INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photo graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. These are also available as one exposure on a standard 35mm slide or as a 17" x 23" black and white photographic print for an additional charge. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.
University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 3 0 0 North Z eeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700- 800/521-0600 Order Number 0011115
The effect of dance/movement on the self-concept of developmentally handicapped fourth and fifth grade students
Allen, Beverly Joyce, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1989
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Aibor, MI 48106 THE EFFECT OF DANCE/MOVEMENT ON THE SELF-CONCEPT
OF DEVELOPMENTALLY HANDICAPPED
FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADE
STUDENTS
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
By
Beverly Joyce Allen, B.S., M.F.A.
* * * * *
The Ohio State University
1989
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
S. Kleinman
N. MacGregor r Advisory School of Health/ Physical M. White-Dixon Education and Recreation DEDICATION
To my daughter, Kalilah and to my parents whose love and support made this accomplishment possible. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Seymour
Kleinman, my advisor, for his thoughtful suggestions and valuable support throughout this research project and my studies at The Ohio State University. I would like to thank Dr. Melayne White-Dixon and Dr. Nancy MacGregor for serving on my dissertation committee and for their contributions to my professional growth.
I am deeply indebted to and most appreciative of the students, teachers, and administrators who participated in and supported this study. Special thanks go to Kay Teagardner, Supervisor of the
Developmental!y Handicapped Program for Columbus Public
Schools, for her support and effort in securing the population for this study. VITA
January 21, 1952 ...... Born - High Point, North Carolina
1975 ...... B. S., North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina
1975-1979...... Dance Instructor, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina
1978 ...... M.F.A., University of North Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina
1979-1986...... Dance Teacher, Bancroft Perfroming Arts Magnet School, Los Angeles, California
1986-Present ...... Graduate Administrative Associate, Institute for the Advancement of the Arts in Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
PUBLICATIONS
Teacher Training and Discipline-Based Dance Education. Journal of Physical Education. Recreation and Dance. 1988, 59(9), 65-69.
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Fields: Physical Education, Dr. Seymour Kleinman Dance Education, Dr. Malanye White-Dixon
Minor Field: Arts Education, Dr. Nancy MacGregor
iv Table of Contents
PAGE DEDICATION...... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 1 ii
VITA...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... vii
LIST OF FIGURES...... viii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Statement of the Problem...... 3 Significance of the Problem ...... 3 Hypothesis...... 4 Research Questions...... 5 Basic Assumptions ...... 5 Delimitations and Limitations ...... 6 Definition of Terms ...... 7 Procedure ...... 8 Analysis of Data...... 11
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 13
Dance/Movement Education...... 14 Philosophy Underlying Dance/Movement Education...... 14 Dance/Movement Education in the United States ...... 25 Dance/Movement as Therapy...... 27 Summary...... 35 Self-Concept...... 37 Nature and Structure of Self-Concept 37 Dance/Movement Education and the Development of Self-Concept . . . 46 Summary...... 51 Developmentally Handicapped ...... 53 Nature of the Developmental!y Handicapped...... 53 The Developmentally Handicapped and Self-Concept...... 56
v Dance/Movement Education and the Developmentally Handicapped .. . 61 Dance/Movement Education and the Development of Self-Concept in the Developmental1y Handicapped . 62 Summary...... 64 Summary...... 66
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES...... 68
Instrumentation ...... 68 Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept S c a l e ...... 68 The Attitude Rating Scale...... 74 The Movement Coding Sheet...... 75 Setting...... 76 Sample...... 76 Treatment...... 80 Analysis of Data...... 88 Quantitative Data...... 88 Qualitative D a t a ...... 89 Summary ...... 93
IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA. . . . 95
Statement of the Problem...... 95 Presentation of Findings...... 96 Quantitative Data...... 96 Qualitative D a t a ...... 117 Correlation of the Quantitative Data and the Qualitative Data. .... 142 Summary...... 150
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 153
Summary of the S t u d y ...... 153 Conclusions...... 157 Recommendations...... 162
APPENDICES...... 164
A. Letters of Permission...... 165 B. Dance/Movement Unit P l a n ...... 168 C. Attitude Rating Scale, Movement Profile Coding Sheet, Movement Profile Scale . . . 193
LIST OF...... REFERENCES...... 197
vi LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Chronological Age Range and Distribution of Subjects 77
2. Ethnic Origin of Subjects 78
3. Intelligence Quotient Distribution of Subjects 79
4. Gender Distribution of Subjects 79
5. Mean scores, t-test scores, p value, and standard deviation of scores for experimental group and control group pretest and post-test 99
6. Mean scores, t-test score, and standard deviation scores on pretest and post-test for experimental group ...... 100
7. Mean scores, t-test scores, and standard deviation scores on pretest and post-test for selected subjects...... 102
8. Percentage of scores in each self-concept (S-C) range on post-test for experimental group, control group, and selected subjects 105
9. Percentage of scores having significant changes from the pretest to the post-test for experimental group, control group, and selected subjects ...... 107
10. Mean scores, t-test scores, p value and standard deviation scores on pretest and post-test by gender ...... 109
11. Percentage of scores in each self-concept (S-C) range on pretest and post-test for males and females, males and females in the experimental group, and males and females in the control group...... 114 12. Attitude Rating Scale scores for day one and day ten for selected subjects...... 138
13. Movement Profile Scale scores for first and last day of observation for selected subjects...... 140
14. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the Piers-Harris Scale, the Attitude Rating Scale, and the Movement Profile Scale for selected subjects...... 144
vi i i LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGE
1. Normal curve indicating standard deviations, percentile rank, percentage of cases within each interval, Stanford-Binet scores, and relative position of the developmental!y handicapped ( D H ) ...... 55
2. Dance/Movement Education Experimental D e s i g n ...... 82
3. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 1 ...... 120
4. Movement Profile Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 1 ...... 122
5. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 2 ...... 125
6. Movement Profile Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 2 ...... 127
7. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 3 ...... 130
8. Movement Profile Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 3 ...... 131
9. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject # 4 ...... 134
10. Movement Profile Scale Scores for Selected Subject #4 ...... 136
ix CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The "developmentaly handicapped" population within public schools represent a very unique group of students. They function ata lower than normal intellectual level. The student is less effective in his ability to function and maintain himself independently and to cope with culturally imposed personal and social demands. In addition, the developmental!y handicapped student often has a poor self-concept (Meier, 1976).
This population presents a unique challenge for the schools to fulfill one of the major goals of education— that of aiding the individual to develop to his fullest potential. Education must help the developmentally handicapped student become more skillful, more secure, more socially effective. In addition, education must encourage self-actualization and a positive self-concept.
1 The precise number of developmental!y handicapped students in the United States is difficult to assertain because of varing definitions of the population, variations in tests and procedures used to identify the population, and other uncontrollable factors. Meier
(1976) estimated that about one fourth of the ten year old population in the United States has some form of developmental learning disability. Miller and Davis
(1982) suggest a more conservative estimate of one to three percent of the school population. In the Columbus
(Ohio) Public Schools system, approximately 1800 students are identified as developmentally handicapped.
This number represents about three percent of the total student population (Teagardner, 1988), matching Miller and Davis’ estimate. This population may well be served by a dance/movement program.
Dance/movement education, as it is identified in the United States, is a relatively new and growing phenomenon with positive implications for the education of the developmental ly handicapped as well as for the general elementary school population. It has been acclaimed by many to have a positive effect upon the self-concept. These claims imply that dance/movement also aids in the development of the individual’s self-awareness, body image, creativity, and social skills. It is postulated that through involvement in the creative activity of dance/movement these components of self become more fully developed.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of a two-week intensive dance/movement program on the self-concept of fourth and fifth grade developmentally handicapped students.
Significance of the Problem
To move is to 1ive, to live is to move. We 1ive in a world in which our very exixtence depends upon movement. "Like a fluid within and around us, receiving and transmiting our impulses, uniting us with each other and with the whole of the physical world, movement is the medium through which we experience and express life"
(Mettler, n.d., p.1). The deeply rooted prevalence and importance of movement in our lives makes it necessary to "give attention to the conscious shaping of our movement experiences" (Mettler, n.d., p.4).
Dance/movement education is an approach through which movement experiences may be consciously shaped in an effort to aid in the total development of the individual.
The many contributions of dance/movement have been supported philosophically by dance educators, physical educators, dance therapists, and others. Some of the claimed contributions include the development of the whole self, increased social awareness, improved communication skills, increase in creativity, and the development of cognitive skills. The review of literature has revealed no empirical studies relating dance/movement education to developmentally handicapped students in the public school setting.
If, in fact, dance/movement education does produce change, it may-be very beneficial to incorporate certain techniques into the educational process. The developmentally handicapped, the learning disabled, the physically handicapped, the normal, and the gifted student can become the beneficiaries of such change.
A study of this nature will contribute to the body of knowledge in dance research. It may also contribute to the development of a more effective special education and elementary education curriculum.
Hypothesis
A two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program will effect change in the self- concept of fourth and fifth grade developmentally handicapped elementary school students. Research Questions
1. Will a two week intensive dance/movement program
change the general self-concept of fourth and fifth
grade developmentally handicapped students as
measured by the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept
Scale?
2. Is there a significant difference between the self-
concept of male and female developmentally
handicapped fourth and fifth graders as measured by
the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale.
3. Will the selected subjects develop any apparent
changes in their attitude toward dance/movement as
observed by the researcher?
4. Will selected subjects develop any apparent changes
in movement pattern as observed by the unbiased
observer?
5. Is there any correlation between results of the
qualitative data and the quantitative data?
Basic Assumptions
1. A positive self-concept is an important quality for
elementary school developmentally handicapped
students to possess.
2. Self-concept can be measured.
3. Self-concept can be changed. 4. A two week intensive dance/movement program can
affect change in self-concept in a positive direction.
Del imitations and Limitations
1. The experimental population was limited to fourth
and fifth grade developmentally handicapped students
at a public elementary school.
2. The control population was limited to fourth and
fifth grade developmentally handicapped students at
a second public elementary school.
3. The quantitative measure of self-concept was limited
to the use of one self reporting instrument.
4. The treatment was administered for a two week (ten
school days) period rather than for a long range
period.
5. The qualitative data collected by the unbiased
observer may be skewed as a result of the nature of
the lessons during week two.
6. The qualitative data analyzed by the Manual for the
Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale were not
statistically analyzed, but were subjectively
analyzed.
7. The researcher made no attempt to counteract the
Hawthorne Effect in which the extra attention given
to the subjects and their awareness of participation in a special project may have caused changes in
their attitude and/or behavior.
Definition of Terms
Adaptive behavior - the effectiveness with which the individual copes with the natural and social demands of his environment (Ohio Department of Education, n.d.).
Body image - the concept that one has of his own body as a result of the interaction of all his perceptions with all his experiences (Gorman, 1969).
Dance/movement education - the study of human movement organized in an expressive rhythmic structure emphasizing individual creativity and exploration through a problem solving format.
Deve1opmenta11y handicapped - significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning exsisting concurrently with deficits in adaptive bahavior manifested during the developmental period, which adversely affects educational performance (Ohio Department of Education, n.d.).
Self-actualization -the process of striving to fulfill one’s talents, capabilities, and potentialities for maximum self-realization, with integration of physical, social, intellectual, and emotional needs.
Self-concept "a relatively stable set of self-attitudes reflecting both a description and an evaluation of one’s own behavior and attributes" (Piers, 1969, p.1).
Self-esteem - the degree to which the individual feels that he is capable, worthwhile, successful, and significant (Coopersmith, 1959).
Procedure
A. Population and Sample
The population consisted of male and female fourth and fifth grade students who were identified as developmentally handicapped by the Ohio State Board of
Education guidelines. In order to be identified as developmentally handicapped a student must have a multifactored evaluation including, but not limited to, general intelligence as determined through a measure of cognitive functioning administered by a qualified psychologist using a test designed for individual administration, academic performance, motor abilities, communicative status, and adaptive behavior. The student must have a measured intelligence quotient of eighty or below and exhibit deficits in academic performance. The student must also exhibit deficits in adaptive behavior which adversely affects educational performance and/or independent daily living skills as documented through individually administered standardized tests validated for the specific purpose of measuring adaptive behavior. (Ohio Department of
Education, n.d.)
B. Design
The quasi-experimental research design was used in the study. This research design was selected because the research took place in the school setting and it was not possible to take individual students at random to participate. Intact classes were used.
C. Data and Instrumentation
Quantitative data was collected by the administration of a pretest and a post-test. The pretest was given to the total population prior to the two week intensive dance/movement treatment given to the experimental group. The post-test was administered to the total population following the two week intensive dance/movement treatment given to the experimental group.
