume Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, published in

1904, included complete transcriptions of all the then-known journals of Lewis, Clark,

Sergeant Charles Floyd32 and Private Joseph Whitehouse, some ancillary documents, maps, and a wide-ranging bibliography.

The Thwaites edition set off a firestorm of interest in the Corps of Discovery and documents related to it.33 Within approximately 20 years, many items were rediscovered: the original journals of Sergeants Floyd and Ordway and Private

Whitehouse, a “windfall of letters, maps, and journals” in the possession of William

Clark’s family, and Lewis’s 1803 “Ohio Journal”.34 Cutright sees each new discovery

30 Cutright, 102. 31 Bolas, 33-34. 32 Floyd and Sergeant John Ordway were the only Corpsmen known to have made daily entries into their journals. Floyd recorded every day from the official start of the expedition on May 14, 1804 until August 18, 1804, the same day he was “taken verry Sudenly Ill this morning with a collick”. He died two days later of what modern physicians and historians have concluded was probably acute appendicitis, an affliction for which there was no effective treatment anywhere at the time. 33 Bolas, 35. 34 Cutright, 128. 11 acting as “a high-intensity, intellectual wallop to increase further general interest in the

Expedition.”35

Thwaites’ edition became increasingly a victim of its own success, as more documents were discovered and published in varying formats. Some condensed versions of the journals, especially the best-selling “march-of-empire fanfare” written by Bernard

DeVoto in 1953, rekindled popular interest in the journals yet again.36 Though there was a school of thought that doubted the advisability of supplanting Thwaites and the other editors and popularizers,37 by 1967 prominent Lewis and Clark scholar Donald Jackson was calling publicly for a completely new edition of the journals. Citing the dramatically changed “ground rules for transcribing and interpreting historical documents” and the many documents discovered since the Thwaites edition, he maintained that, “Anyone who has had to seek information on Lewis and Clark in all these works, scattered throughout time and not always readily available, will agree that some kind of standard edition seems called for.”38

From 1979 to 2001, Gary Moulton of the University of Nebraska and his many consultant specialists gained access to all known extant journals, letters, maps and other documents related to the expedition, transcribed and edited them, annotated them, and published them in thirteen volumes commonly known as the Definitive Nebraska

35 Cutright, 204. 36 Arlen J. Large, “Bernard DeVoto and His ‘Struggle of Empires,’” We Proceeded On (May 1997), 4. 37 Harry Fritz, review of The Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, vol. 3, edited by Gary E. Moulton, We Proceeded On (November 1987), 30. 38 Gary E. Moulton, “The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: Beginning Again,” We Proceeded On (November 1980), 14. 12 Edition.39 In addition to the captains’ journals (vols. 2-8), and those of Ordway, Floyd,

Gass, and Whitehouse (vols. 9-11), Moulton and his team have compiled an accurate and beautifully produced large atlas of the expedition (vol. 1), a complete collection of the natural history materials, including reproductions of the herbarium sheets Lewis gathered

(vol. 12), and a comprehensive index (vol. 13). The reviewers and historians consulted for this thesis unanimously commend the work for its “modern editorial standards, annotation and reference, and the coalescence of various sources into a sensible organizational unity.”40

Students of the “American Epic of Discovery” might well wonder whether Gary

Moulton’s well-received new edition of the journals will spur more discoveries and research, or act as a generational culmination of interest in the expedition. 41 Judging from the popular and scholarly interest in the documentary history of the Corps of

Discovery though, Reuben Gold Thwaites’ comment 100 years ago still rings true: “The story of the records of the transcontinental exploration . . . is almost as romantic as that of the great discovery itself.”42

39 Gary E. Moulton, ed. The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13 vols. (Lincoln and London: The University of Nebraska Press, 1983-2001. 40 Fritz, 30. 41 J.I. Merritt, “Moulton’s one-volume ‘American epic’ is a grand introduction to Lewis & Clark”, a review of The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery, edited by Gary E. Moulton, We Proceeded On (August 2003), 34. 42 Reuben Gold Thwaites, “The Story of Lewis and Clark’s Journals,” Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1903, vol. 1, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 107, quoted in Gary E. Moulton, “The Specialized Journals of Lewis and Clark,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 127, no. 3 (1983), 200. 13

“Journals Remarkably Open To Interpretation”43

Thomas Jefferson’s vision of his new nation’s possibilities guided the expedition,

Lewis’ education and training, and the diarists’ writings. As a son of the Enlightenment,

Jefferson believed that the world and all it contains could be analyzed and ultimately understood through dispassionate study. Historians agree that the objects of the expedition were many and varied: to find the elusive Northwest Passage and thereby control the lucrative trade with Asia; to proclaim American sovereignty over, and trade with the Indian peoples; to stake an early enough claim to the Columbia River basin and its riches to deny England and Spain any more of a foothold than they already had; to attempt to push the Louisiana Territory’s northern border above the 49th parallel; and not least, to acquire some politically profitable news to counter the Federalists’ scoffing about the huge new territory.44

Nevertheless, Jefferson’s philosophy permeated the enterprise: exploration for the sake of adding to the existing body of knowledge, thereby bringing closer the

Enlightenment ideal of universal rational, harmonious, agrarian, European-based civilization. At least one scholar argues that “Jefferson conceived the West as a space for resolving socio-economic problems of the new republic while the Journals are a pragmatic, functional, empirical account of an adventure than can have happened only

43 Andrew R.L. Cayton, "Looking for America with Lewis and Clark." William and Mary Quarterly 59, no. 3 (2002), 709. 44 Jefferson’s politically astute Attorney General, Levi Lincoln, wanted so many stated objectives for the expedition that even if one or more failed, Jefferson could still claim it had been successful. See James Ronda, “’So Vast an Enterprise’: Thoughts on the Lewis and Clark Expedition”, introduction to Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998), 10-11. 14 once.”45 James Ronda counters that the expedition would “advance the cause of a noble empire, one that promised economic opportunity, political freedom, and cultural rejuvenation.”46

The Enlightenment, however, was giving way to a new philosophy. According to

Andrew Cayton,

Lewis and Clark had the distinction of working on the cusp of a turn from rationality into irrationality, from enlightened self-control and discovery to an acceptance of Romantic notions of racial predestination and emotion, from secular salvation through the reorganization of internal landscapes through conversion. It was a movement from Jefferson to Jackson, from Candide to Heathcliff, from a world in which the cause of America was of all mankind to a world in which the cause of America was, well, the cause of America, and white male Americans, at that.47

He proposes that had Lewis, and especially Jefferson, had their way with the publication of the expedition’s journals, the resulting volumes might have been much more in line with the fading Enlightenment philosophy. Agreeing with Coues’ assessment of Lewis’ historical reputation, other writers have insisted that Lewis “would today be seen as a scientist and exemplar of the Enlightenment, rather than an adventurer.”48

Instead, the sensational rewritings of Patrick Gass’ journal and the various apocryphal versions captured the imagination of a public that was becoming enthralled with the new ideas represented by Jacksonian democracy. Despite Nicholas Biddle’s assurance to Clark that the 1814 edition had “sold very well”, Cutright contends that the

45 Waters, Patricia, “Mr. Jefferson’s Literary Pursuit of the West: The Journals of Lewis and Clark” (Ph.D. diss., University of Tennessee, 1998, abstract. 46 Ronda, “’So Vast an Enterprise’”, 5. 47 Andrew R.L. Cayton, “Telling Stories About Lewis and Clark: Does History Still Matter?” Great Plains Quarterly (Fall 2004), 287. 48 Michael Mooney. “Foreword”, The Literature of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Bibliography and Essays by Stephen Dow Beckham, et al. (Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark College, 2003), 7. 15 book sold poorly, largely due to the time lag in publishing the official version and the many unofficial accounts that had appeared in the interim. All the prospective 1807 buyers had simply lost interest.49

Eminent Lewis and Clark historical geographer John Allen perhaps more accurately suggests that this perceived difference be portrayed as between the “literate elite” representing a “real-world application of the Enlightenment scientific tradition”, which has evolved somewhat over time, and the “folk image” of the Expedition, which has changed and been manipulated by opinion-shapers much more dramatically.

Though Thomas Jefferson had been planning an exploratory venture into the West for many years before he dispatched Lewis and Clark, because of the coincidental proximity of the Louisiana Purchase and the expedition in the timeline of United States history, the folk image has maintained from the beginning that Lewis and Clark were sent into the wilderness explicitly to claim, explore and determine the usefulness of the newly purchased territory. At the time of the expedition and shortly thereafter, a significant part of the popular view, aided in no small way by the Federalists who detested Jefferson, was that the Louisiana Purchase had been a very expensive mistake, and that no further government resources should be wasted on exploring or developing it.

The disappointment of the literary elite was longer lasting and more profound.