Self-concept was assessed by the Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale, a self report instrument.
The scale was published by Ellen V. Piers and Dale B.
Harris in 1969. The test consists of eighty items requiring a yes/no answer. It may be divided into the following subscales: Behavior, Intellectual and School
Status, Physical Appearance and Attributes, Anxiety, 10
Popularity, and Happiness and Satisfaction.
The scale was designed for children in grades three through twelve. A third grade reading level is needed to complete the test. Numerous reliability tests have been conducted on the Piers-Harris Scale producing reliability coefficients ranging from .78 to .93.
Concurrent validity was also established with the following self-concept tests: Lipsitt Children’s Self-
Concept Scale, .68; Teacher Rating, .06 to .43; and Peer
Rating, .26 to .49.
Four subjects were randomly selected for observation. Qualitative data assessing their attitude toward dance/movement and their movement patterns were collected by the researcher and by an unbiased observe espectively. Recordings were kept on a rating scale by the researcher. Observations were recorded on a movement coding sheet by the unbiased observer.
The unbiased observer was certified in Laban
Movement Analysis from the Laban Institute of Movement
Studies in New York, New York. At the time of the study, the observer was matriculating in the Master of
Fine Arts program in the Dance Department at The Ohio
State University.
In addition to the observation of the selected subjects, the researcher made general observations of the entire experimental population. The observations 11 were recorded in a daily log.
Analysis of Data
The data was analyzed by the following statistical methods. The dependent t-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean scores on: the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept
Scale pretest and post-test for the experimental group, for the control group, and for the selected subjects; the subscales for the experimental group and the control group; the mean scores for the first day and last day on the Attitude Rating Scale for the selected subjects; and the mean scores for the first day and last day on the
Movement Profile Scale for the selected subjects.
The independent t-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean scores on: the Piers-Harris Scale pretest and post-test for the experimental group and the control group, for the males and females; the subscales for the experimental group and the control group, for the males and the females, for the males and the females in the experimental group, and for the males and females in the control group.
The Pearson Correlation Cofficient was applied to determine if there was any correlation between the qualitative data and the quantitative data. Scores on 12 the Piers-Harris Scale, scores on the Attitude Rating
Scale, and scores on the Movement Profile Scale were statistically analysed.
Observation was employed by the researcher and the unbiased observer to collect qualitative data. The data collected by the researcher were recorded with the use of a rating scale developed by the researcher and a daily log. The unbiased observer collected data with the use of a movement coding sheet. The data was then colated on a Movement Profile Scale, designed by the researcher.
A portion of the qualitative data collected by the researcher and the observer were presented as case studies describing the attitude toward dance/movement and the movement patterns of the selected subjects. The remianing portion of the qualitative data, collected by the researcher in the daily log, was presented in the form of a report. No attempt was made to make any psychological analyses or personality assessments from the qualitative data. Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A review of the literature has revealed a void in
the dance research. The search produced no emphirical
studies relating dance/movement education to the
development of self-concept in developmentally
handicapped students in the public school setting.
However, one study relating dance/movement to the
general education of the developmentally handicapped student in the public school setting was found.
Reasearch studies relating dance/movement to mentally retarded subjects in special settings were found. While psychological research on self-concept is vast, research relating dance/movement to self-concept
is limited.
The review of literature presents theoretical data to build a conceptual foundation for the study.
Emphirical data is presented to lend scientific support to the study. It is organized into three principle sections: dance/movement education, self concept, and the developmentally handicapped. Section one focuses
13 14
upon the philosophy underlying dance/movement education,
the history and nature of dance/movement education, dance/movement education in the United States, and
dance/movement as therapy. Section two focuses upon the nature and structure of self-concept and dance/movement education and the development of self concept. Section three focuses upon the nature of the developmentally handicapped, the developmentally handicapped and self- concept, and dance/movement education and the developmentally handicapped.
Dance/Movement Education
Philosophv Under!ving Dance/Movement Education
General education should give tc the student the values, attitudes, knowledge and skills that will equip them to live rightly and well in a free society. It should enable them to identify, interpret select, and build into his life those components of his heritage that contribute richly to understanding and appreciation of the world in which he lives. It should therefore embrace ethical values, scientific generalizations, and aesthetic conceptions. (Hawkins, 1954, p.27)
The preceding statement by the President’s
Commission on Higher Education indicates that the major goal of the educational process is the development of the individual to the fullest extent through the stimulation and aiding in growth and providing opportunities to develop self. Vanderschoot (1979) defines education as "the acquiring of all knowledge 15
which is relevant to the individual, which enables the
continuous development of personality, which helps one
to cope with societal expectations and life’s stresses
and which enables the human body to appreciate and enjoy
life" (p.1). In order for education to impact the life
of those who experience it in such a permanent way, the
process must be approached from a more humanistic view,
addressing all aspects of the individual: cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective.
The development of a more humanistic approach to education was reflected in the progressive education movement of the early 1900’s. There was a shift from emphasis on rote memorization toward an emphasis on
learning with understanding. In the field of physical education and dance, there was also a change in emphasis. Van Dalen, Mitchell, and Bennett (1953) wrote:
The influence. . .was felt in a new understanding of child nature; in an aggressive enthusiasm for "interest versus effort" in the learning process; and the beginnings of an appreciation of individual differences, (p.422)
Physical education demonstrated its compatibility with progressive education by changing its emphasis from the narrow objective of discipline of the body to that of developing the whole individual including the mental, physical, moral, and spiritual aspects. Gulick
(Chapman, 1974) promoted a type of physical exercise that would reach the "total child" and would be useful in his daily life. He stated that the primary purpose of physical training was the development of exercise forms that would be useful to the individual throughout his lifetime. Lampkin (Chapman, 1974) maintained that
"education must attempt to guide the self-activity of the children in an interesting way, overcoming obstacles which would help them deal effectively with future endeavors" (p.24). Heatherington (Chapman, 1974) expressed the need for a program that would develop the individual’s potential to adjust to the social order.
This prevailing philosophy by these and other dance and physical educators reflected the fact that dance and physical education had significant contributions to make to the total education of the individual.
Dance/movement education is concerned with promoting the growth and development of the whole child.
Joyce (1973) reported:
Creative dance involves the child’s inner being and his physical body, his concentration and awareness are fixed on the act of moving. Because of this focus, a child discovers a great deal about himself: his body, mind, language thoughts, ideas, imagination, (p.5)
The uniqueness of the child’s use of his body cannot be accounted for only in terms of physical development and skill acquisition but rather through a combination of the physical, intellectual, social, and emotional 17 components contributing to his movement. The sum of these components synthesize to contribute to the harmonious integration of all that the child is in his present stage of development, with all that he is capable of becoming. Maslow (1968) points out "learning to be a person is more central and more basic than the impersonal learning of skills or the acquisition of habits" (p.68). Caldwell (1972) states “Movement experiences appear to be one of the truly potent humanizing forces that can function to facilitate the development of self-identity, self-acceptance, self- direction, self-esteem, and self-actualization" (p.89) thus positively affecting self-concept. It is this emphasis upon accepting and developing the child as an integrated individual that is indicative of the philosophy of dance/movement education.
History and Nature of Dance/Movement Education
Dance/movement education is an outgrowth of the principles and theories of Rudolf Laban. His work in the teaching of children is based upon his work in industry and in theatre where he had the opportunity to analyze and interpret movement. Laban and Lawrence
(1948) emphasized the importance of a balanced use of effort combinations, stating: 18
The habit of using one basic effort too exclusively and with exagerated accentuation of all its elements results in more complicated disturbances of normal functions. . . Balance and ease can be lost through long-lasting and therefore habitual lopsided use of a few of all the possible effort-combi nations while others are neglected, (p.38)
They described movement behavioi— effort, in terms of four motion factors: weight, space, tima, and flow.
An awareness of the use of these factors is helpful in the development of natural movement abilities.
Laban investigated the significance of movement and dance in the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual realms. "Movement and dance were for Laban the fundamental vehicle which would bring about harmonization of man’s physical and spiritual faculities and stimulate the artist in him, which would heighten his awareness, sensitivity, and creative power"
(Thornton, 1971, p.52). He formulated his ideas on movement into sixteen basic-movement themes, each representing a movement idea corresponding to a progressive movement stage in the developing child. The themes are concerned with:
1. awareness of the body
2. awareness to resistance to weight and time
3. awareness of space
4. awareness of the flow of the weight of the body in
space and time 19
5. adaptation to partners
6. instrumental use of the limbs of the body
7. awareness of isolated actions
8. occupational rhythms
9. shapes of movement
10. combinations of the eight basic effort actions
11. space orientation
12. shapes and efforts using different parts of the body
13. elevation from the ground
14. awakening of group feelings
15. group formations
16. expressive qualities or moods of expression.
A new dance form, modern educational dance, emerged from
his investigations.
Laban felt that this form of dance had particular educational value. He charged that children had an
innate urge to perform dance-like movements, and the school had a responsibility to nurture this urge.
According to Laban, the tasks of the schools were to: foster and concentrate the child’s urge to perform dance-like movements, preserve and keep alive the spontaneity of movement in the child, and foster the child’s expression in the primary art of movement. In addition, the educational value of modern educational dance was increased by the universality of the movement 20 forms which were studied and mastered. The aim of modern educational dance was to integrate intellectual knowledge with creative ability.
This form of dance emerged during a period when there were a great number of changing attitudes throughout the field of education in Europe. A new philosophy was taking shape, in which the major aim was the development of the student as an individual.
According to Thornton, Laban did not formulate a theory of education, but in the analysis of his works four distinct educational aims emanate: awareness, understanding, communication, and appreciation.
Awareness is developed through experiencing situations in which one can fully realize his own capabilities and make the most of them. The individual is helped toward gaining a more accurate assessment and understanding of himself and of others. A greater facility for forming good human relationships through communication is enhanced by increased expressive ability. A heightened appreciation of the form and dynamics of movement, can help one create and appreciate a wholesome environment in which to live and be able to exist harmoniously within society.
Distinct characteristics mark dance/movement in the approach to method and content. The method is based upon the process of discovery and the techniques of 21 problem-solving (Gilliom, 1970). The children discover their own mental and movement solutions to problems.
The content is based upon Laban’s sixteen basic-movement themes. This process approach to learning places equal value on developing the ability to think and act productively, on self-actualization, on content, and on the acquisition of knowledge.
Children are afforded the opportunity to experience dance which grows directly from personal movement expression. They are encouraged to use their own ideas and movements, giving them every opportunity to develop their own expression through efforts of their own choosing. The entire range of movement is experienced and practiced. This allows children to learn the language of movement and to create movement sequences and dances of their own.
The dance experiences are characterized by movement responses that are spontaneous, unique, and natural to each child (Barrett, 1977). In observing the dance/education class in progress, one would see every child doing something different, but they will all have a common idea or theme on which they are working.
Dance/movement differs from the conventional forms of dance, i. e. ballet, tap, specific forms of modern, and folk. The focus of dance/movement is on the expressive aspect of movement rather than on the 22 teaching of a set dance style. Dance/movement addresses the mastery of universal forms of movement and may be applied to any particular style of dancing. In considering the results that are to be achieved, the major concerns are the production of "child art”
(Logsdon, 1977) in which the child freely invents his own dances as a creative activity and with the learning process, rather than the production of skilled technical performances and technically trained dancers.
Dance/movement and stylized forms of dance may be compared as follows:
Dance/Movement Sty1ized Forms of Dance
Students work independently Students work in unison, and usually produce a vari- specific movements are re- ety of movements. reproduced by all.
Students constantly create Students may have opportu for themselves throughout nity to create at some class. point during class.
Students master universal Students master individual movements that may be ap- movements required in par plied to any style of ticular styles of dancing. dancing. 23
Students use entire range Students limited to speci- of movement available to fic movements used in sty- the human body to create lized forms to create dances. dances.
Students develop variety Student develop specific of movement skills through movement skills through use of movement themes. standardized exercises.
Students master movement Students master movement through understanding and through practicing each practicing the principles particular movement. of movement.
Students incidentally exer Students systemati cal1y cise body parts. exercise body parts.
Inherent mechanism to ac Little or no mechanism commodate individual dif to accommodate individual ferences. differences.
Problem-solving is main Direct method is main method of teaching. method of teaching.
Less teacher demonstration. Usually more teacher de
monstration. 24
Expressive and impressive Impressive properties of i' 4 properties of teaching teaching used. used.
Participatory activity— Spectatorial activity-not designed for audience designed for audience viewing. viewing.