Not only had the dream of a practical water route to the Pacific vanished forever when

Meriwether Lewis crested Lemhi Pass, but the scientific and ethnographic information so meticulously detailed in the journals was not publicized until the Coues’ edition of 1893,

49 Cutright, 44. 16 when those who had hoped for so much in that respect were long dead. 50 To them, the expedition was “an Enlightenment venture which failed to enlighten.”51

“A Westering People”52

Westward expansion of the United States, of course, has been an overriding theme among writers addressing the expedition from the beginning. Even as the Corps neared

St. Louis on their return, they met trappers headed upriver to make their fortunes, to whom the Corpsmen passed along travel hints. Allen dates these encounters as “the beginning of Lewis’s and Clark’s role as shapers of new American conceptions of western geography.”53

Arlen Large, more colorfully, labels the conversations as the “jawbone journals.”

He argues that because of the nearly eight-year delay in publishing even the paraphrased

Biddle edition and the century-long lapse before the actual words of the captains’ journals were published, word-of-mouth reports were the primary means of spreading the news. Large cautions: “By definition, word-of-mouth accounts aren’t documented, but what was said can often be surmised from the later recorded actions of the listeners.”

Letters, diaries, and newspaper reports of the time document great excitement among westward-oriented adventurers.54

50 John L. Allen. “’Of This Enterprize’: The American Images of the Lewis and Clark Expedition” Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by James P. Ronda. (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998), 258. 51 Allen “’Of This Enterprize’”, 268. 52 Allen, “’Of This Enterprize’”, 270. 53 John Logan Allen. Passage Through the Garden: Lewis and Clark and the Image of the American Northwest. (Urbana, Chicago, London: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 364. 54 Arlen J. Large, “Expedition Aftermath: The Jawbone Journals,” We Proceeded On (February 1991), 12- 25. 17 Once the initial excitement subsided, the story of the Corps of Discovery lay largely forgotten for more than 20 years, until Oregon surfaced as a settlement locale for

Americans. The first blatant misuse of the journals for a specific agenda reared its ugly head. In “’Of This Enterprize’”, John Allen sums up the tawdry propaganda of an

Oregon booster named Hall Jackson Kelley who quoted very selectively from the Biddle edition regarding this Eden: “In their journals Lewis and Clark had entered precious few comments favorable to the Oregon country. But Kelley seems to have found them all.”

The expedition accounts were also used to “prove” the opposite viewpoint – the inhospitable nature of Oregon. One William Joseph Snelling wrote that

’Lewis and Clark say that they often found the natives in extreme want, if not actually starving, and their own party, though provided with fishing tackle and guns, which they well knew how to use, were glad to buy a few small dogs wherewith to quiet the cravings of nature.’

After stating the obvious – that the Kelley view of the Oregon Territory prevailed over the Snelling view – Allen purports that the West

was settled at least partially on the strength of the supposedly favorable nature of the great captains’ reports on the territory between the Rockies and the Pacific. This process is not only an interesting commentary on the character of the American image of the expedition in the middle of the nineteenth century – it is also a commentary on the very real role played by that image in conditioning the behavior of a westering people.55

If, as Ronda argues, Jefferson and his explorers “could not escape both the desire for territory and the passion for wealth” represented by the West, “Jefferson believed the republican ideals of simplicity, frugality, and rural living could somehow purify such passions, keeping Americans from the horrors of violence and conquest” such as had

55 Allen, “’Of This Enterprize’”, 268-70. 18 accompanied the Spanish in the Americas.56 Subsequent history of the westward movement of European Americans – and of the Indians they pushed ahead of them – was to prove Mr. Jefferson wrong.

Serving The Cause: Sacagawea And York

After the flurry of interest in the story of Lewis and Clark at the time of the opening of the Oregon Territory, it was largely forgotten again. By 1893, when

Frederick Jackson Turner proclaimed the closing of the continental frontier and Elliott

Coues brought forth the last of the Biddle editions, numerous events, including the

California Gold Rush, the Civil War, the Homestead Act of 1862, and the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 had led to such dramatic changes in the old

Louisiana Territory that the Corps of Discovery would not have recognized much of the landscape, nor would the Indians whose descendants had been driven onto reservations limited to land no one else wanted. According to Cayton, “By the centennial of the

Lewis and Clark expedition, American soldiers, developers, and families had wiped out buffalo herds, dammed rivers, drilled for oil and gas, built factories and cities, and covered the earth with railroad tracks.”57

Coues’ highly opinionated annotations, coupled with the ascendancy of populists, social reformers, and women’s rights advocates around the turn of the 20th century,

56 Ronda, “’So Vast an Enterprise’”, 4. 57 Cayton, Andrew R. L., “Looking for America with Lewis and Clark”, Review of Out West: A Journey Through Lewis and Clark’s America, by Dayton Duncan; The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13 vols., edited by Gary Moulton; and Finding the West: Exploration with Lewis and Clark, by James P. Ronda, The William and Mary Quarterly 59, no. 3 (2002), 700. 19 prompted Lewis, Clark, and the half-forgotten members of the Corps of Discovery back onto the American scene as mythical heroes, with one heroine to guide them all.

The young Shoshone woman who carried her infant to the Pacific and back, accompanying her interpreter husband and the rest of the Corps, is mentioned only occasionally in the original journals. That dearth of facts did not stop the romantics, feminists, Indian rights advocates, and even anti-miscegenationists from appropriating the few known facts of her life and manipulating them to fit their various agendas. In his annotations and page headings, Elliott Coues’ openly showed his fondness of and admiration for the young woman. In 1902, Eva Emery Dye’s The Conquest: The True

Story of Lewis and Clark started Sacagawea on her way from a kidnapped child purchased by a French frontiersman as his second “wife”, to her new role as a noble

Indian princess who immediately recognized the superiority of the white Americans’ culture and gladly embraced it.58 Twenty years later, a thoroughly discredited but widely read account even lengthened Sacagawea’s life by about 75 years and made her a conscious “apologist of native assimilation”.59

The other individual member of the Corps who has been mangled almost beyond recognition is York, William Clark’s slave from their early childhoods. At approximately the same time as the popular view of Sacagawea promoted her to royalty, it demoted

York to little more than a minstrel show stock character. He provided entertainment,

58 Eva Emery Dye. The Conquest: The True Story of Lewis and Clark. (Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1902). Cited in Donna J. Kessler. The Making of Sacagawea: A Euro-American Legend. (Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1996), 81-90. 59 Grace Raymond Hebard. Sacajawea: A guide and interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition, with an account of the travels of Toussaint Charbonneau and of Jean Baptiste, the expedition papoose. (Glendale, California: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1933). Reprinted by Clark, 1957. Cited in Kessler, 100-102. 20 shirked his duties (or conversely, exhibited his superior physical prowess in dramatic rescues), was so virile that Indian women across the continent vied for his favors, and did

“a fancy clog dance on the stern of the boat” for the small crowd who had come to Camp

Wood to see the expedition off in 1804.60 Historians who discuss York point out that the journal entries mentioning him show no racial bias at all. Yet most of what has been written about him for more than one hundred years is filled with prejudice.61

According to the journals, York and Sacagawea were valuable, contributing members of the expedition; each of them is credited at least once for having saved the rest of the group from harm by their very differences in race or gender. While the diarists wrote rather unflatteringly about some of the other members of the party, not one word in any extant entries suggests in any way that either the Indian woman or the black slave did less than a full share of the work or was not respected by their comrades. The racial mores of the late nineteenth century have been perpetuated in too many popular accounts of the Voyage of Discovery; the Sacagawea and York of the journals have become distorted to the point of being racial stereotypes.

It is not shocking, therefore, to discover that both popular and scholarly accounts of these two human beings occasionally have gone overboard in attempting to achieve balance. Indians often vilify Sacagawea as a traitor to her people, as if she had much choice about accompanying the expedition, or more foreknowledge than any other of her

60 Polos, Nicholas C., “Explorer With Lewis and Clark,” Negro History Bulletin 45 (October, November, December 1982): 90, 96. Cited in Robert B. Betts. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. (n.p.: University Press of Colorado and the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, 1985, 2000), 79-80. 61 Robert B. Betts. In Search of York, 5. 21 people about their coming fate.62 Betts excoriates modern revisionists for equal neglect of primary sources in decreeing that York was the group’s guide and other such

“nonsense”. He summarizes:

(York) has been variously portrayed as a giant of superb physique and stamina; a buffoon who contributed nothing more than comic relief to the expedition; a man whose blackness so appealed to the Indian women that he left a trail of kinky- haired children across the West; a fluent speaker of both French and Sioux; a slave whose relationship with his master was always one of blissful harmony; and, finally, a free man who either died of cholera in Tennessee or, in the strangest story of all, somehow lived on to spend his waning years in the Rocky Mountains as an honored member of the Crow Indian tribe.63

“The Course Of Empire”64

In a classic case of post hoc ergo propter hoc, because the Voyage of Discovery immediately preceded the opening of the American West to white exploration and settlement, as well as to the concomitant tragedies suffered by Indian tribes who had the misfortune to be in the way, Lewis and Clark have been interpreted by writers of many backgrounds as the proximate cause of the westward migration.

As mentioned above, fictional or heavily edited excerpts from the journals were used to promote (or more rarely, to discourage) the unrelenting move to the West in the

19th century. The World Wars and Cold War that colored American perspectives throughout most of the 20th century, though, brought different interpretations of the journals. Bernard DeVoto is a case in point. Though he was pre-empted by his colleague

62 Kevin S. Blake, “Great Plains Native American Representations Along the Lewis and Clark Trail,” Great Plains Quarterly 24, no. 4 (2004): 263-282, and Timothy Egan, “Two Centuries Later, a Moment for Indians to Retell the Past,” New York Times, 15 June 2003, quoted in Kevin S. Blake, 275. 63 Betts, In Search of York, 5. 64 Bernard DeVoto. The Course of Empire. (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952; Mariner Books, 1998), title page. 22 at Harvard, John Bakeless, in his planned biography of Lewis and Clark65, DeVoto wrote a best-selling trilogy of the West, followed by his version of the story. In a popular re- telling of the Thwaites edition of the journals, supplemented by some of the “juicier details” from Biddle, he highlighted the best adventure stories while omitting entirely the many less riveting accounts of mundane events. According to Large, DeVoto also

“flavor(ed the abridgement) with 20th century governmental wartime terms . . . . Iroquois warriors became ‘commandos,’ whose enemies attacked them in ‘birchbark troop- carriers.’” He even mentioned “such receding terms as ‘G-2 stuff.’”66 Large theorizes that DeVoto portrayed Lewis and Clark as “sea-to-sea jingoes” partly as a proclamation of his patriotism after attracting the unwanted attention of Senator Joseph McCarthy and other rabid Red-baiters.67

At least one modern historian sees a direct connection to DeVoto’s philosophy when he dismisses the latest passion for Lewis and Clark as “. . . largely, although not exclusively, the preserve of white men, many of them natives of the northeastern United

States (who enjoy) roughing it in the tradition of Theodore Roosevelt.” He claims that the expedition “has all the elements of an adolescent male adventure” and then quotes a former student of Stephen Ambrose who accuses his mentor’s best-selling Undaunted

Courage as being “laced with post-Vietnam War sadness about the decline of patriotism and ‘pride’ in our heritage.” At the same time, Cayton argues that “Lewis and Clark aficionados are more than caricatures of masculinity and patriotism . . . . (but also)

65 Bakeless, John. Lewis and Clark: Partners in Discovery. (New York: William Morrow & Company, 1947). 66 Arlen J. Large, “Bernard DeVoto and His ‘Struggle of Empires,’” We Proceeded On (May 1997), 7. 67 Large, “DeVoto”, 8. 23 reflect an alienated patriotism, a romance of the past that celebrates less what the United

States may be than what it might have been.”68

“The Journals Of Black Cat”69

Bernard DeVoto was the first European-American Lewis and Clark historian to express the need for more complete Indian interpretations of the expedition.70

Recalling Jefferson’s statement that without records, “history becomes fable instead of facts”, Ronda calls on as many primary documents as possible to tell the story of the expedition from the Native American perspective. He acknowledges the rich oral tradition of the tribes encountering the Corps of Discovery, but nevertheless admits, as a trained historian, “There is no scholarly edition of documents and maps called The

Journal of Black Cat.”71

Historians are increasingly researching and recording tribal stories, notably Ronda in his Lewis and Clark Among the Indians, but often the Native version boils down to “an epic about Indians bailing out whites, showing them where to go, what to eat, whom to avoid along the way, and how to get back home in one piece.”72

Ronda mentions the captains’ solution when they were forced to explain a concept

Indians did not have:

68 Andrew R. L. Cayton, “Looking for America with Lewis and Clark”, 699, 701. 69 Ronda. “Exploring the Explorers” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998), 197. 70 Ronda, preface to Voyages of Discovery, xiii-xiv. 71 Black Cat was a Mandan chief whom Lewis credited with “integrety, firmness, inteligence and perspicuety of mind” in his journal (DNLC 3:289). Black Cat showed just as much curiosity about his winter visitors as they showed about him and his people. 72 Egan, 275. 24 . . . the linguistic category employed to describe a large-scale expedition not for war, not for trade, not for hunting, simply did not exist. . . . Exploration apart from these activities was a pursuit utterly foreign to native peoples. Eventually Lewis and Clark hit upon an identity explanation that more completely fit the native universe of experience. Indians were told that the party was in search of distant, long-lost relatives.73

Meanwhile, Amy Mossett, a 21st century Mandan-Hidatsa, points out the lack of understanding of her ancestors on the part of the newcomers: “Jefferson wanted to make

Indians into farmers and traders. But we were already doing all of that. The difference is: we were doing it without slave labor.”74

Just as it is difficult for members of the dominant culture to interpret the journals except through the filters of their own history and experience, so Indians see the Corps of

Discovery through the lens of later events. One Indian reviewer, R. Littlebear, avoided reading the journals for years because of what they “foreshadowed for (his or her) people

– the American holocaust euphemistically referred to as ‘Manifest Destiny’ . . . .” Only the claims of editorial objectivity and cultural sensitivity in the Definitive Nebraska

Edition persuaded this historian to read the primary documents of the conquerors’ Epic of

Discovery.75

A recent development in telling the native version of the Voyage of Discovery is revising interpretive language at sites along the trails, to frame the expedition in Indian terms, such as that at the Atka Lakota Museum:

The Lakota met Lewis and Clark in 1804. Subsequently, increasing contact with the white world included traders, explorers, missionaries, the U.S. Army, Indian

73 Ronda, “Exploring the Explorers”, 192. 74 Egan, 275. 75 R. Littlebear, review of The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery, edited by Gary E. Moulton, Great Plains Quarterly 24, part 1 (2004), 44. 25 Agents, miners, and settlers, bringing sweeping changes to the Great Plains. Thousands of Indians died from diseases, setting off a struggle for the people to retain what was theirs amid the seemingly endless tide of the wasicu (white man). Eighty years after the encounter with Lewis and Clark the buffalo were gone, forever changing the Lakota way of life.76

To further complicate Indian accounts, some tribes have very different stories of the same event or person, i.e., Sacajawea as a Lemhi Shoshone, kidnapped by the

Hidatsa, with her birth name meaning “Boat Launcher”; and Sacakawea as a Hidatsa, kidnapped by the Shoshone and later escaping to her birth tribe, with a name meaning

“Bird Woman”.

Conclusion: Shared Stories

Whether the tellers of the tales recorded in the official records and the “jawbone journals” interpret the transition Stephen Ambrose calls “the Opening of the American

West”77 as Manifest Destiny or genocide, Lewis and Clark have been given much more credit – or blame – than they actually deserve. The very fact that Thomas Jefferson was determined to establish United States influence in the Columbia River area testifies that the movement of the new culture was already under way. The trappers the expedition met on the return trip had not waited for the Corps’ news before heading up the Missouri.

Writers consulted for this thesis agree that, with the exception of the Shoshone, Salish, and Nez Perce people, at least one member of the more than 50 tribes the Corps encountered had some familiarity with Caucasians (though decidedly not with black

76 Kevin S. Blake, “Great Plains Native American Representations Along the Lewis and Clark Trail,” Great Plains Quarterly 24, no. 4 (2004), 278. 77 Ambrose, Stephen E. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon and Shuster, 1996; Touchstone, 1997, title. 26 people).78 Indeed, “considering the earlier efforts of the Spanish, French and British, the

Lewis and Clark expedition was one of the last such excursions” as far west as the Fort

Mandan area.79

Cayton argues that the Voyage of Discovery “. . . was hardly a turning point: if

Lewis and Clark had never ventured up the Missouri River in 1804 or reached the Pacific

Ocean in 1805, the history of this continent would not have been markedly different.”80

James Ronda, “perhaps the most thoughtful contemporary historian of the expedition,”81 cautions that

In recent years some have attempted to reconstruct the Lewis and Clark journey as a national epic with places, words, and roles for all Americans. Nations need shared stories but telling the Lewis and Clark journey as a single narrative promising common ground for all ignores the profound historical, cultural and ethnic differences in this and all other exploration experiences. Denying such differences only widens the cultural divide, producing a national history that speaks in one master voice and allows only one predetermined conclusion.82

Though the many voices of the expedition certainly deserve to be told, the concentration of this thesis is on the documentary record, for the reason that “(u)nlike oral tradition, books can communicate through a skip of generations.” 83 At approximately 50-year intervals over the past 200 years interest in the Lewis and Clark expedition has peaked, then waned, leaving the journals Jefferson dictated should be