Dance/movement promotes the mastery of movement in all its bodily and mental aspects. It aids in the creative expression of the child and facilitates the outward manifestation of the inner attitude and in so doing, allows the child to communicate his thoughs and feelings. These concepts combine to help establish psychological equlibrium or a positive self-concept
(Laban, 1966).
The dance that developed from Laban’s work with movement opened up the possibility of an aesthetic, creative experience to everyone. Laban’s ideas are largely responsible for the development of creative dance in the schools, an increased movement awareness throughout education, and the increased development of dance education throughout the United States. His vision of the importance of movement in contemporary life has become increasingly recognized as having a positive contribution to the education of young chiIdren. 25
Dance/Movement Education in the United States
Movement education was introduced into the United
States through American educators who studied under
Laban and his advocates in England. His approach to
movement, involved the development of the total child, a
concept consistent with the emerging values of
progressive education in the United States. The
reshaping of perceptions of society, education, the
child, movement, and dance during the 1940’s and 1950’s
provided a supportive atmosphere for the growth of movement education.
During this period, significant changes in educational theory and philosophy took place. These changes revised the role of the teacher, student, and the fields of dance and physical education. Physical education and dance emerged as important educational vehicles. The philosophical changes within education
lead to new approaches to movement experiences in physical education and dance. The psychological, social, and physical needs of the child were considered
in the development of the new approach to movement.
McCloy (1940) addressed the need for evaluation of student’s abilities and individual differences by the physical education teacher. He advocated the development of a program designed to accommodate and affect changes in the behavior of the individual 26 student.
The changing emphasis within physical education expanded its concept. It was no longer viewed as simply a physical activity designed to release pent-up energy.
Physical education had emerged as an integral part of the total educational process, sharing the goals of general education. Cassidy (1940) wrote:
Physical education today stands on a new frontier; it seeks a new name which will avoid the old concept of a division between mind and body, between the physical and mental. Physical education has taken on the same objective as education, that of the fullest development of the individual for fullest growth of self and the society in which he lives, (p.409)
This philosophy was further expressed by Salt, Fox, and
Stevens (Chapman, 1974):
Contemporary physical education may be defined as an integral phase of education, contributing to the development of the individual physically, mentally, socially, and emotionally through the medium of selected physical activities, utilizing the physiological and psychological drives of man for activity, (p.84)
At the same time that physical educators were re evaluating and redesigning their programs, so were dance educators. They believed that dance programs should be qualitative, making a contribution to the growth and development of the total child. They worked to develop a pedagogy that would evidence a consistence of philosophy and method and establish its value in education. Laban's approach to movement was adopted as 27 a model for the development of dance philosophy and methodology.
Dance/Movement as Therapy
Dance/movement is an aspect of the therapeutic treatment of individuals with a wide variety of physical and mental problems. It is a means for defining and directing progress toward well being by assisting the individual "through movement to develop and organize a repertoire of behavior which will enable the person to satisfy their own needs and adjust adequately to the demands of the environment" (Bernstein, 1975, p.xii).
Dance/movement as therapy is the use of rhythmic movement as a means of self-expression and communication that aids in the healthy integration of mind and body
(Caplow-Lindner, Harpaz, Samberg, 1979). Dance/movement as therapy provides a supportive and non-threatening atmosphere in which self-expression and communication may be manifested. Dance therapy is distinguished from
other utilizations of dance by its focus on the nonverbal aspects of behavior and its use of movement as a process for intervention. Adaptive, expressive, and communicative behaviors are all considered in treatment, with the expressed goal of integrating these behaviors with psychological aspects of the person. (Delaney, 1977, p.6)
Changes in the fifties and sixties brought about an increase in the use of dance/movement therapists.
During the fifties, changes in the treatment of patients 28 who had been physically and emotionally isolated in
institutions, led to an increased use of dance/movement therapy. In the sixties, the human relations training movement and resurgence of research in non-verbal communication brought an even greater interest in dance/movement therapy as a treatment modality (Mason,
1974).
Dance movement as therapy provides therapeutic experiences involving group interaction, individual expression, and heightened body awareness. Movement elements are applied in an effort to gain insight into the personality of the individual and to provide outlets for expression and socialization. Reduction of tension, acquisition of improved self and body image, improved skills in communication, self-expression, and socialization are the fundamental goals of dance/movement therapy (Delaney, 1977).
Schmais (Mason, 1974) contends that the practice of dance/movement as therapy is based upon three major assumptions: (1) movement reflects personality, (2) the relationship between therapists and patient supports and enables behavioral change, and (3) changes occuring on the movement level can affect total functioning. The first assumption implies that there is no dichotomy between the functioning of the mind and the behavior of the body. Body movement reflects intrapsychic dynamics and socially evolved methods of relating to one’s self and to others. This assumption is supported by Schilder (1950). She stated that muscular sequences and psychic attitudes are inseparable. Psychic attitudes are reflected in muscular tension and change in muscular tension produces change in psychic attitudes. Schmais and White (1968) further support this assumption. They contend that focusing on the body as an instrument of self-expression may increase awareness of how one moves as well as how attitudes and feelings are reflected by one’s movement. Dance/movement as therapy attends to the total personality as it is expressed in body movement.
The second assumption relates to the process of human interaction. The therapist’s ability to reflect and respond to the patient’s movements contributes to behavioral changes in the patient. Chase stressed that dance is communication of feeling and "dance therapy, in making use of the basic form of communication, offers the individual a means of relating himself to the environment or to people when he is cut off in the majority of areas by the patterns of his illness"
(Bernstein, 1975, p.6). Social interaction skills are developed through learning to cooperate and interact rhythmically and dynamically in a group situation. 30
The third assumption suggests that the behavioral changes that occur in the individual affects other aspects within the individual. It has been reported that creative dance develops muscular control and coordination, increases perceptual abilities, facilitates learning of verbal and cognitive concepts, provides alternative means of self-expression, and provides creative outlets for personal growth and development. Development in these areas reflect change in the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects of the individual.
Based upon the preceding assumptions, Schmais describes the following to be the fundamental characteristics of dance/movement as therapy:
1. Dance/movement as therapy is expressive. The shared
expression of feelings between therapist and patient
can prevent further withdrawal into isolation.
2. Dance/movement as therapy is developmental.
Starting at the patient’s physical and emotional
level, experiences that foster growth and extension
of self are provided.
3. Dance/movement as therapy as integrative. Body
images are enhanced and a sense of identity is
developed through the production of integrated
patterns of movement.
4. Dance/movement as therapy is inclusive. It 31
administers to individuals or groups, in hospitals
or in the community, to the elderly or to the young,
and to a variety of diagnostic categories.
The development of the present form of dance/movement therapy is attributed to changes and developments in the field of dance. Early pioneers in modern dance, lead by Isadora Duncan, considered emotional content to be the most important element of dance. Duncan hailed dance as the source of emotions in harmony with the natural world. She saw dance as a fundamental response to the universe, a means through which the ability to live fully and freely could be renewed (Mason, 1974). Bartenieff (1957) defined dance as "a nonverbal medium of emotional expression as well as joy of action through body motion (p.146)." Modern dance was engaged in as a means of exploring new ways of communicating. The separation of technique from dance encouraged a greater range of expressiveness and focus upon the personal experience, providing the foundation for its use in therapy.
Dance therapy is grounded in concepts of modern dance which utilize improvisation with its relationship to time, space, and energy. Elements of dance that enable patients to progress toward healthier functioning are selected and applied. Bartenieff (1972-73) cites 32 spontaneity, authenticity of individual expression, awareness of the body, and themes stressing feelings and relationships as key modern dance notions advanced in dance/movement therapy. She stated, "those of us working in the field who have our roots in the dance world of the thirties and forties. . .see it as a direct outgrowth of modern dance" (p.6).
Seven dancers emerge as major figures who set precedents for the development of the field of dance therapy: Marion Chase, Mary Whitehouse, Trudi Schoop,
Lilyan Espenak, Irmgard Bartenieff, Blanche Evan, and
Franziska Boas. These innovators set the stage and provided the models, the roots of which began and remain in modern dance, for the field of dance therapy. The work and philosophy of these pioneers in dance therapy has a common foundation: a committment to dance and to the use of its elements to heighten body-mind awareness.
The work of many dance/movement therapists reflects specific psychoanalytic influences from individual psychiatrists who stressed body-mind unity. The work of psychoanalists such as Wilheim Reich, Carl Jung, Harry
Sullivan, and Alfred Adler focused upon three issues that are essential to the practice of dance/movement therapy: the expressive language of the body, the therapeutic value of artistic experience, and the interactive nature of personality (Mason, 1974). 33
Reich took note of the expressive movements of his patients. He theorized that defenses were rooted in the body as chronic muscular tension. He analyzed what his patients repressed as well as how they repressed it somatically. Reich developed a character analysis system based on "defensive armoring" of the body and the process of gaining adaptive mobility. Specific movement exercises to promote affective expression and release of tension were designed. Reich’s views on defensive armoring coincided with what many dance/movement therapists saw as one of their functions— to help the patient reduce muscular tension so that basic mobility could be regained.
Jung’s work validated the use of the arts in patient treatment. He considered "active imagination," the artistic experience, to have both a therapeutic and a diagnostic function. Active imagination afforded the patient a vehicle for expressing unconscious feelings, a process that Jung believed to be vital for the individual. Jung used dance either as direct expression or through the "dancing out of one’s dreams" (Bernstein,
1979, p.5).
Studies by Bender and Boas (1941) supported Jung’s position. They found improvisational dance had the potential of stimulating and giving expression to unconscious fantasies as well as helping patients deal 34 with conflicts through the creative act.
Sullivan developed an interpersonal theory of personality in which he described it as "the relatively enduring patterns of recurrent interpersonal situations which characterize a human life" (Mason, 1974, p.9). Personality is developed through the accumulated experiencing of self in an interpersonal environment.
The individual develops a sense of self, the ability to become an object unto himself, and to react to himself as he would expect others to react to him. Dance therapists using Sullivan’s view approach dance therapy as an interactive process.
Adler emphasized the conscious, particularly upon the role of the ego in shaping personality. He believed that whether the mind affects the body or the body affects the mind was not the key question. How the whole self is involved in the pursuit of goals was key.
Adler’s ideas were accepted into transactional analysis and humanistic therapies. It was through the humanistic therapies that Adlerian psychotherapy had its influence on the arts therapies.
Dance/movement therapy utilizes the basic techniques of modern dance which emphasize creative expression. Nonverbal expression is facilitated through the development of the ability to move. Dance/movement as therapy allows the patient to see himself 35 differently. The resulting changes in behavioral patterns tend to reduce fragmentation; to diminish
defenses; and to permit the integration of feelings, thoughts, and actions.
Summary
The principles and theories of Rudolf Laban have
been accepted as being ideal in combining the philosophy
and aims of general education with the philosophy and
aims of dance/movement education. His analysis of movement is generally thought to be the most related to educational needs. His ideas, based on the effort
factors of weight, space, time and flow, are a starting
point from which the aims of dance/movement education
are expanded. Dance/movement not only has educational value, it has therapeutic value.
Dance/movement provides a supportive and non threatening atmosphere in which self-expression and
communication are encouraged. It enables the individual to gain some control of themself and of their environment. The therapeutic experiences involve group
interaction, individual expression, and heightened body awareness. Changes in movement patterns may reduce fragmentation, diminish defenses, and permit the
integration of feelings, thoughts, and actions. The
increased knowledge and awareness of the body and the developing ability to use it as a means of self-expression inprove self image which contributes to the development of a positive self-concept. 37
Self-Concept
Nature and Structure of Self-Concept
Self-concept is one of the most basic components of the personality. It is a construct that is considered to be a critical factor in the study of personality development and for understanding and predicting human behavior (Felker, 1974; Collins, 1984). Piers and
Harris (1969) define self-concept as "a relatively stable set of self-attitudes reflecting both a description and an evaluation of one’s own behavior and attributes" (p.1). It is generally conceived to be a cognitive product created from the individual’s perceptions, observations, and evaluations of his own behavior and the behavior of others toward him. Fitts,
(1971) maintains that the self-concept "summarizes all that he [a person] is and serves as a supramoderator of his functioning" (p.2). Self-concept is the total view; including perceptions, ideas, and attitudes; that the individual has of himself. Jersild (1960) provides a comprehensive definition of self and self-concept:
The self, as it finally evolves, is made up of all that goes into a person’s experiences of his individual existence, it is a person’s inner world. It is a composite of a person’s thoughts and feelings, strivings and hopes, fears and fantasies, his view of what he is, what he has been, what he might become, and his attitudes pertaining to his worth. . . .The self includes, among other things, a "perceptual" component: the way a person perceives himself— the image he has of the impressions he makes on others. It 38
also includes a "conceptual" component: his conceptions of his distinctive characteristics, his abilities, resources, assets, lacks and limitations, his conception of his backgroung and origin, and of his future. There is also an "attitudinal" component of the self, including the feelings a person has about himself, his attitudes concerning his present status and future prospects, his tendency to view himself with pride or shame, his convictions concerning his worthiness or unworthiness and his attitudes (which may be mixed) or self-esteem, (p.15).
Self-concept has elements of stability and flexibility. As the individual experiences the personal self in relation to the perceived environment, the self-concept becomes shaped into a relatively fixed and stable construct, providing a frame of reference through which the individual interacts with the environment.
Engel (1959) administered a self-concept test to eighth graders and tenth graders. Two years later he retested them in an attempt to establish the degree of stability of the self-concept. Engel’s hypothesis implied that the stability of the self-concept was achieved earlier in the development of the personality.
The study proved the relative stability of the self-concept. Subjects with a negative self-concept were significantly less stable than subjects with a positive self-concept.
Some aspects of the self-concept are flexible. As changes occur due to age and experience, so does the self-concept through experience and social interactions. 39
Self-concept, is refined, enhanced, and maintained in on-going encounters with the environment. Out of the perceived environment, the individual establishes significant beliefs which substantiate the self definition. The degree of significance accorded to these beliefs tend to establish self-concept stability
(Purkey, 1970).
Self-concept is developed through the individual’s social interactions, reactions to self, ability to solve developmental tasks, and increasing competence in coping with life situations (Coopersimth, 1967). While the self-concept is affected by growth and experiences, experiences are affected by the self-concept. Markus and Nurius (1984) state that the acquisition of a variety of intellectual, social, artistic, and athletic skills through new experiences provide new domains for self definition.
Self-concept is important because it is intimately involved in human functioning. It determines how the individual will react in various situations. Felker
(1974) describes the role of self-concept as that of a mechanism for maintaining inner consistency, determining how experiences are interpreted, and providing a set of expectencies. In an attempt to maintain inner consistency or psychological comfort, the individual has a tendency to act in ways which are consistent with his 40 view of himself. The individual attaches meaning to every experience. The meaning attached to the experience is greatly influenced by the view that the
individual has of himself. He also expects to be treated in a manner that is consistent with how he feels about himself.
Patterson (1963) described an adequate self-concept as including an awareness and understanding of one’s self and attitudes, the development of self-esteem and self-respect, the achievement of independence and self- direction, and the ability to take responsibility of one’s self for one’s decisions and actions.
Self-concept is a multidimensional construct. Part of the individual’s concept of self is his perceptions and feelings about his own body. It has been found that
there is a significant relationship between self-concept and body image (Zion, 1965; McCandless, 1967; Fisher &
Cleveland, 1968; Puretz, 1974). Wylie (1961) wrote that
body image is a term with no clear literary or operational definition. Even though the term has been used synonymously with other terms such as body concept,
now-phenomenal self, self construct, and body cathexis,
it has been differentiated from them.
The concept of the body or body schema was first examined in the field of neurology in order to explain disorders in movement sensations. Head (Schilder, 1950) 41 first postulated the basic concepts of the nature of body image and defined it as the Knowledge and awareness that one has of his own body. He indicated that the body schema could "best be envisaged as a plastic model of the individual’s own body in space and time,
.upon which movements are successfully registered as they occur" (p.723). He described the schema as a unity derived from past and current experiences and sensations. He contended that the individual builds one or more models of himself stemming from sensory experiences. New sensations related to the established model affect change which results in improved or reduced motor performance.
Schilder (1950) broadened the concept of body image to include the psychological and socialogical aspects of bodily awareness. He based the concept of body image on psychoanalytic observations of perceptions, thoughts, and feelings toward the body.
Progress in relation to research on the construct of body image yielded a multitude of definitions. The point that Wylie (1961) made relative to the synonymous use of terms is evidenced in the following definitions.
Wright (1960) considered body image to be a part of the self-concept. He defined it as "that aspect of the self-concept which pertains to attitudes and experiences involving the body" (p.139). 42
Body concept was addressed in Witkin, Dyk, Faterson,
Goodenough, and Karp’s (1962) definition. They defined body concept as "the systematic impression an individual has of his body, cognitive and affective, conscious and unconscious, formed in the course of growing up" (p.67).
Benyon (1968) focused his definition of body image on the body percept. He wrote "It is an overall concept of one’s body and its movement with relationship to varied environments" (p.6.).
Gorman (1969) defined body image as the concept that one has of his own body as a result of the
interaction of all his perceptions with all his experiences.
Goldenson (1970) defined body image as "the mental
image we form of our body as a whole including both its physical (body percept) and our attitudes toward these characteristics (body concept) " (p.168).
Body image involves not only the perception of the body as attained through personal experiences in various environments. It is also dependent upon contact with others, the individual’s reaction to others, and the
reaction of others to the individual.
Body image is considered by many authorities to be the basis out of which self-concept develops. Schilder
(1950) and Piaget (1966) maintain that the development of body image parallels sensorimotor growth and 43 development. It is an important source of information for learning about one’s self and the environment in which one lives. The body image is consistently modified by new percepts and new experiences.
The body is the instrument of expression for the individual’s personality, therefore, body image is a vital and integral part of self-concept. Social expectations, cultural values and attitudes of others influence an individual’s perceptions of his physical characteristics and his feelings and attitudes toward them. The feelings an individual has toward his body and toward himself are essential to basic human functioning and a sense of well being.
Learning to move with efficiency and control improves body awareness and the accuracy of body image.
Rubin (1968) states that the development of an accurate body image reflects awareness and control over one’s body and is, therefore, a measure of self-esteem.
Secord and Jourard (1961) found a positive correlation between the degree to which individuals feels positively about their body and the degree to which they feel positively about themselves. Zion
(1965) found a significant and direct linear relationship between self-description and body- description, self-ideal and body-ideal, and self-ideal discrepancies and body ideal discrepancies. These 44 studies indicate that self-esteem affects body image and is reflected in feelings and attitudes toward the body.
Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of self-concept. It is the degree to which the individual feels capable, worthwhile, successful, and significant
(Coopersmith, 1959). Self-esteem is affected by the success or failure experienced in manipulating and controlling one’s environment and by the opinions and reactions of others toward the individual. Failure experiences, if frequent and consistent, lower self-esteem while successful experiences, especially those that are important to the individual, raise self-esteem (Gergen, 1971). According to Raimy (1971) and Gergen, changes in the overall level of self-esteem reflect changes in self-concept. Body image and self esteem are considered to be vital aspects of self- concept.
Self-concept is viewed as a social phenomenon involving the integration of self-perception with other people’s perceptions. According to Stringer (1971), "a sense of self develops in the matrix of significant interpersonal relationships" (p.50). The establishment of significant interpersonal relationships is based on interaction with others and is known as socialization.
Socialization is both conscious and unconscious. The self develops in a conscious response to the approval 45 and disapproval of significant others (Sullivan, 1953).
Middle childhood, six to twelve years of age, is a critical period in the development of the social self.
During this period the individual becomes intensly aware of the evaluation of others and self-understanding expands to reflect other people’s perceptions. It is also during this period that the individual develops a sense of competence and an initial sense of self as a valued member of society (Markus & Nurius, 1984). The need to belong and be respected as a desirable member of the group is important in establisning a positive self-concept. Mead (1934) emphasized that the basis of self-concept is the individual’s perception of the reaction of others. The experiences occuring during this period contribute significantly to the view of self that the individual develops.
It has been established that there is a definite relationship between self-concept and academic achievement (Wylie, 1974; Shaw & Alves, 1963; Wattenberg
& Clifford, 1964; Williams & Cole, 1968; Purkey, 1970).
Combs (1959) supported the premise that the child’s success in school depends largely upon the kind of self- concepts he has about himself. He stated "what a person believes about himself establishes what he can and will do” (pp.22-23). Brookover and Schailer (1964) found a significant positive relationship include the fact that: 46 self-concept and achievement interact, one affecting the other and vice versa and that self-concept affects the
individual’s participation in learning tasks.
Higgins and Eccles (1983) suggest that enduring self-concept of academic ability is dependent upon
elementary school experiences. A variety of studies on self-esteem indicate that the individual’s general feeling of self-worth may be related to academic experiences. Educators have become increasingly aware of the student’s self-concept as a variable in the educational process. Humphrey (1965), Brookover (1966),
LeBenne and Green (1969), Markus and Nurius (1984), and
Collins (1984) have presented writings addressing this
relationship. Purkey (1970) states "the overwhelming
body of contemporary research points insistently to the
relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement and suggests strongly that the self concept can no longer be ignored by parents and teachers" (p.v- vi).
Dance/Movement Education and the Development of Self-
Concept
It is obvious that the self-concept is a complex construct in terms of its nature (what it is), its determinants (how and what shapes it), and its development (how it changes over time). Mead 47
(Rosenberg, 1979) and Wylie (1974) make a distinction between the self as subject or agent and the self as object of the individual’s own knowledge and evaluation.
The most immediate experience of the self is as an agent— behavior. The focus here is on the self as an object— attitudes. The focus in particular is on dance/movement education as a determinant of the
individual’s knowledge and evaluation of himself. In other words, what effect does dance/movement have on the self-concept of the individual? Can it affect change in the individual’s self-attitudes?
It has been established that the development of self-concept is a dynamic process. Recent research trends credit the total environment with the power to directly impact affective traits and the way in which the individual views himself. LaBenne and Greene (1969) state:
Self-concept is influenced by the relationship a person has in . . .situations with teachers and peers. Important for teachers is the fact that self-concepts are not unalterably fixed, but- rather are modified by every life experience through at least the maturing years. Inherent in function of experience is the fact that it can be taught, (p.17)
The dance/movement experience may affect the development of the self-concept. Frostig and Haslow
(1973) maintain that:
Movement, especially self-directed movement, like no other aspect of the curriculum, can make 48
children aware of themselves as individuals able to perform feats of speed and skill, to master their own bodies, conquer space, and joyfully interact with each other. Movement education can thus improve a child’s self-concept, (p.161)
Research relating dance/movement to the development of self-concept began in recent years. The limited number of studies approach this relationship from diverse perspectives. The populations range from the very young to the elderly, from the advantaged to the disadvantaged, from the physically talented to the physically handicapped, and from the severely developmentally handicapped to the highly gifted. The studies have yielded conflicting results, but they reflect an increasing effort to better understand dance/movement as it relates to the growth and development of the individual and of the self-concept.
Puretz (1973) and Wallock (1975) conducted research in dance/movement and general self-concept. Puretz
(1973) compared the effects of dance and physical education on the self-concept of disadvantaged, inner- city, elementary school girls. The study took place in the regular school setting, but was substituted for the standard physical education class to which the control group was exposed. The Lipsitt Self-Concept Scale for
Children was used to evaluate self-concept. Puretz’s hypothesis that modern educational dance positively affects self-concept was supported. 49
Wallock (1975) conducted research on the significant changes in self-concept as effected by a creative dance movement experience. Volunteers were
invited to participate as subjects. The Semantic
Differential questionnaire was used to measure self-concept. The study revealed that there is a significant positive change in the self-concept after a creative dance-movement experience.
Parks (1960) approached her study from the physical and affective perspective. She investigated the effects of a creative dance program on the body image and self-esteem of seven to twelve year old children with severe speech defects. The subjects were selected from special speech clinics to participate in the study.
Body image was evaluated with the Goodenough Harris Draw
A-Person test. Self-esteem was evaluated with the
Hoffmeister^Chi Id’s Self Esteem Questionnaire and the
Hoffmeister Observer’s Rating of Child’s Self-Esteem
Questionnaire. It was concluded that creative dance is an effective means for improving the accuracy of the body-image and level of self-esteem of children with severe speech defects. Parks also concluded that over an extended period of time, creative dance would effect significant changes in these aspects of self-concept.
Oshuns (1977) conducted her research in the area of social development while Trigg (1978) and Twillie (1980) investigated in the cognitive area. Oshuns explored creative movement (dance) as a means of increasing
positive self-concept, personal, and social adjustment of seventh grade students. The study took place in two
parochial schools with intact classes. The Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale and the California Test of
Personality were the instruments used to measure self
concept and personal and social adjustment. The study
showed that there was no statistically significant gain
in self-concept or in personal and social adjustment.
However, objective data collected and analysed for the
study indicated a lowered level of anxiety, improvement
in school relations, and increased body awareness among
the participants.
Trigg investigated the effect of varing amounts of
creative modern on creative thinking and self-concept.