78 Judy BlueHorse-Skelton, “Lewis & Clark: Through Native American Eyes,” Teaching Supplement for Grades 4-12. Portland, Oregon: Title VII Indian Education Project of Portland Public Schools, 2003-2004, 16. 79 Ken Olsen, “Discovering Lewis & Clark,” Teaching Tolerance, no. 29 (Spring 2006), 43. 80 Cayton, “Telling Stories”, 283. 81 Cayton, “Looking for America”, 702. 82 Ronda, Finding the West: Explorations With Lewis and Clark. Histories of the American Frontier, ed. Ray Allen Billington. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001), xvii. 83Stephen Dow Beckham, “Introduction”, in Stephen Dow Beckham, Doug Erickson, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant. The Literature of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Bibliography and Essays. (Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark College, 2003), 22. 27 preserved “against the accidental losses to which they will be exposed” instead to languish forgotten and unread in attics, basements, bookstores, and places perhaps yet undiscovered. Much of the canon now organized so successfully by Moulton and his team in the Definitive Nebraska Edition – and made accessible to the casual reader in his one-volume abridgement – was unknown to one or more previous generations. We can never know all the stories associated with the Corps of Discovery, but like the expedition itself, the published journals’ history inspires anticipation and enthusiasm for whatever marvels lie just around the next bend in the river of documentary discovery. LESSON PLAN PROCEEDING ON

Introduction

The adventure of the Lewis and Clark Expedition is generally the most appealing aspect of it for children. By fanning their interest in the adventure, it becomes easier to introduce them to some of the other, perhaps less immediately dramatic facets: the continual observation of the land, flora, fauna, Native peoples, geography, and the rivers that were their routes to and from the Pacific Ocean; the tedium and sheer physical labor involved in the trip; recording their observations and experiences; and the constant preparation for whatever lay ahead.

A phrase that was used repeatedly in the collective journals of the expedition was

“We proceeded on.” Those three words so well represent the sheer determination and perseverance that drove the Corps of Discovery that scholars and enthusiasts often use them in written material about the voyage, and the journal of the Lewis and Clark Trail

Heritage Foundation is titled We Proceeded On.

With that phrase in mind, the objectives of this lesson plan follow:

1. The students will demonstrate an introductory-level understanding of the study,

preparation, and physical labor that went into the 28-month expedition.

2. Using substitute materials where necessary, the students will plan and carry out a

voyage of discovery around an undeveloped area near the school. 29 3. By way of daily journal entries and sketches, the students will reflect on their

observations and conclusions regarding their voyage of discovery.

4. Optional: Using metacognitive prompts provided by the teacher (such as those

associated with Philosophy for Children), the students will discuss the Lewis and

Clark expedition as a metaphor for life: how to prepare for the unknown future

they face.

This lesson plan is developed for five or six one-hour classes at 5th grade level. A teacher in a self-contained class may integrate the lesson easily into subjects other than social studies, especially math (measurement), language arts (spelling, writing personal letters and journals), science (observation, classification) and art (representational drawing) classes. For convenience, only national and California state social studies standards that are directly met by the lesson plan are included in Appendix 1. Many other subject area standards are also addressed. 30

Lesson Content

Day One: As a hook, explain that the class will be making an exploration and portage around the field (or a local undeveloped area near the school). They will be pretending they have never seen this land before, and that they have no idea what lies beyond their portage. Furthermore, they will have to take with them almost everything they will need. Reassure them that there will be more information on that tomorrow.

As was true of the Corps of Discovery, there will be two captains, three sergeants and the corpsmen divided into three “companies.” The teacher (with an aide or parent volunteer if possible) will be the captain(s). You, as the captain, will assign the students to Companies A, B or C, considering each child’s relative strengths and weaknesses in order to have fairly well-balanced, functional cooperative learning groups. Depending on the students and the time available for the lesson, you may want to assign a few specific roles, such as Sacagawea, George Shannon (the youngest Corpsman), or Pierre Cruzatte

(the one-eyed fiddler). Even though the civilians on the expedition were not formally attached to any military company in the Corps of Discovery, for the purposes of this lesson, everyone will be assigned to one.

Let them know they have five minutes to elect a sergeant.

After the sergeants are elected, have the students wash their hands in preparation for baking “biscuits” to take on the expedition. Also known as sea biscuits and hardtack, these hard, bland flatbreads provided portable, indestructible sources of nourishment to the original Corps. Have the students look at your bag of flour, and lift it to get a concept 31 the weight represented by it. Ask them to think about why weight and size might be important when they pack their “canoes” on Day Three.

Recipes for biscuits or hardtack are available in many of the resources cited at the end of the lesson plan, and on line. The recipe in Appendix B, adapted from a number of very similar ones from many sources, made 18 three-inch biscuits and worked well in my classroom with a toaster oven.

While the biscuits are baking, show the 20-min. DVD, Confluence of Time and

Courage: Portage at the Great Falls, as an introduction to the unit.

Day Two: Today you make up your inventory and pack it in your “canoe(s).”

Explain to the children that, as you do not have the time and money Meriwether

Lewis was provided for supplies, each company will make a list – or inventory – of all the items they will need. Because these lists will be cut into slips for “packing,” have the children double-space their lists.

Remind them to think very carefully about the difference between wants and needs, and about what services and utilities will be available along the way. Circulate, being sure that each company understands that there will be no store to buy new shoes or batteries, no computers or electricity to power them, no motels, fast food restaurants, grocery stores, etc. If you have the time and can discuss relative sizes and weights, have them assign a size and weight to each item.

Make certain the students do not take for granted how long they will be gone, or how far they are going. They may assume only that there will always be animals to hunt 32 and edible fish in the rivers, wood or grass for fires, and occasional roots and berries to eat.

When the lists are complete, the students should cut them into individual items for

“packing” for the journey.

It is now time to bring in the canoe. By having previously sawed a cardboard carpet roll in half lengthwise, you will have two “canoes.” Though you may borrow a modern aluminum or fiberglass canoe or small rowboat, be sure the students understand the burning and scraping associated with making a dugout canoe. (If time permits, and if you and your students are so inclined, this would be a good time to help them learn about

“The Experiment,” Lewis’ collapsible iron-framed boat. Pictures of it are available from many sources on line. It was designed, engineered, and carried all the way to the Great

Falls specifically to be assembled upstream of the falls. However, none of the men from the pine-forested East had considered that no pines would be available to provide sap for sealing the seams of the skin-covered boat. Therefore it could not stay afloat, and Lewis had to abandon his pet project.)

Ask the students to begin packing their canoe by putting in their slips of paper, each representing some item of inventory.

Distribute the compasses to each company and review how to use them to determine directions. If your students are proficient at that basic level, have them figure which direction they are facing in the classroom and how to decide which direction to travel. Ask them to discuss in their companies why they, as explorers, would need to be able to read a compass and have other orientation skills on the expedition. 33 Day Three: Cue the beautifully scenic clip from the DVD Lewis & Clark:

Great Journey West (Scene 1, counter 0:29 – 2:02), where an actor reads from John

Ordway’s letter home to his “honored parents” to let them know of his assignment (the letter is reproduced in Appendix C). Tell the children that President Jefferson has commanded that each member of the expedition who can write is to keep a journal of observations and events along the trail. Therefore, individually they are to prepare their journals for their expedition by writing their names on their small composition books or other “journals” and taking 10 minutes to write a letter home to their parents explaining where they are going, why, and what reward they expect at the completion of their trip.

In this case, the “reward” may be as mundane as a good grade, though you should strive to have them think of benefits – perhaps a greater understanding of the logistics of exploration, or learning how to draw a flower. Do not grade or otherwise judge the reasoning in their letters, but circulate to see what they expect from the lesson, and what you might want to emphasize during the rest of the week.

As a substitute for the intensive tutoring Lewis had with the greatest naturalists of his time, you might find the following pages from The Lewis & Clark Expedition and the

Louisiana Purchase, by Robert W. Smith, from Teacher Created Materials particularly useful: “Keeping a Science and Discovery Journal,” “Studying Leaves,” and “Flower

Power.”

At least you will ask the students to brainstorm about how to describe plants, animals, land forms, weather, etc. that the children might encounter. Have them gather into their companies and ask them to think of appropriate descriptive words to put in a 34 Corps word bank for the voyage. Explain that the goal is to come up with precise, accurate terms rather than such words as “cute,” “nice,” “big” or “little.” What qualities make an animal “cute?” How big is “big”? How little is “little?” Be sure each company has access to a dictionary and thesaurus. After 15 – 20 minutes, post the collective word bank on chart paper so it can be consulted and supplemented during the week.