The subjects were undergraduate, nondance majors enrolled in a basic physical education program. The experimental group was divided into four subgroups and treated with differing amounts of creative modern dance.
The Torrence Tests of Creative Thinking was administered
to measure creative thinking ability and the Tennessee
Self-Concept Scale was administered to measure
self-concept. It was concluded that the amount of modern educational dance has no significant effect on
creative thinking ability or self-concept. The study 51 also concluded that a significant relationship does not exsist between creative thinking ability and self-concept.
Twillie’s study was designed to determine if an experimental treatment of creative dance activities would improve the school readiness and intellectual maturity of five year old children. The study was conducted in a kindergarten with an intact class. The school readiness of the subjects was measured by the
Metropolitan Readiness Tests. Intellectual maturity was measured by the Goodenough-Harris Draw-A-Man Test.
Results of the study indicated no significant difference between the readiness and intellectual maturity of the experimental and control groups.
Summary
Self-concept is an important construct in human functioning. It is highly instrumental in the individual’s perceptions and evaluations of himself and of the behavior of others toward him. These perceptions and evaluations reflect self-attitudes that affect how the individual will react to life situations.
Self-concept is dynamic in nature. It is affected by experience and social interactions. A positive self- concept may be facilitated through positive experiences which contribute to the personal and interpersonal development of the individual. The review of literature
has indicated that dance/movement education is an experience that may contribute to the development of a positive self-concept. 53
The Developmental 1v Handicapped
Nature of the Developmental 1v Handicapped
The developmentally handicapped individual may be born with a mental handicap or become mentally handicapped after birth. He may be born with a dysfunction of the nervous system or a chromosome
irregularity, or become mentally handicapped as a result of an accident or an illness which damages the brain.
The developmental!y handicapped individual is retarded and functions at the level of a younger child. The
individual may function physically and socially close to the level of a nonretarded child of his own age, but function emotionally and intellectually at a lower age
level (Sherborne, 1979).
The term developmentally handicapped is defined by the Ohio Department of Education (n.d.) as "(mentally
retarded) means significantly subaverage general
intellectual functioning exsisting concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behavior manifested during the
developmental period, which adversely affects the
child’s educational performance" (p.5). This is an
adaptation of H. Grossman’s definition of mental
retardation as adopted by the American Association on
Mental Deficiency.
Subaverage general intellectual functioning in
relation to this study refers to performance which is 54
1.25 or more standard deviations below average on a standard intelligence test such as the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale. This represents an intelligence quotient of 80 or below.
Deficits in adaptive behavior refer to problems of maturation, personal and/or social adjustment. Litton
(1978) listed the following as deficits in adaptive behavior that may concurrently exist in childhood and early adolescence: a. Application of basic academic skills in daily life
activities. b. Application of appropriate reasoning and judgment in
mastery of the environment. c. Social skills (participation in group activities and
interpersonal relationships).
The developmental period refers to the first eighteen years of life. The definition suggests that the individual not only functions at a lower than normal intellectual level, but that he is also less effective in his ability to function and maintain himself independently and to cope with personal and social demands.
Newland (1980) refered to the mentally retarded as
"those exceptional children whose intellectual retardation is not so severe as to warrent their falling in the range of mental deficiency nor so slight as to 55 warrent their being regarded as ’slow learners’" (p.75).
He identified this population as having an intelligence quotient ranging from 50 to 80 as measured by the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (See Figure 1).
99.7%
0.13% 0.13%
Standard — 3 - 2 - 1 deviations Mean + 1 + 2 + 3 I > i i. i i 1 i i Percentile I 1 rank .01 2 16 50 84 98 99.9 II t I I i i i i 1 1 52 68 100 116 132 148 Binet -.11 i 1 i I I (SD = 16) If
Fig. 1. Normal curve indicating standard deviations, percentile rank, percentage of cases within each interval, Stanford-Binet scores, and relative position of the developmentally handicapped (DH).
Developmentally retarded individuals are not slow learners in the sense that they grasp concepts slowly or learn a skill slowly. The slowness relates ' to intellectual development. They contend that when retarded children are learning a task they follow the same laws of learning and show little or no difference from nonretarded persons of the same intellectual 56 developmental level (Johnson, 1963). The assumption here is that the cognitive processes are the same as in the nonretarded individual, but progression through the stages is slower and the maximum level of development is lower.
Jensen (Brown, 1980) pointed out that the group of individuals having an IQ in the range of 50 to 80 are relatively homogeneous with regard to IQ, but have a great range of cognitive and social abilities. It should be understood that the preceding characteristics are typical of the educable mentally retarded population as a whole. Individuals in the group may exhibit any one or combination of the characteristics of the population. They may also exhibit differing degrees of the characteristics.
The Developmental 1v Handicapped and Self-Concept
Typically, studies of self-concept in the mentally retarded have used subjects with IQ’s ranging from 50 to
80. This group is described as educable mentally retarded. The self-concept of educable mentally retarded subjects have been researched from a variety of perspectives. They have been compared with the nonretarded and the segregated have been compared with the nonsegregated. Studies concerned with the correlates of IQ scores, achievement, sex, and age have 57
been conducted. Research has also been conducted on the effects of a variety of treatments designed to modify or
improve the self-concept of the retarded individual.
Research on the self-concept of the developmental!y handicapped is controversial and generally inconclusive
(Lawrence & Winschel, 1973). In spite of this, it is generally assumed that developmentally handicapped
individuals have a negative self-concept (Brown, 1980;
Carroll, Friedrich, & Hund, 1984). It is also assumed that they experience a high degree of failure (Brown,
1980; Groves, 1979) and social rejection (Strichart &
Gottlieb, 1982). These points of view reflect Phelps’
(1966) statement:
Mental retardation, in our present society, often foredooms an individual to many embarrassing failures and disappointments. The feelings of confusion, failure, and frustration resulting from the scorn of others, who see the child’s failures, only add another brickbat to those of the already disturbed and confused child, (p.296)
Goldstein and Siegel (1971) vividly illustrate the point of social rejection of the developmentally handicapped:
Our culture smiles upon the bright, successful, creative individual and frequently rewards him with gestures of affection and recognition. Conversely, it frowns upon the incompetent laggard and confers upon him the very antithesis of his basic need, rejection. It is obvious that the educable mentally handicapped child’s intellectual subnormality,must, in all too many cases, operate to prevent the fulfillment of his needs for affection, acceptance, and security if not in the home, at least in the more competitive and depersonalized activities in the school setting, (p.180-181) 58
The results of sociometric research conducted by
Johnson (Strichart and Gottlieb, 1982) further support the fact that the developmental ly handicapped are socially rejected. The study indicated that educable mentally retarded children were rejected more often and chosen as friends less often than nonretarded children because of difficulties with interpersonal behavior.
The mere fact that the developmental ly handicapped function in a world for which they are intellectually inadequate is likely to increase the frequency of failure and rejection. The increased frequency of failure and rejection may contribute to feelings of inadequacy, frustration, low self-esteem and ultimately to a negative self-concept.
Lawrence and Winschel (1973) reported that studies conducted by Meyerowitz; Snyder; Collins and Burger; and
Collins, Burger, and Doherty suggest the likelihood of differences in self-concept between educable mentally retarded and nonretarded children. Meyerowitz, using the Illinois Index of Self-Derogation, compared the self concept of educable mentally retarded subjects to that of nonretarded subjects. All subjects were completing their first year of school. The retarded subjects demonstrated a significantly larger number of self derogations indicating differences between the self-concept of retarded and nonretarded children as 59 early as the first year of school.
Studies indicated that the stigma of labeling and special class placement negatively affect self-concept.
MacMiIlian, Jones, and Aloia (1974) contended that the majority of special educators believe that labeling and special education placement has possible detrimental effects on the self-concept of mildly retarded children.
Jones (1972) stated that some labels imply deficiencies and shortcomings which generate problems of lowered self concept and expectations which interfere with optimum growth and development. Dunn (1968) hypothesized that labeling the individual as handicapped and placement in a self-contained special education classroom may adversely affect the self-concept and contribute to feelings of inferiority.
In researching the self concept of mildly mentally retarded children, Porter (1965) found that below average IQ affected self-concept. He also found that the characteristics of retarded children differed from the available data regarding nonretarded children.
McGarvie (Lawrence & Winschel, 1973) studied students enrolled in secondary school classes for the educable mentally retarded. He concluded that subjects with higher IQ’s had more positive self-concepts than those with lower IQ’s. 60
The relationship between self-concept and achievement are supported in numerous studies.
Marasciullo and Snyder (Yauman, 1980) concluded that the same positive relationship that exsists between self-concept and academic achievement in nonretarded students exsists in educable mentally retarded students.
Hardy (1966) found, in a controlled learning laboratory situation, that a positive self-concept was significantly related to achievement independent of the
IQ of the retarded subjects.
Lawrence and Winschel (1973) reported that only a few studies have investigated self-concept as it relates to the sexes and to age. Ringness, Snyder, and LoBianco found some differences in the self-concept of boys and girls, whereas, Mayer and Bauer found no significant differences between sexes. Meyerowitz found that there was a significant difference in the personal, social, and total adjustment of the retarded subjects at different chronological ages. As the chronological age
increased, personal adjustment also increased.
Researching self-concept in the developmental!y handicapped is at best problematic. Studies of self-concept are riddled with measurement problems and they are intensified when the subjects have sub-average
intellectual ability (Brown, 1980; Lawrence & Winschel,
1973). Gal lager, as reported by Lawrence and Winschel, noted difficulties in measurement as it relates to self report instruments. He cited poor reading ability, poor perceptions of inner feelings, and deficiencies relating to the reporting of these feelings as problems.
Dance/Movement Education and the Developmental!v
Handicapped
Taylor (1964) conducted research on the value of children’s dance in the education of the educable mentally retarded child. The study consisted of two parts: the formulation of a dance activity which would aid in the education of the educable mentally handicapped elementary school student and the evaluation of its contribution to the child’s development. Taylor addressed the influence of a dance movement experience on the development of specific sensory-motor, visual, auditory, communicative, and mental organizational abilities and possible relationships existing between these abilities.
Ten educable mentally retarded females, age 7 to
11, were tested on selected sensori-motor tasks using the Kephart Perceptual Scale, on language abilities using the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, and on visual perceptions using the Frostig Test of
Visual Perception. The subjects were then given three months of children’s dance and retested. Progress in 62 dance and in classroom behavior was also reported.
Taylor concluded that children’s dance is valuable in its application to the education of educable mentally retarded children. Significant changes in test scores supported her conclusion. She maintains that the requirement of a public performance restricted the variety of movement experiences of the older group of subjects, but provided an opportunity for them to gain social recognition. The younger group of subjects had a more varied movement experience and showed the most gains on tests of language and visual perception abi1ities.
Groves (1979) reported on Neal’s research project in Australia. Children aged eight to nine and with intelligence quotients ranging from 36 to 62 had regular dance lessons for five months. A control group had normal physical activity in unstructured play periods.
It was reported that the experimental group “developed a cohesion and camaraderie which one usually considers indicative of higher levels of intellectual functioning"
(Groves, 1979, p.14).
Dance/Movement Education and the Development of
Self-Concept in the Developmental 1v Handicapped
Studies have reported on the effectiveness of a variety of treatments in improving the self-concept of 63 retarded subjects. It is generally agreed that mastery of the dynamics of movement and self-expression strengthens the self-concept of retarded children.
Friedman-Wittkower (1971) and Sherborne (1979) maintained that mentally retarded children actively involved in the process of dance/movement gain self- confidence, self respect, and an improved ability to concentrate through the success of their own movements.
Lishman (1985) contended that rhythmic motor activities could aid some retarded children in obtaining concepts of self-control. In essence, the rhythm in dance media can be used to make positive changes in the social behavior, such as assisting in controlling impulses, increasing body awareness (specifically as it concerns the self-concept), and improving physical abilities necessary for efficient movement. She maintained that dance/movement can contribute to the child’s success.
Gulliford (1971) stated that physical education and dance are important aspects in the development of intellectually handicapped individuals. He contended that they contribute to general health and well-being and promote mental health through feelings of achievement and improved general motivation. In older children, they contribute to the development of good self-concepts and in younger children they help develop 64 a basic awareness of the self as well serving as a means of personal expression. He further stated that physical education and dance have a valuable effect on the individual’s personal adjustment.
Bruce (1965) and Groves (Lishman, 1985) suggested that dance has a very positive effect upon the total development of retarded girls because it offers the possibility of success. Alvin (1965) wrote that moving to music could help handicapped children become much more conscious of the relationship of their body to both their surroundings and to other people. He also wrote that it could contribute to their social adjustment.
Freedom of experimentation and self expression is the essence of the dance/movement education program.
The accent is upon greater freedom of natural body movements. The aim is the development of the total individual. The purpose is to search out and develop the potential of each individual.
Summary
The term developmentally handicapped generally refers to an individual having an IQ ranging from 50 to
80 and deficits in adaptive behavior which adversely affect educational performance. It is generally assumed that the developmentally handicapped have a negative self-concept and studies have shown that they are often 65 socially rejected because of difficulties with interpersonal behavior. The literature supports dance/movement education as an experience that may contribute to the development of a positive self-concept in the developmentally handicapped.
\ 66
Summary
The review of literature has been an attempt to present some of the relevant literature and research in the areas of dance/movement education, self-concept, and the developmentally handicapped. There were no studies found relating dance/movement education to the development of self-concept in developmentally handicapped students in the public school setting. Of the studies included in the review, none were longitudinal in nature nor did any of them involve large populations.
The literature revealed that as early as the
1920’s, dance educators wrote about the personal values that modern dance held for the individual. Enhancement and growth in the personal self was a factor that was often mentioned. It was claimed that self-concept held relevance for the individual in that it appeared to contribute to self-actualization. According to dance educators, modern dance was a viable tool for enriching the self-concept which is essential to the fully functioning individual.
The literature has presented evidence that the self-concept is dynamic in nature and is affected by experience. There is fairly good evidence in the research indicating that dance/movement improves body-image and increases self-esteem as well as improving many other abilities which contribute to the development of an adequate self-concept. However, positive behavioral changes observed were based on personal interpretation or on an analysis of movement patterns. Whether improved movement patterns actually reflect psychological improvement in children has not been scientifically supported. CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a dance/movement program on the self-concept of developmentally handicapped fourth and fifth grade students. This chapter discusses the procedure followed in conducting the research. It is organized into five sections including the instrumentation, the setting, the sample, the treatment, and the analysis of data.
Instrumentation
A. The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale
This scale, published in 1969 by Ellen V. Piers and
Dale B. Harris, was used to measure the self-concept of the subjects. This test was chosen because it is one of the few instruments specifically developed for use with children. The test was developed on a population which included institutionalized retarded children and noninstitutionalized third, sixth, and tenth grade students from a cross-section of socioeconomic levels.
The scale is a self-report instrument designed for use with children in grades three through twelve. It
68 69 requires a third grade reading ability and can be completed in approximately 20 minutes.
The test consists of 80 forced-choice statements which were derived from Jersild’s (1952) collection of children’s statements that revealed what they liked and disliked about themselves. The statements are written in a simple declarative manner. The subjects circle yes or no to indicate whether the item describes the way they feel about themselves. Approximately half the statements are positive in content and half are negative in content. This reduces the effect of acquiescence.
Robinson and Shaver (1973) ranked the Piers-Harris very highly, saying that it had been constructed and conceived with great care in the areas of language and general content.
The scale yields a total score and six sub-scale scores. The sub-scales are grouped into the following categories:
1. BEHAVIOR - includes general and specific statements
about home and school situations.
2. INTELLECTUAL AND SCHOOL STATUS - includes statements
about intellectual abilities, general satisfaction
with school, and expectations about the future.
3. PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ATTRIBUTES - includes
statements about physical characteristics, and
attributes such as leadership and the ability to 70 express ideas.
4. ANXIETY - includes statements about emotions and
mood such as nervousness, shyness, and a feeling of
being left out.
5. POPULARITY - includes statements about popularity
with the same and the opposite sex and the ability
to make friends. 6. HAPPINESS AND SATISFACTION - includes statements about happiness and satisfaction
with life in general.
Reliability and validity are qualities that are essential to the effectiveness of data-gathering procedures. Reliability is the quality of consistency that the instrument or procedure demonstrates over a period of time. Whatever it measures, it does so consistently. Validity is the quality of a data- gathering instrument or procedure that enables it to measure what it was designed to measure.
Reliability and validity are reported by a correlation coefficient. The correlation coffecient is used to report the degree of agreement between two variables. A coefficient of 1.00 means perfect agreement between variables. A coefficient of -1.00 means perfect agreement in the opposite direction. The coefficient is usually interpreted as follows:
.90 - .99 excellent variable agreement
-.80 - .89 usually reported as good 71
.86 to .89 may be interpreted as
excel lent
.80 to .85 may be interpreted as very
good
.70 - .79 usually reported as poor to fair
.60 - .69 usually reported as poor
Bentler (Buros, 1972) examined the scale and found some technical flaws in the manuel. He suggested that more research was needed in the test-retest reliability, but he concluded that the scale possessed sufficient reliability and validity to be used in research, as recommended by the authors.
Research studies (Platten & Williams, 1981;
Shavelson & Bolus, 1982; Piers & Harris, 1964) have investigated the reliability of the Piers-Harris.
Reliability coefficients for both normal and special group samples range from .42 to .96 with a median reliability of .73.
Studies (Bentler in Buros, 1972; Winne, Marx, &
Taylor, 1977; Franklin, Duley, Rousseau & Saber, 1981) have investigated the reliability and internal consistency of the scale and established a coefficient range of .78 to .93. Wylie (1974), though supporting the reliability and validity of the scale, reported that a major criticism of the scale is that low self-concept may be confounded by unreliability of responding. 72
Smith and Rogers (1977) studied this issue and found that the confounding of low self-concept by the unreliability of responding was not a factor in the interpretation of the scale. The scale is judged to have good internal consistency and adequate stability.
Concurrent or convergent valitidy exsists when there is significant correlations between instruments that are said to assess the same construct. Studies
(Parish & Taylor, 1978; Karnes & Wherry, 1983) have reported correlations of .32 to .68 between the Piers-
Harris and other instruments.
Piers and Harris note that individual changes in scores or group differences should not be taken at face value. It is suggested that there must be a minimum change of ten points in scores for the change to be statistically relevant. It is further noted that changes in group means on a retest, up to five points, have been found to be consistently in the direction of a higher score even if no treatment has been administered.
B. Observation as a Technique
Observation was used by the researcher and the unbiased observer to gather quantitative data in the study. Observation, has been and continues to be, an important method of inquiry. It continues to characterize all research: experimental, descriptive, and historical. Observational techniques are most 73 commonly used to informally assess social and personal behaviors. As a data-gathering device, direct observation can make an important contribution to research. Certain types of information can best be obtained through direct observation (Best, 1981).
Observation, as a research technique, must be carefully planned, systematic, focused, and thoroughly recorded. The description of observations used to gather qualitative data ordinarily is not expressed in quantitative terms. This does not mean that numerical measures are never used, but that other means of description are emphasized. However, observations may be classified into discreet categories, yielding nominal level data.
In order to achieve a satisfactory degree of validity in observation, critical incidents of behavior must be identified. The observer must have specific behaviors to look for and a means of recording the occurrence or nonoccurrence of these behaviors. A limited number of observable incidents should be selected. Once the observable behaviors are identified, the manner in which the behavior is to be measured must be determined. Personal values, feelings, and attitudes must not be allowed to distort observations. The recording of observations should be done as soon as possible while details are still fresh in the mind of 74 the observer.
C. The Rating Scale
A rating scale designed by the observer was used to record and measure a portion of the qualitative data.
The rating scale provided a systematic means of summarizing and quantifying data. It consisted of a qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of the selected subjects’ attitude toward dance/movement. Data were recorded on a daily basis.
The Attitude Rating Scale consisted of five items: general attitude, preparation for class, participation, on task, and performance. General attitude reflected the general feeling or mood of the individual at the beginning of the class. It was rated as positive, indifferent, or negative. Preparation for class reflected how efficiently the individual removed shoes and socks and got into a self space at the beginning of class. It was rated as quickly, moderately, or needs coaxing. Participation reflected whether the individual actively took part in the class. It was rated as most of time, some of time, or none of time. On task reflected whether the individual was paying attention and appropriately involved in the problem-solving process. It was rated as most of time, some of time, none of time. Performance reflected the individual’s willingness to perform their dance sequence for the 75 class at the end of the period. It was rated as willingly, unwillingly, and did not perform.
Points were awarded for each item on the basis of the desirablitity of the individual’s general attitude and actions, e.g. general attitude— a positive rating received three points, an indifferent rating received two points, and a negative rating received one point.
It was possible to receive a maximum of fifteen points each day. See Appendix D for the Attitude Rating Scale.
D. The Movement Coding Sheet
A movement coding sheet was used by the unbiased observer to collect data. It consisted of two general items: use of space and effort. The use of space consisted of: reach— near, mid, far and planes— vertical, saggital, and horizontal. Effort consisted of weight— light, strong; space— direct, indirect; flow— free, bound; and time— sudden, sustained. A frequency count reflecting the number of times that these aspects of movement were observed was kept. A count of the number of different aspects of space and effort used was also kept. It was possible to use a maximum of fourteen aspects of space and effort each day. See
Appendix D for the Movement Profile Coding Sheet and
Movement Profile Scale. The selected subjects were observed on Monday, Wednesday, and Thursday of week one and on Tuesday and Friday of week two. 76
Setting
The study took place in two elementary schools
located on the west side of Columbus, Ohio. The
schools, Dana Elementary and Burroughs Elementary, are
located in the same socio-economic area. The communities are characterized primarily as low to lower- middle socio-economic class. The two schools were chosen upon the recommendation of the area supervisor for the developmentally handicapped program.
These two schools were recommended based upon four basic requirements. The first requirement specified that the population consist of a minimum of twenty five students. The second requirement specified that the population have a similar I.Q., age range, and socio economic background. The third requirement specified that the teachers were willing to participate in the study. The last requirement specified that a large open area, preferrably the gymnasium, be available for the total period of the study. Dana and Burroughs filled these requirements.
Samp1e
The sample population consisted of twenty eight subjects in two self-contained developmentally handicapped classes at each school. The classes 77 consisted of third, fourth, and fifth grade students.
The third grade students were eliminated from the study because there are no norms established for the third grade level.
The subjects in the experimental group ranged in chronological age from 9.11 to 15.3 years old. Those in the control group ranged in chronological age from 10.2 to 12.5 years old. The guessed mean age, the mid point of the lowest and highest age, of the experimental group was 12.2 and of the control group was 11.4. The overall guessed mean age of the subjects was 11.8. Table 1 shows the chronological age distribution of the subjects.
TABLE 1
Chronological Age Range and Distribution of Subjects
Overal1 Group Minimum Max i mum Guessed Guessed Age Age Mean Age Mean Age
Experimental 9.11 15.3 12.2 11.8 Control 10.2 12.5 11.4
The ethnic origins of the subjects were African-
American, Caucasian, and Cambodian. The experimental 78
group consisted of two African Americans, ten
Caucasians, and one Cambodian. The control group
consisted of two African-Americans, and thirteen
Caucasians. Table 2 shows the ethnic origins of the
subjects.
TABLE 2
Ethnic Origin of Subjects
Ethnic Origin Experimental Control Total Group Group
African-American 2 2 4
Caucasian 10 13 23
Cambodian 1 0 1
Total 13 15 28
Intelligence test scores, grade level, and socio economic level of the students from both schools were similar. I.Q. scores for the experimental group ranged from 63 to 74 and from 59 to 80 for the control group. The male/female ratio was nine to four at Dana and six to nine at Burroughs. Table 3 shows the intelligence distribution of the subjects. Table 4 shows the gender distribution of the subjects. The students at Dana were 79 chosen as the experimental group and the students at
Burroughs constituted the control group.
TABLE 3
Intel 1igence Distribution of Subjects
Overal1 Group Lowest Highest Guessed Guessed IQ IQ Mean IQ Mean IQ
Experimental 63 74 68.5 69 Control 59 80 69.5
TABLE 4
Gender Distribution of Subjects
Gender Experimental Control Total Group Group
Male 9 6 15
Female 4 9 13
Total 13 15 28
Four subjects, two males and two females, were randomly selected to be observed by the researcher and the unbiased observer. The selection process entailed 80 drawing the names of two males and two females from two different pools of names. The males’ names were drawn from the pool including the names of all the males in the experimental group. The females’ names were drawn from the pool including the names of all the females in the experimental group.
T reatment
The treatment consisted of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program. Both the experimental group and the control group were pretested and post-tested. The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-
Concept Scale was administered on the Tuesday prior to the treatment period. The control group was tested in the morning and the experimental group was tested in the afternoon of the same day. On the last day of the study, the experimental group was post-tested immediately following the final dance/movement experience. The control group was post-tested in the afternoon of the same day.