Show the children pictures of Lewis and Clark’s actual journals (available in many printed and online sources listed in Appendix D), particularly the pages that have sketches on them. Mention the aphorism, “One picture is worth a thousand words,” then ask them why a sketch might be a good way to record a new plant or animal. Have them discuss in their companies what characteristics to feature in black-and-white sketches and what would be better described in words. For instance, color and relative size would not come across in a journal sketch, but shapes and patterns might be better portrayed in a drawing. Let the children know that the original Corps members took samples of plants, animals, etc. back to their camps to sketch or describe later. Assuming you are not planning your expedition in an area with endangered or protected species, let your students know that you expect them to collect a specimen or two. It would be prudent for you to survey the plant life ahead of time in order to avoid thorns, poison oak, and similar plants that could cause unpleasantness.

If the prickly pear is not native to your area, this could be a good time to explain about the pain and shredded moccasins it caused the Corpsmen. Checking any online search engine’s images will turn up good pictures of the plant. 35 Day Four: Today is the first (and only) day of your expedition. Take the canoe(s), journals, pencils, and compasses to the portage site. Remind the children that they must be careful not to spill the precious contents of their canoe, that the sergeants must see that everyone takes turns carrying the canoe, and that everyone – even those on canoe duty – observes and notes the flora, fauna, weather and land forms as closely as if they had never seen this country before. Tell them they will have to work hard today, but will have a day of “leisure” tomorrow to catch up on their journals and make new moccasins to replace the ones they are supposedly wearing out today.

If you have three canoes, be sure that everyone in each company takes a turn. If you have just one canoe, see that each company has approximately one-third of the period to carry it.

Circulate constantly, being certain that the portage is going smoothly, that everyone is participating, that the “supplies” are not blowing out of the canoes, and that everyone is making some sort of notes or observations to transfer to his or her journal tomorrow.

Allow time to get back to the classroom and “cache” the canoe and supplies.

Day Five: This is a day of the sort President Jefferson described as one of “leisure.” The companies will alternate making moccasins, writing in their journals, and making sketches of some of the plant samples they collected yesterday. If you can enlist two other adults to supervise the moccasin and drawing activities, it will free you to oversee the journaling. If not, well, it is a day of leisure! 36 With two other adults in the classroom, I was able to keep the activities to approximately 20 minutes each, therefore allowing every child a chance to do all three.

To avoid boredom or the “What do I do next?” syndrome, I made up packets of material copied from a variety of printed and online sources. Many of these are listed in

Appendix D. Check each source to see that permission is granted to reproduce the material for classroom use. Because the packets are part of the leisure day and will not be graded, try to include a variety of different activities so every child will find appealing things to do. Of the sources listed in Appendix D, West with Lewis and Clark, by

William E. Hill and Jan Hill, was particularly good for blackline masters. The Teacher

Created Materials book had a multitude of activities, though many of them were designed for more than one child or quite a bit of class time. I cannot recommend highly enough

Rod Gragg’s Lewis and Clark: On the Trail of Discovery: A Museum in a Book, which is filled with facsimiles of actual documents and beautiful, historically accurate pictures.

Day Six (or a Language Arts period during one of the previous days): My students loved doing a reader’s theater dramatization of one of the more exciting episodes during the expedition. Several scripts are available, or you may write your own. The

Teacher Created Material book has a well-done script, “Homecoming,” depicting one of the most amazing and fortunate coincidences in history, Sacagawea’s reunion with her brother, the Shoshone chief who had to decide whether to provide horses the Corps had to have in order to cross the mountains before winter. 37 Because the negotiations between the Captains and the Shoshone chief required translations from English to French to Hidatsa to Shoshone, then back again, a great adjunct to this activity is to play a version of “Telephone.” The students will get an idea of how difficult it might be to use multiple translations in order to conduct business or otherwise communicate. Have the children whisper an unfamiliar phrase from the journals, passing it down the line of students until the last student recites what he or she heard. My class used Lewis’ description of the Shoshones’ reception of the explorers after Sacagawea recognized her brother: “These men then embraced me very affectionately in their way. . . .”

If there is time, and you and your students are so inclined, closure for this lesson could include a discussion of the Lewis and Clark Expedition as a metaphor for life. For instance, you could prompt them to discuss how they can prepare themselves for the many unknowns that lie ahead in their own lives (listen to or read the experiences of people who have already been there); what tools they might need (education, flexibility, adaptability, social skills); why they might want to record their experiences and observations (to organize their thoughts, remind themselves later of what happened, teach the next generation).

After the formal lesson: By posting and referring to Fifer’s Day-by-Day calendar

(see Appendix D), I was able to keep interest in the expedition alive. The students wanted to know what happened on each day, though some days were not very fascinating to fifth-graders. 38 Also, my students suggested involving other fifth grade classes by inviting them along on the portage, making oral or art presentations to them, or, in the immortal words of that one child in every class: “Make them all eat ‘biscuits’!” 39

Prior Content Knowledge and Skills

Before beginning this lesson, the students should

1. Understand basic military discipline (chain of command, unquestioning obedience, etc.) and the relative ranks of the captains, sergeants, and other enlisted men.

2. Understand the concept of exploration, particularly as it applies to the early explorers, trappers, mountain men, and settlers of the American West.

3. Be familiar with the genres of writing journals and personal letters.

4. Be able to use precise and accurate terms to describe animals, plants, land formations, etc. they will describe in their journals.

5. Be able to function in a cooperative learning or team environment.

6. Be able to use tools of measurement: measuring cup, ruler, scale, thermometer, and compass. 40

Evaluation

1. Each child will read at least one nonfiction book related to the Lewis and

Clark expedition, Indian tribes they encountered, early American

exploration of the West, crafts of the period, or a related subject you have

approved. Assuming your school has a subscription to Accelerated

Reader (see Appendix 5 Materials Consulted), the student will take the

computerized quiz on the book and turn in the certificate or other proof of

having completed the assignment. If you do not have access to

Accelerated Reader, you may assign a standard written or oral book report

or other product that represents the child’s reading. To ensure the children

have a general basic understanding of the time period, this assignment

should be made before the lesson begins.

2. Perhaps the primary reason for the success of the Lewis and Clark

expedition was the extraordinary teamwork of the Corps. Because you

considered each child’s abilities in assigning “companies,” circulate

during company activities to be sure that every child is participating

appropriately and is a productive member of your class Corps.

3. Evaluate each child’s journal for precision of descriptive language, and

inclusion of at least one drawing of a plant, animal or track. 41 APPENDIX A

Social Studies Standards Addressed

National Standards for Grade 5: Standard 1

Era 4: United States territorial expansion between 1801 and 1861, and how it affected relations with external powers and Native Americans.

Standard 1A: The student understands the international background and consequences of the Louisiana Purchase, the War of 1812, and the Monroe Doctrine. Therefore, the student is able to Analyze Napoleon's reasons for selling Louisiana to the United States. [Draw upon the data in historical maps]

Standard 1C: The student understands the ideology of Manifest Destiny, the nation's expansion to the Northwest, and the Mexican-American War. Therefore, the student is able to Explain the economic, political, racial, and religious roots of Manifest Destiny and analyze how the concept influenced the westward expansion of the nation. [Examine the influence of ideas]

Standard 2E: The student understands the settlement of the West. Therefore, the student is able to Explore the lure of the West and the reality of life on the frontier. [Examine the influence of ideas]

Standard 4C: The student understands changing gender roles and the ideas and activities of women reformers. Therefore, the student is able to Analyze the activities of women of different racial and social groups in the reform movements for education, abolition, temperance, and women's suffrage. [Examine the importance of the individual] 42 California Standards: 5.8 Students trace the colonization, immigration, and settlement patterns of the American people from 1789 to the mid-1800s, with emphasis on the role of economic incentives, effects of the physical and political geography, and transportation systems.

1. Discuss the waves of immigrants from Europe between 1789 and 1850 and their modes of transportation into the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys and through the Cumberland Gap (e.g., overland wagons, canals, flatboats, steamboats)

3. Demonstrate knowledge of the explorations of the trans- Mississippi West following the Louisiana Purchase (e.g., Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Zebulon Pike, John Fremont). 43 APPENDIX B

Assignments

Prior to the week of the lesson: Each child will read and produce proof of understanding of an ability-level book about early American exploration of the

West. See “Evaluation” for the complete assignment and examples of proof.

Day One: As a class, or as “companies”, bake enough “biscuits” to sustain your Corps members. (It won’t take many; these are so hard and tasteless that your students will love cafeteria food for weeks!)

Biscuits, Sea Biscuits, or Hardtack

6 cups flour (a well-mixed combination of unbleached and whole wheat is reasonably authentic)

1 1/2 cups water, approximately

Knead the mixture until it’s smooth. Roll the dough into a rectangle about 1/4 inch thick. Use a 3” cookie/biscuit cutter to make round biscuits, or cut into approximately 3” squares. With a toothpick, poke 10 – 15 holes in each biscuit to keep them from puffing up and becoming more fragile. Bake on ungreased cookie sheet 35 min., then turn them over and bake another 30 min. They should be light brown. Allow to cool completely, then pack them for the journey.

Day Two: Each child will participate in discussing and listing the inventory. 44 Day Three: Each child will write a letter to his or her “honored parents,” following the John Ordway’s example.

Day Four: Each child will participate to the best of his or her ability in the portage, making observations and notes, and generally acting as a contributing member of his or her “company.”

Day Five: Each child will

• participate appropriately in the moccasin-making activity, producing a pair of

moccasins,

• write and/or draw in the journal regarding the expedition yesterday,

• behave as a member of the Corps, keeping occupied with the packets and

allowing others to complete their moccasins, drawings and journals.

Day Six: Each child will participate appropriately in the reader’s theater and any game or discussion that follows. 45 APPENDIX C

Materials List

• Ingredients and tools for “biscuits:” six cups of flour (unbleached, whole wheat,

or a combination of the two would be more authentic), water to moisten,

measuring cup, toothpicks, cookie sheets, access to oven.

• A journal for each child, such as a composition book

• A canoe (or three) for the portage. This can be made from the core of a carpet roll

sliced lengthwise, or can be a borrowed canoe or rowboat. It need not be

particularly sturdy, as it will hold only slips of paper representing everything the

“explorers” will need upriver, but it should be rigid enough for the children to

carry it on their portage.

• A compass for each company.

• Materials for paper moccasins: Paper grocery sacks or brown kraft paper,

scissors. tape or stapler, or whatever supplies are required by the pattern you use.

Remember to keep this activity simple.

• A variety of blackline masters or individual activities to make “what do I do

now?” packets.

• (Optional) A readers theater script for Day Six. 46 • Letter from Sergeant John Ordway to his parents, to be used in assignment for the

students to write their parents before leaving on their “expedition.” Note the

variant spellings.

(Addressed to) Mr. Stephen Ordway Hebron New Hampshire divert this to Concord Post Office it being older than Plymouth Post office or Hanover Post Office.

Camp River Dubois April the 8th 1804

Honored Parents I now embrace this opportunity of writing to you once more to let you know where I am and where I am going. I am well thank God and in high spirits. I am now on an expedition to the westward with Capt. Lewis and Capt. Clark, who are appointed by the President of the United States to go on an expedition through the interior parts of North America. We are to ascend the Missouri River with a boat as far as it is navigatable and then to go by land to the western ocean, if nothing prevents, &c. The party consists of 25 picked men of the army & country . . . and I am so happy as to be one of them picked men from the army, and I and all the party are, if all live to return, to receive our Discharge when ever we return again to the United States if we chuse it. This place is on the Mississippi River opposite the mouth of the Missouri River and we are to start in ten days up the Missouri River, this has been our winter quarters. We expect to be gone 18 months or two years. We are to receive a great reward for this expedition when we return. I am to receive 15 dollars per month and at least 400 ackers of first rate land and if we make great discoveries as we expect, the United States has promised to make the great rewards more than we are promised. For fear of accidents I wish to inform you that I left 200 dollars in cash at (unreadable) put it on interest with a Substantial man by the name of Charles Smith & Co Partnership which were the more Substantial men binding with him and Capt. Clark is bound to see me paid at the time and place where I receive my Discharge, and if I should not live to return my heirs can by applying to the Seat of Government. I have red no letters since Betsey’s yet but will write next winter if I have a chance. Yours John Ordway 47 APPENDIX D

Annotated List of Sources Consulted

In addition to many of the published works listed in the Bibliography of this thesis, I found the following resources useful in preparing the lesson plan. Except as stated, they are appropriate for fifth-grade level students.

Ankney, Kindra. Lewis and Clark: Songs of the Journey, Bobby Horton, (Yakima, Washington: Edge-of-the-World Publishing, 2001), audio CD. Catchy, generally historically accurate original songs about the expedition.

Ankney, Kindra. Lewis and Clark: Songs of the Journey Companion. Yakima, Washington: Edge-of-the-World Publishing, 2003. Creative activities perhaps more suited to older students or adults, such as making quill pens or “portable soup.” Index, bibliography of how-to craft books, list of places to visit, and interesting list of resources for such realia as buffalo meat and reproduction trade items.

Bakeless, John. The Adventures of Lewis and Clark. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company and Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1962. Reprint, Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 2002. Chapter book by the author of one of the most popular mid-20th century adult retellings of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Indexed.

Bergantino, Robert N. “The Portage of Lewis and Clark, 1805-1806” and “Survey of the Great Falls of the Missouri and the Portage”, maps. Great Falls, Montana: Portage Route Chapter, Lewis and Clark Trails Heritage Foundation, 1984. Beautifully drawn and lettered map and reproduction of Clark’s survey notes, with passages from the journals.

BlueHorse-Skelton, Judy, “Lewis & Clark: Through Native American Eyes,” Teaching Supplement for Grades 4-12. Portland, Oregon: Title VII Indian Education Project of Portland Public Schools, 2003-2004. Short summaries of how the Indians lived in their lands, including uses of plants and animals; and a powerful “Voices of the People” section telling of the impact the coming of the white Americans had on the natives. 48 Copeland, Peter F. The Lewis and Clark Expedition Coloring Book. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1983. Straightforward account, with blackline illustrations done from famous paintings of the expedition.

______. The Story of Sacajawea Coloring Book. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 2002. Romanticized, highly fictionalized biography, assigning her a birth year of 1789 and perpetuating the long-discredited story that she lived until 1884 in Wyoming. With care, some of the blackline illustrations might be usable.

Fifer, Barbara. Going Along With Lewis & Clark. Helena, Montana: American & World Geographic Publishing/Montana Magazine; Far Country Press, 2000. Kid-friendly collection of short articles about different aspects of the expedition. Good illustrations and references.

______. Day-By-Day with the Lewis & Clark Expedition. Helena, Montana: Farcountry Press, 2002. Grid calendar of the entire official expedition, from May 14, 1804 to Clark’s famous last entry on September 26, 1806: “We commenced wrighting &tc.” Photographs of artifacts, drawings of plants and animals, and a lot of supplemental information. Great for checking the daily progress of the Corps.

Gragg, Rod. Lewis and Clark: On the Trail of Discovery: A Museum in a Book. Nashville: Rutledge Hill Press, A Division of Thomas Nelson, Inc., 2003. Outstanding hands-on resources: facsimile copies of journal entries, maps, letters, ledgers, etc., with photographs of artifacts, a variety of artwork illustrating episodes in the journey, and sidebars providing historical background or color. Excellent endnotes with full documentation and explanations. No index, but easy to search.

Hamilton, John. Lewis & Clark. 6 vols. (The Corps of Discovery, The Missouri River, Uncharted Lands, The Mountains, To the Pacific, The Journey Home). Edina, Minnesota: ABDO Publishing Company, 2003. Slightly higher reading level, historically accurate. Some repetitive content from book to book. Good variety of excellent illustrations. Glossary, index, and publisher’s website with regularly updated links to Lewis and Clark websites. 49 Hartinger, Patricia B., “Lewis and Clark”, packet of activities and primary document transcriptions from workshop presented at the 44th annual meeting of the California Council for the Social Studies, Burlingame, California, 5 March 2005. Some good activities for older or more advanced students. Document transcriptions are easier to read than the originals, available on line and in many other sources.

Herbert, Janis. Lewis and Clark for Kids: Their Journey of Discovery with 21 Activities. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, Inc., 2000. Creative multidisciplinary activities for children, based on the well-written account of the journey and using readily available modern substitutes for materials used at the time. Interesting sidebars explaining everything from Indian names to Mount St. Helen’s to Linnean classification. Glossary, index, and lists of related organizations, events, and web sites.

Hightower, Elaine, illustrations by Kathleen McKeehen, “Lewis & Clark Exploration Card Game,” Stamford, Connecticut: U.S. Games Systems, Inc., 2003. Rummy-type game with illustrated facts on each card, excellent categories, good map and stickers. From The History Channel.

Hill, William E. and Jan C. Hill. West with Lewis and Clark: The Story of the Corps of Discovery: An Activity Book for Children. Centereach, New York: HillHouse, 2003. Good selection of activities for younger or below-grade-level readers. Lots of blackline masters for supplemental material.

Hoobler, Dorothy and Thomas Hoobler. The Young Voyageur. New York and Farmington: McGraw-Hill School Division, n.d. Fact-based fictional picture book of the French who traded with Indians for furs. Good background regarding the engages of the expedition.