During the treatment period, the control group continued to follow their regular schedule. The regular schedule of the control group included a traditional physical education class that met for one hour, one day a week. The experimental group also continued to follow their regular schedule which included the traditional 81 physical education class which met for one hour one day a week with the exception of the treatment program. In addition to their regular schedule, they spent one hour each morning with the researcher in daily dance/movement experiences. The design of the study is illustrated in
Figure 2, page 82.
The dance/movement program consisted of a series of ten lessons based upon Laban’s educational theories and movement principles. The program was designed to increase the individual’s knowledge and awareness of the body; expand movement vocabulary; and develop the ability to use the body for creative expression, self- expression, and communication.
The rationale for the use of a dance/movement program based upon Laban’s theories and principles rested in its potential to contribute to a major goal of education— that of aiding the individual to develop to his fullest potential. Lishman (1985) maintained that this child centered and individualized developmental approach to dance/movement education was particularly appropriate and meaningful for the education of the mentally retarded child.
This approach reflected a humanistic approach in which the child was the center of the activity. The emphasis of the program was on the total development of the individual, i.e., psychomotor, cognitive, social, Treatment Group -t Pretest ----- » Dance/Movement Program ----- > Post-Test (N = 13) (1 hour per day for 10 days)
Analysis of Date — ^ Results
Control Group Pretest Post-Test (N = 15)
Fig. 2. Dance/Movement Education Experimental Design
00 N> 83 and affective development.
The program reflected the following general objectives:
1. To increase psychomotor development and skills in
the areas of:
a. general physical growth and development
b. perceptual-motor skills
c. gross and fine motor skills
d. general physical fitness
2. To increase cognitive development and skills in
the areas of:
a. perceptual skills
b. problem-solving and decision making
c. sequencing
d. creativity
3. To increase social development and skills in the
areas of:
a. self-discipline
b. relationships with others
c. personal independence
d. leadership and fellowship
4. To increase affective development and skills in
the areas of:
a. self-concept
b. joy in movement
c. personal fulfillment 84
d. personal success
The lesson plans used a progression beginning with the very familiar and moving to the less familiar. Each succeeding lesson included some repetition of previously learned material as well as the introduction to, and exploration of, new movement concepts.
The lessons were structured to include a period of warm-ups, exploring the daily theme, practicing sequences developed from exploration of the theme, performing the sequence for the class, and a warm-down.
Each day a different theme was explored. In general terms, the aim of the program was to develop in each subject the ability to identify, discriminate, recognize, and/or apply the aspects of body awareness, spacial awareness, and effort qualities.
The themes were selected from Laban’s sixteen basic movement themes. The themes generalized Knowledge which were relevant to any specific form of dance and to movement in other life situations. The themes were revisited and built upon as the lessons progressed.
Gilliom (1971) maintained that the following premises are basic to all of the themes:
1. Time, space, force, and flow are the elements of
movement.
2. The body is the instrument of movement.
3. A child who understands the vocabulary of movement 85
through experience in manipulating the variables of
movement, can gain greater mastery of his body in
many and varied situations.
The following is a list of the daily themes with an interpretation of each:
Day 1 - Introduction
Body Awareness
Day 2 - Body Parts
Awareness of different body parts, the
relationship of one body part to another,
and the use of body parts in gesture and
locomotion
Day 3 - Body Shapes
Shape or posture of the body at a given
time: curved, straight and narrow,
straight and wide, twisted, angled,
symmetrical, and asymmetrical
Day 4 - Relationships (one person to another)
Two or more individuals work together, they
can meet, part, circle, pass; be above,
below, in front of, behind, beside, under,
or over; support, lift, etc.
Space Awareness
Day 5 - Levels
Areas in space in terms of high, medium,
and low in relation to the body when standing; and altitude of movement in
relation to the floor, e.g., standing,
sitting, kneeling, and lying down
Day 6 - Directions
Movement proceeds forward, backward,
upward, downward, or sideward
Day 7 - Pathways
Imaginary patterns of straight, curved, and
zigzag lines on the floor made by movement
from one place to another
Effort Qualities
Day 8 - Time
Rate of speed at which movement occurs
ranging from sudden to sustained Day 9 - Weight
Degree of force used in movement ranging
from light to strong
Day 10 - Flow
Quality of movement ranging from free to
bound
A complete set of lesson plans may be found in Appendix
B.
The methodology was based upon the process of discovery and the techniques of problem-solving.
Discovery, as defined by Bruner (1961), is a matter of rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that 87 one is enabled to go beyond the evidence so reassembled
to additional new insights. Problem-solving is
"original thinking, an individual’s technique of
productive thinking, his technique of inquiry, which is characterized by (1) a focus on an incomplete situation,
(2) the freedom to inquire, and (3) the drive to put together something new to him, on his own, to make the
incomplete situation into a complete one" (Gilliom,
1971, p.94).
Bruner (1961) formulated four hypothesis on the act of discovery. The hypotheses are as follows:
1. Emphasis upon discovery in learning has precisely the effect upon the learner of teaching him to be a constructionist, to organize what he is encountering in a manner not only designed to discover regularity and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to which information might have been put. . . .Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information readily available in problem-solving.
2. The degree that one is able to approach learning as a task of discovering something rather than "learning about" it, to that degree will there be a tnedency for the child to carry out his learning activities with the autonomy of self reward or, more properly, by reward that is discovery itself.
3. It is only through the exercise of problem solving and the effort of discovery that one learns the working heuristic of discovery, and the more one has practice, the more likely is one to generalize what one has learned into a style of problem solving or inquiry that serves for any kind of task one may encountei— or almost any kind of task. 88
4. In general, material that is organized in terms of a person’s own interests and cognitive structure is material that has the best chance of being accessible in memory.
The process of discovery through problem-solving places equal value on developing the ability to think and act productively, on self-actualization, on content, and on the acquisition of knowledge. This approach allowed the subjects to formulate and present unique solutions to movement problems within a structured framework.
Analvsis of Data
A. Quantitative Data
The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean of the pretest and post-test scores on: the Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale for both the experimental group and the control group, and for the selected subjects; and the subscales for the experimental group and the control group. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference in the mean of the scores on the Piers-Harris
Scale for the experimental group and the control group and for the males and the females. The same statistical test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean of the scores for the 89
subscales for the experimental group and the control
group, for males and females in the experimental group,
and for the males and females in the control group.
B. Qua!itative Data
Generating results from qualitative data can
present a number of problems. Ammon-Gaberson and
Piantanida (1988) point out some pitfalls and safeguards
in generating results from qualitative data. These
include: stereotyping of results, stereotyping of theorizing, data shuffling, premature closing, and overdelayed closure. Stereotyping of research results
is generally the result of preconceptions about the outcomes of research as exemplified in the scientific method. In qualitative research, the researcher begins with guiding questions. The researcher must have a clear understanding of what is under study and some
notion of what the results will be. Clearly
conceptualized and articulated research questions will
guide data analysis and interpretation. It will also
prevent stereotyping of research results.
In qualitative research, an attempt is made to
understand more fully and to communicate to others some
aspect of human experience. The process moves from
concrete to abstract, beginning with particular human
experiences and progressing to concepts expressing the
meaning of those experiences. 90
Generalized relationships among variables provide a
basis for theorizing. This type of causal or predictive relationships cannot be generated from qualitative data.
Meaning is predicated upon human consciousness in which
the researcher construes results through synthesis and
integration of the data. It is then connected to a body
of literature making it useful to an audience.
Theorizing occurs as the researcher begins to see
an outline of the picture and develops a line of
reasoning that will provide meaningful information.
Guba and Lincoln (Ammon-Gaberson & Piantanida, 1988)
suggest that the scientific rigor of this process is not
defined in terms of reliability and validity but rather
in terms of credibility, confirmabi1ity, auditabi1ity,
and fittingness. The researcher’s sensitivity,
conceptual ability, creativity, and insight must be
involved.
Sorting data is a critical process in the initial
stage of data analysis. Experimenting with alternative
groupings of data is necessary in the generation of
research results. The pitfall occurs when the
researcher assumes that arranging and rearranging the
data will in itself generate results. Data shuffling
can be avoided by clearly distinguishing between tasks of data analysis and data management.
Premature closure in which the researcher stops 91 before sufficient data is collected or before a solid analysis is explicated presents another problem. Simple safeguards against premature closure include having carefully articulated questions at the onset of the study and having the results read by other individuals.
Overly delayed closure is a problem in which the researcher has difficulty generating a final analysis.
During the interpretation phase, the data has the potential of supporting a number of analyses. Focusing on the purpose of the study and research questions will enable the researcher to choose and use appropriate data to formulate the most important and meaningful concepts.
Data collected by the Attitude Rating Scale yielded a total number of points ranging from fifteen for the highest possible score to five for the lowest possible score each day. Scores ranging from 12 to 15 represented a positive attitude toward dance/movement.
Scores ranging from 8 to 11 represented an indifferent attitude toward dance/movement. Scores ranging from 5 to 7 represented a negative attitude toward dance/movement. The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale on the first and last day of the program.
Data collected by the Movement Coding Sheet yielded a total number of points reflecting the number of times 92 a particular aspect of space or effort was used by the subject. It also reflected the number of different aspects of space and effort used. From these data it was possible to develop a brief movement profile of the subject. It was also possible to determine, by application of the dependent t-test, if there was a significant difference between the scores reflecting changes in the use of different aspects of movement on the first and last day of the program.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was applied to determine if there was any correlation between the quantitative data and the qualitative data. Scores on the Piers-Harris Scale, scores on the Attitude rating
Scale, and scores on the Movement Profile Scale were statistically analysed.
Qualitative data collected by the researcher and by the unbiased observer was presented in the form of case studies. The case study is a means of organizing and presenting social data. The interaction between factors that explain present status or that influence change or growth are analysed. Development over a given period of time is shown. Data for the case study may be gathered by a variety of methods including observation of physical characteristics, social qualities, or behavior and by qualitative testing. 93 Summary
The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale was used to measure the self-concept of the subjects. A
rating scale designed by the researcher was used to
record and measure the attitude of selected subjects
toward the dance/movement. A movement coding sheet was
used by the unbiased observer to record the movement
pattern of the selected subjects. Qualitative data that
were generated from the use of the rating scale and the
movement coding sheet were presented in the form of case
studies.
The study took place in two elementary schools.
The schools were located in communities that were
characterized as low to lower-middle socio-economic class.
The sample population consisted of twenty-eight
subjects, 15 males and 13 females, in two self
contained developmentally handicapped classes at each
school. The ethnic origins of the subjects were
African-American, Caucasian, and Cambodian. The
subjects ranged in age from 9.11 years of age to 15.3
years of age. Their IQ scores ranged from 63 to 80.
Two males and two females were randomly selected for observation by the researcher and the unbiased observer.
The treatment consisted of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program, ten school days 94
in length. The experimental group spent one hour each
morning with the researcher in daily dance/movement
experiences.
The dance/movement education program consisted of a
series of ten lessons based on Laban’s sixteen basic-
movement themes. The concepts of body awareness, space
awareness, and effort qualities were used as a basis for
content development.
The independent t-test or the dependent t-test was
used to determine if there were statistically
significant differences between scores. The Pearson
Correlation Coefficient was used to determine if there were statistically significant relationships between
scores. Chapter IV
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
This chapter is organized into three major sections: Statement of the Problem, Presentation of
Findings, and Summary. The Presentation of Findings is further divided into Quantitative Data, Qualitative
Data, and the Correlation of the Quantitative Data and the Qualitative Data.
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program on the self-concept of fourth and fifth grade developmental 1y handicapped students. Data obtained from the Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale, the Attitude Rating
Scale, and the Movement Profile Scale were analysed in order to test the proposed hypothesis.
The results of the analysis of data are organized to progress through each of the research questions as 96
1. Will a two week (ten school days) intensive
dance/movement program change the general self-
concept of fourth and fifth grade developmental!y
handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris
Children’s Self-Concept Scale?
2. Is there a significant difference between the self
concept of male and female developmental!y
handicapped fourth and fifth graders?
3. Will the selected subjects develop any apparent
changes in their attitude toward dance/movement as
observed by the researcher?
4. Will selected subjects develop any apparent changes
in movement patterns as observed by the unbiased
observer?
5. Is there any correlation between results of the
qualitative data and the quantitative data?
Presentation of Findings
A. Quantitative Data
The sample population consisted of twenty eight developmental! y handicapped fourth and fifth grade students. The experimental group consisted of thirteen subjects and the control group consisted of fifteen subjects. To determine the initial equality of the experimental group and the control group, the
independent t-test was applied. The mean of the group 97 scores on the Piers-Harris Scale were tested for significant difference at the .05 level. The t-test score indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between the mean of the pretest scores of the experimental group and the mean of the pretest scores of the control group.