Johmann, Carol A. The Lewis & Clark Expedition: Join the Corps of Discovery to Explore Uncharted Territory. A Kaleidoscope Kids book. Charlotte, Vermont: Williamson Publishing, 2003. Amusing cartoons accompany fairly accurate narrative. Good activities and some really great sidebars. A “Think About It” activity entitled “Who Owns the Earth?” is a one-paragraph summary of different concepts of land ownership and the resulting millennia of wars. Index, list of resources, free teachers’ download of additional material. 50 Karwoski, Gail Langer. Seaman: The Dog Who Explored the West with Lewis & Clark. Atlanta: Peachtree Publishers, Ltd., 1999, reprinted 2002. Well-researched (both re the expedition and Newfoundlands) historical fiction chapter book about Meriwether Lewis’ real-life dog.

Kimmel, Elizabeth Cody. As Far As the Eye Can Reach: Lewis and Clark’s Westward Quest, Landmark Books. New York: Random House Children’s Books, 2003. Straightforward, chapter book of the expedition. Illustrations are often misleading and inaccurately captioned. Index and bibliography.

Kroll, Steven. Lewis and Clark: Explorers of the American West. New York: Holiday House, 1994. Picture book in the heroic vein. Index.

“The Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806”, Cobblestone: The History Magazine for Young People. Peterborough, New Hampshire: Cobblestone Publishing, Inc., September 1980. Somewhat dated, opinionated versions of the story in magazine format.

“The Lewis and Clark Expedition and the Louisiana Purchase”, TCM 4427, Teacher Created Materials, Inc., n.d. Large, easily legible maps, with good survey-level activities in accompanying booklet.

Lourie, Peter. On the Trail of Lewis and Clark: A Journey up the Missouri River. Honesdale, Pennsylvania: Boyds Mill Press, Inc., 2002. Travelogue with some impressive photographs of the Missouri River and too many of the author and his traveling companions. Good explanations of changes to river since 1806.

Muench, David (photography) and Dan Murphy (text). Lewis and Clark: Voyage of Discovery. The Story Behind the Scenery series. Las Vegas: KC Publications, 2003. Large, breathtaking photos of sites, plants, and animals along the trail, supplemented by appropriate quotations from the journals and small maps pinpointing the location of the site. Text is a routine retelling of the adventure. 51 Olsen, Ken, “Discovering Lewis & Clark,” Teaching Tolerance, no. 29 (Spring 2006): 38-43. Presents modern Native American perspectives on the expedition.

“On the Trail with Lewis and Clark”, AppleSeeds 5, no. 3. Peterborough, New Hampshire: Cobblestone Publishing Company (November 2002). Good short articles about many facets of the expedition.

Patzman, Barbara J. Would You Have Gone with Lewis and Clark? The Story of the Corps of Discovery for Young People. Bismarck, North Dakota: United Printing and Mailing, Inc., 2000. Straightforward retelling of the journey, featuring some blackline activity masters suitable for younger or below-grade-level students. Poorly reproduced illustrations.

Petersen, David and Mark Coburn. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark: Soldiers, Explorers, and Partners in History. Chicago: Children’s Press, 1988. Poorly researched chapter book “history” that perpetuates such myths as Sacagawea as the expedition guide, and the ridiculous illustrations published in later editions of Gass’ journal as having been done by him on the trail. Imaginative motives for such non-events as Sacagawea leaving Touissant. Prime example of what not to teach.

Smith, Robert W., The Lewis and Clark Expedition and the Louisiana Purchase. Spotlight on America series, Grades 4-8, TCM 3233, Teacher Created Materials, Inc., 2003, reprinted 2004. Best teacher’s activity guide consulted for teaching across the curriculum, including map work, reading comprehension, botany, and writing prompts. Annotated bibliography, glossary, and answer key to quizzes.

Stickney-Markgraf, Joy. Lewis and Clark: An American Odyssey. Bend, Oregon: Maverick Publications, Inc., 2000. Retelling based on dated journal entries, with simple coloring book style line drawings, and list of places to visit.

Sullivan, George. Lewis and Clark: In Their Own Words. New York: Scholastic, Inc., 1999. Objective non-fiction chapter book below grade reading level. Frequent quotations from the journals, some maps and illustrations. Indexed. 52 Thomasma, Kenneth. The Truth about Sacajawea. Jackson, Wyoming: Grandview Publishing Company, 1997, reprinted 2003. Well-researched chapter book biography of Sacagawea based on the Definitive Nebraska Edition of the journals, with commentary by members of the Lemhi Shoshone tribe of her birth. List of entries mentioning her is cross-referenced to the journals.

Van Steenwyk, Elizabeth. My Name is York. Flagstaff: Rising Moon, 1997, reprinted 1999. Beautifully illustrated fiction picture book of the expedition focusing on York’s presumed dream of freedom, which the author accurately states was never granted.

The following websites were current as of March 2006:

Accelerated Reader. Renaissance Learning, Inc. PO Box 8036 Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin 54495-8036 Incentive-based program to encourage reading offers computerized comprehension quizzes on thousands of fiction and nonfiction books for all ages and interests, including many on subjects related to Lewis and Clark, exploration in general, and the westward movement of European- Americans. http://www.renlearn.com/aboutus.htm

Library of Congress. Fill up the Canvas . . . Rivers of Words: Exploring with Lewis and Clark Well-produced website with lots of very high quality images and map- linked primary resources http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/lewisandclark/index.html

National Park Service. “The Corps Explorer: Trail and Error,” Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail website Excellent general resource, including printed matter, lesson plans, useful links to other websites, and suggestions for field trips. http://www.nps.gov/lecl/Administration&Grants/News/is26.htm

Nebraska State Historical Society, P.O. Box 82554, 1500 R Street, Lincoln, NE 68501 One of many online sources for easy-to-follow instructions for paper bag moccasins. http://www.nebraskahistory.org/museum/teachers/material/trail/indians/m occasin.htm 53 U.S. Forest Service. Lewis and Clark Interpretive Center website Geared toward field trips to the Center in Great Falls, Montana, but has particularly succinct, downloadable timeline of the expedition and short biographies of all the Corps personnel http://www.fs.fed.us/r1/lewisclark/lcic/teachers/index.html 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, John L. “Geographical Knowledge and American Images of the Louisiana Territory,” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998.

______, Passage Through the Garden: Lewis and Clark and the Image of the American Northwest. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975.

______, Review of Atlas of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by Gary Moulton, Great Plains Quarterly 4, no. 1 (Winter 1984): 70.

______, Review of The Definitive Journals of Lewis & Clark, vols. 2, 3, and 4, edited by Gary E. Moulton, William and Mary Quarterly 46:3 (1989), 630-632.

______, “’Of This Enterprize’: The American Images of the Lewis and Clark Expedition” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998.

Alt, David and Donald W. Hyndman. Roadside Geology of Montana. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1986.

Ambrose, Stephen E. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon and Shuster, 1996; Touchstone, 1997.

“An 1810 Book Review” Reprint of “Intelligence,” a review of [the apocryphal] The Travels of Captains Lewis and Clarke, from St. Louis, by way of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, to the Pacific Ocean; performed in the Years 1804, 1805, and 1806, by Order of the Government of the United States, We Proceeded On (February 1984): 16-17.

Anderson, Irving W, “1847 Edition of Sergeant Gass’s Journal Abounds with Absurd Illustrations,” We Proceeded On (November 1985): 26-27.

Bakeless, John. Lewis and Clark: Partners in Discovery. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1947.

Barth, Gunther. “Timeless Journals: Reading Lewis and Clark with Nicholas Biddle’s Help,” Pacific Historical Review 63:4 (1994) 499. 55 Beckham, Stephen Dow, Doug Erickson, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant. The Literature of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Bibliography and Essays. Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark College, 2003.

Bettay, Anthony G., letter to Thomas Jefferson, reprinted as “A fantasy journal based on Lewis and Clark” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. Helena, Montana: Montana Historical Press, 1998, 207-208.

Betts, Robert B. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. n.p.: University Press of Colorado and the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, 1985, 2000.

______, “’The Writingest Explorers of their time’: New Estimates of the Number of Words in the Published Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition,” We Proceeded On (August 1981): 4-9.

[Biddle, Nicholas] and Archibald Hanna, eds. The Lewis and Clark Expedition by Meriwether Lewis, the 1814 Edition, Unabridged. Vol. 1. Philadelphia and New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1961.

Billian, Harold B. and Paul R. Cutright, “Andalusia, Country Home of Nicholas Biddle,” We Proceeded On, (August 1980): 9-10.

Bishop, Beverly D., “’The Writingest Explorers:’ Manuscripts of the Lewis and Clark Expedition,” Gateway Heritage: The Quarterly Journal of the Missouri Historical Society 2, no. 2 (Fall 1981): 22-29.

Blake, Kevin S., “Great Plains Native American Representations Along the Lewis and Clark Trail,” Great Plains Quarterly 24, no. 4 (2004): 263-282.

BlueHorse-Skelton, Judy, “Lewis & Clark: Through Native American Eyes,” Teaching Supplement for Grades 4-12. Portland, Oregon: Title VII Indian Education Project of Portland Public Schools, 2003-2004.

Bolas, Deborah W., “Books from an Expedition: A Publications History of the Lewis and Clark Journals,” Gateway Heritage: The Quarterly Journal of the Missouri Historical Society 2, no. 2 (Fall 1981): 30-35.

Breed, Allen G., “Letters Give Insight to Lewis and Clark,” We Proceeded On (February 1991): 26. 56 Burns, Ken. Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery. Washington, D.C: Florentine Films and WETA, The American Lives Film Project, Inc., 1997, DVD.

Burns, Ron. The Mysterious Death of Meriwether Lewis: A Novel. New York: St. Martins Press, 1993.

Campbell, Duncan Andrew, “Review of The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery: The Abridgment of the Definitive Nebraska Edition, ed. Gary E. Moulton,” Journal of American Studies 39, no. 1 (2005): 130-131.

Carter, Edward C., II, ed. Three Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition 1804-1806. facsimile edition Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2000.

Cayton, Andrew R. L., “Looking for America with Lewis and Clark”, Review of Out West: A Journey Through Lewis and Clark’s America, by Dayton Duncan; The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13 vols., edited by Gary Moulton; and Finding the West: Exploration with Lewis and Clark, by James P. Ronda, The William and Mary Quarterly 59, no. 3 (2002): 697-709.

______, “Telling the Stories About Lewis and Clark: Does History Still Matter?” Review essay of Exploring Lewis and Clark: Reflections on Men and Wilderness, by Thomas P. Slaughter; Prologue to Lewis and Clark: The Mackay and Evans Expedition, by W. Raymond Wood; Lewis and Clark: Across the Divide, by Carolyn Gilman; and The Literature of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Bibliography and Essays, by Stephen Dow Beckham, Doug Erickson, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant, Great Plains Quarterly (Fall 2004): 283-287.

Chalkley, Mark. “Paul Allen: ‘Editor’ of the Lewis & Clark Journals,” We Proceeded On (August 2002): 8-11.

Chandler, David Leon. The Jefferson Conspiracies: A President’s Role in the Assassination of Meriwether Lewis. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1994.

Clarke, Charles G. The Men of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.

Coues, Elliott, ed. History of the Expediton Under the Command of Lewis and Clark. 2 vols. New York: Dover Publications, 1965. 57 Cutright, Paul Russell. A History of the Lewis and Clark Journals. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976.

______, “The Journal of Captain Meriwether Lewis (Some Observations Concerning the Journal Hiatuses of Captain Lewis),” We Proceeded On (February 1984) 8-10.

DeVoto, Bernard. The Course of Empire. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952; Mariner Books, 1998.

______, “Introduction” in Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804- 1806, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites. New York: Arno Press, 1953, n.p.

______, ed. The Journals of Lewis and Clark. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1953; Mariner Books, 1997.

Diffendal, R.F., Jr. and Anne P. Diffendal. Lewis and Clark and the Geology of the Great Plains. Educational Circular No. 17, Conservation and Survey Division/School of Natural Resources/College of Arts and Sciences. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, December 2003.

Dillon, Richard. Meriwether Lewis: A Biography. New York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1965.

Duncan, Dayton, “Introduction to the Bison Books Edition,” in The Men of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. Charles G. Clarke. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002, v-xix.

______, Scenes of Visionary Enchantment: Reflections on Lewis and Clark. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.

______, “What the Lewis and Clark Expedition Means to America,” We Proceeded On (August 1997): 4-9.

Dunlay, Thomas W., “’Battery of Venus’: A Clue to the Journal-Keeping Methods of Lewis and Clark,” We Proceeded On (July 1983) 6-8.

Dye, Eva Emory. The Conquest: The True Story of Lewis and Clark. Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1902. Cited in Kessler, Donna J. The Making of Sacagawea: A Euro- American Legend. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1996, 81-90. 58 Egan, Timothy, “Two Centuries Later, a Moment for Indians to Retell the Past,” New York Times, 15 June 2003. Referenced in Kevin S. Blake, “Great Plains Native American Representations Along the Lewis and Clark Trail,” Great Plains Quarterly 24, no. 4 (2004): 275.

Erickson, Doug, Jeremy Skinner, and Paul Merchant. “Mathew Carey: First Chronicler of Lewis and Clark,” We Proceeded On (August 2003): 28-33.

Fanselow, Julie. Traveling the Lewis and Clark Trail. Guilford, Connecticut and Helena, Montana: Globe Pequot Press, 2003.

Fisher, Vardis. Suicide or Murder? The Strange Death of Governor Meriwether Lewis. Denver: Swallow, 1962.

Foote, Kenneth E. Shadowed Ground: America’s Landscapes of Violence and Tragedy. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997.

Fritz, Harry. Review of The Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, vol. 3, edited by Gary E. Moulton, We Proceeded On (November 1987) p. 30.

Furtwangler, Albert. Acts of Discovery: Visions of America in the Lewis and Clark Journals. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993.

Goodman, Karen and Kirk Simon. Lewis & Clark: Great Journey West. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2003, DVD.

Haltman, Kenneth, Review of Acts of Discovery: Visions of America in the Lewis and Clark Journals by Albert Furtwangler, Journal of the Early Republic 14, no. 1 (Summer 1994): 254.

Harrison, Steve, “Meriwether Lewis’s First Written Reference to the Expedition – April 15, 1803,” We Proceeded On (October 1983): 10-11.

Hebard, Grace Raymond. Sacajawea: A guide and interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition, with an account of the travels of Toussaint Charbonneau and of Jean Baptiste, the expedition papoose. Glendale, California: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1933. Reprinted by Clark, 1957. Cited in Donna J. Kessler. The Making of Sacagawea: A Euro-American Legend. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1996, 100-102. 59 Hendrix, James P., Jr., “A New Vision of America: Lewis and Clark and the Emergence of the American Imagination,” Great Plains Quarterly 21, no. 3 (Summer 2001): 211-232.

Holmberg, James J. “Getting Out the Word”, We Proceeded On (August 2001): 12-17.

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______, “Foreword” in In the Footsteps of Lewis and Clark, ed. Gerald S. Snyder. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 1970, 5.

______, ed. Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition With Related Documents, 1783-1854, 2nd ed., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978.

______. “The Race to Publish Lewis and Clark” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998.

______. Thomas Jefferson & the Stony Mountains: Exploring the West from Monticello. Urbana, Chicago, London: University of Illinois Press, 1978.

______. “What I Did for Love – of Editing”, Western Historical Quarterly (July 1982): 291-297.

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______. “The Biddle-Clark Interview,” We Proceeded On (August 1980): 7-8.

______. “Expedition Aftermath: The Jawbone Journals,” We Proceeded On (February 1991): 12-25.

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______, “Writing in Clover: The Versatile Vocabulary of Lewis and Clark,” We Proceeded On (November 1987): 12-14.

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MacGregor, Carol Lynn, ed. The Journals of Patrick Gass, Member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1997.

Marx, Walter H., “A Latin Matter in the Biddle ‘Narrative’ or ‘History,’” We Proceeded On (October 1983): 21-22.

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McMurty, Larry and Gary E. Moulton, review of The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13 vols., ed. Gary E. Moulton, The New York Review of Books 48, no. 2 (2001): 39, 5 pages.

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______. “The Thwaites edition of the L&C journals is back, and in an economical format”, review of Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, We Proceeded On (August 2002): 34.

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______. “The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: Beginning Again,” We Proceeded On (November 1980): 14-16.

______, ed. The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery: The Abridgement of the Definitive Nebraska Edition. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

______, “New Documents of Meriwether Lewis,” We Proceeded On (November 1987): 4-7.

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Polos, Nicholas C., “Explorer With Lewis and Clark,” Negro History Bulletin 45 (October, November, December 1982): 90, 96. Cited in Robert B. Betts. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. n.p.: University Press of Colorado and the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, 1985, 2000.

Quaife, Milo M., ed. The Journals of Captain Meriwether Lewis and Sergeant John Ordway Kept on the Expedition of Western Exploration, 1803-1806. Publications of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. vol. 22. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1916.

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______. “Exploring the Explorers” in Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, ed. James P. Ronda. Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 1998

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______, Listening to Lewis & Clark: Dispatches from the Voyage of Discovery. Bozeman, Montana: Bridger Press, 2003, CD.

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Thwaites, Reuben Gold, ed., Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804- 1806, 8 vols. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1904; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1969.

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______, “Elliott Coues on Lewis and Clark: A Discovery”, We Proceeded On (February 1993): 11-16. 64 ______, review of The Definitive Journals of Lewis & Clark, vol. 8: June 10 – September 26, 1806, ed. Gary E. Moulton, The Western Historical Quarterly 24, no. 4 (Spring 1994): 577.

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