The Piers-Harris Scale was divided into six subscales for further statistical analyses. The subscales consisted of Behavior, Intellectual and School
Status, Physical Appearance and Attributes, Anxiety,
Popularity, and Happiness and Satisfaction.
The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean subscale scores on the pretest for the experimental group and the control group. The t-test scores indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the subscales on the pretest for the experimental group and the control group.
The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the experimental group and the control group on the post-test. The t-test score indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean of the post-test scores of the experimental group and the mean of the post-test scores of the control group. 98
The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between
the mean subscale scores on the post-test for the experimental group and the control group. The t-test scores indicated that there was no statistically
significant difference between the mean scores on the subscales on the post-test for the experimental group and the control group. Table 5 shows the mean scores, standard deviation, t-test scores, and P value of scores
for the experimental group and the control group on the pretest and post-test for the total test and for the sub
scales. 99
Table 5
Mean scores, t-test scores, and P value, and standard deviation of scores for experimental group and control group on pretest and post-test
Experimental Control T-Test P value Group Group Score
Mean Pretest 52.08 51.53 -.1071 .92
Post-test 53.46 52.53 -.1707 .87
Standard Deviation Pretest 13.41 13.37
Post-Test 14.22 12.49
The experimental group received a treatment consisting of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program. The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean of the pretest scores and the mean of the post-test scores of the experimental group. The t-test score indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean of the pretest scores and the mean of the post-test scores for the experimental group. Table 6 shows the mean scores, t- test scores, and standard deviation of scores of the experimental group on the pretest and post test. 100
Table 6
Mean scores, t-test score, and standard deviation of scores on pretest and post-test for experimental group
Experimental Group T-Test Score Standard Deviation Pretest 13.41 Post-Test 14.22 The control group did not receive the treatment consisting of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program. The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean of the pretest scores and the mean of the post-test scores of the control group. The t-test score indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean of the pretest scores and the mean of the post-test scores for the control group. The dependent t-test was applied to each sub-scale to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the pretest and post-test for both the experimental group and the control group. The t-test scores indicated that there 101 was no statistically significant difference between any of the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post-test for either the experimental group or for the control group. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the pretest and post-test for the experimental group and the control group. The t-test score indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the pretest and post-test for the experimental group and the control group. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post-test for the experimental group and the control group. The t-test scores indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between any of the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post-test for the experimental group and the control group. Two males and two females were randomly selected from the experimental population for observation. The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the pretest scores and post-test scores of the selected subjects. The t-test score indicated that there was no significant difference 102 between the mean of the pretest scores and mean of the the post-test scores for the selected subjects. Table 7 shows the mean scores, t-test scores, and standard deviation of scores of the selected subjects on the pretest and post-test. Table 7 Mean scores, t-test score* and standard deviation of scores on pretest and post-test for selected subjects • Selected Subjects T-Test Score Mean Pretest 49.25 co CM • Post-Test 56.25 Standard Deviation Pretest 6.55 Post-Test 7.46 Raw scores on the Piers-Harris Scale were converted to percentile ranks and interpreted as reflecting a high self-concept, an adequate self-concept, or a low self- concept according to Manual for the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. The high self-concept ranged from the 71th percentile up. The adequate self-concept ranged from the 31th percentile to the 70th 103 percentile. The low self-concept ranged from the 30th percentile down. Scores on the Piers-Harris pretest indicated that 62* of the experimental group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 23* scored in the low self-concept range, and 15* scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 54* of the experimental group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 15* scored in the low self-concept range, and 31* scored in the high self- concept range. 16* more of the experimental group scored in the high self-concept range on the post-test than did on the- pretest. The percentage of scores in both the adequate self-concept range and the low self- concept range decreased by 8*. Pretest scores indicated that 47* of the control group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 33* scored in the low self-concept range, and 20* scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 40* of the control group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 33* scored in the low self-concept range, and 27* scored in the high self-concept range. 7* more of the control group scored in the high self-concept range on the post-test than did on the pretest. The percentage of subjects scoring in the low self-concept range did not change. The percentage of subjects scoring in the adequate self-concept range decreased by 7*. Pretest scores indicated that 75X of the selected subjects scored in the adequate self-concept range, 25% scored in the low self-concept range, and 0* scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 75* of the control group scored in the adequate self-concept range, OX scored in the low self-concept range, and 25X scored in the high self-concept range. 25X more of the selected subjects scored in the high self-concept range on the post-test than did on the pretest. The percentage of subjects scoring in the adequate self- concept range did not change. The percentage of subjects scoring in the adequate self-concept range decreased by 25X. Table 8 shows the percentage scores in each self-concept range for the experimental group, for the control group, and for the selected subjects on the pretest and post-test. 105 Table 8 Percentage of scores in each self-concept (S-C) range on pretest and post-test for experimental group, control group, and selected subjects High Adequate Low S-C S-C S-C Experimental Group Pretest 15% 62% 23% Post-test 31% 54% 15% Control Group Pretest 20% 47% 33% Post-test 27% 40% 33% Selected Subjects Pretest 0% 75% 25% Post-test 25% 75% 0% The results of the analyses by the manual indicated an upward trend in the scores of the experimental group and in the scores of the control group. The changes in the scores of the experimental group reflect an upward trend in both the group scoring in the adequate self- concept range and the group scoring in the low self- concept range. The changes in the scores of the control group reflect an upward trend in only the group scoring in the adequate self-concept range. 16% of the scores of the experimental group showed an increase while only 106 7* of the scores of the control group showed an increase. The selected subjects are a sub-group of the experimental group and are not analyzed separately here. The Manual for the Piers-Harris Children’s Self- Concept Scale indicated that a difference of ten points between the score on the pretest and post-test is significant. 54* of the scores of the experimental group changed ten or more points from the pretest to the post-test. 31 * changed in a positive direction, 23* changed in a negative direction. 46* of the scores did not change by at least ten points. 2* of the scores of the control group changed ten or more points from the pretest to the post-test. .07* changed in a positive direction and .13* changed in a negative direction. 98* of the scores did not change by at least ten points. More positive changes than negative changes occured in the experimental group, whereas, more negative changes than positive changes occured in the control group. Table 9 shows the percentage of scores having significant changes from the pretest to the post-test scores for the experimental group, for the control group, and for the selected subjects. 107 Table 9 Percentage of scores having significant changes from the pretest to the post-test for experimental group, control group, and selected subjects Experimental Control Selected Group Group Subjects Change of 10+ points 54% 2% 75% Positive Change 31% .07% 50% Negative Change 23% .13% 25% Less than 10 point change 46% 98% 25% The results of the statistical analyses indicated that there was no statistically signigicant difference between the mean scores received by the experimental group on the pretest and the post-test for the total test or for the sub-scales. It was also indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean scores received by the experimental group and by the control group on the post-test for the total test or for the subscales. The statistical data revealed that the two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program did not change the general self- concept of fourth and fifth grade developmentally handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris 108 Children’s Self-Concept Scale. The analysis of the scores on the Piers-Harris Scale, as recommended in the Manual for the Piers-Harris ChiIdren’s Self-Concept Scale. indicated that significant differences occured between the pretest scores and the post-test scores. There was a significant difference between 54X of the scores of the experimental group and a significant difference between 2% of the scores of the control group. It was indicated that the two week (ten schools days) intensive dance/movement education program did change the general self-concept of fourth and fifth grade students as measured by the Piers Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. The sample population consisted of fifteen males and thirteen females. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the male subjects and the female subjects on both the pretest and on the post-test. The t-test scores indicated that there was not a significant difference between the scores of the males and the females on the pretest or on the post test. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post-test 109 for the males and the females. The t-test scores indicated that there was not a statistically significant difference between any of the mean scores on the pretest and post-test scores for the males and females. Table 10 shows the mean scores, the t-test scores, P value, and the standard deviation of scores for the males and for the females on the pretest and on the post test. Table 10 Mean scores, t-test scores, P value, and standard deviation of scores on pretest and post-test by gender Male Female T-Test P value Score Mean Pretest 51.93 51.62 -.0627 .95 Post-Test 52.47 53.63 .2277 .82 Standard Deviation Pretest 12.02 14.46 Post-Test 14.57 11 .67 The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post test for the males and the females in the experimental group. 110 The t-test scores indicated that there was not a statistically significant difference between any of the mean scores on the pretest and post-test scores for the males and females in the experimental group. The independent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the mean subscale scores on the pretest and post test for the males and the females in the control group. The t-test scores indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores on the Popularity subscale on the pretest for the males and females in the control group. The females scored higher on the Popularity subscale than did the males. There was no statistically significant difference between the means scores on the Popularity subscale on the post-test for the males and females in the control group. The results of the statistical analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean scores for males and females on the pretest or on the post-test. The results of further statistical analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean scores for the males and the females on the subscales. There was no statistically significant difference between the self-concept of male and female developmental!y handicapped fourth and fifth graders as measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s 111 Self-Concept Scale. Analysis of the Piers-Harris Scale pretest scores, of the males and females, by the test manual indicated that 47% of the males scored in the adequate range, 33% scored in the low range, and 20% acored in the high range. On the post-test, 53% of the males scored in the adequate range, 20% scored in the low range, and 27% scored in the high range. 7% more of the males scored in the high self-concept range on the post-test than did on the pretest. The percentage of scores in the low range decreased by 13%. Pretest scores indicated that 62% of the females scored in the adequate self-concept range, 23% scored in the low self-concept range, and 15% scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 38% of the females scored in the adequate self-concept range, 31% scored in the low self-concept range, and 31% scored in the high self-concept range. 16% more of the females scored in the high self-concept range on the post-test than did on the pretest. 8% more of the females scored in the low self-concept range on the post-test than did on the pretest. On the pretest, 67% of the males and 77% of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept range. On the post test, 80% of the males and 69% of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept 112 range. It appears that more females than males had a positive self-concept as reflected by pretest scores and that more males than females had a positive self-concept as reflected by post-test scores. There does not appear to be a significant difference between self-concept of the male and female subjects. Scores on the pretest indicated that 56% of the males in the experimental group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 33* scored in the low self-concept range, and 11% scored in the high self-concept range. 75% of the females scored in the adequate self-concept range, and 25% scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 56* of the males scored in the adequate self-concept range, 22* scored in the low self- concept range, and 22* scored in the high self-concept range. 50* of the females scored in the adequate self- concept range and 50* scored in the high self-concept range. On the pretest, 67* of the males and 100* of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept range. On the post-test, 78* of the males and 100* of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept range. There appeared to be a significant difference in the self-concept of the males and females in the experimental group. Scores on the pretest indicated that 33 1/3* of the males in the control group scored in the adequate, high, and low self-concept range each. 56* of the females in the control group scored in the adequate self-concept range, 33* scored in the low self-concept range, and 11* scored in the high self-concept range. On the post test, 50* of the males scored in the adequate self- concept range, 17* scored in the low self-concept range, and 33* scored in the high self-concept range. On the post-test, 33* of the females scored in the adequate self-concept range, 44* scored in the low self-concept range, and 23* scored in the high self-concept range. On the pretest, 67* of the males and 67* of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept range. On the post-test, 83* of the males and 56* of the females scored in the adequate or high self-concept range. It appeared that there was not a difference between the self-concept of the males and females in the control group on the pretest, but that there was a significant difference on the post-test. Table 11 shows the percentage scores in each self-concept range for the males and females, for the males and females in the experimental gruop, and for the males and females in the control group on the pretest and post test. 114 Table 11 Percentage of scores in each self-concept (S-C) range on pretest and post-test for males andI females , males and females in the experimental group, and for males and females in the control group High Adequate Low S-C S-C S-C Males Pretest 20% 47% 33% Post-test 27% 53% 20% Females Pretest 15% 62% 23% Post-test 31% 38% 31% Males - Exp. Pretest 11% 56% 33% Post-test 22% 56% 22% Females - Exp. Pretest 25% 75% 0% Post-test 50% 50% 0% Males - Con. Pretest 33 1/3% 33 1/3% 33 1/3% Post-test 33% 50% 17% Females - Con Pretest 11% 56% 33% Post-test 23% 33% 44% 115 Discussion of the Instrument Some difficulties were encountered in administering the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. The major problem was the ability of the subjects to read the test. Many were below third grade reading level. The researcher handled the problem by reading each question aloud and by periodically checking to see if the subjects were on the proper numbered question. There were some questions as to the meaning of some of the terms used such as "obedient," "volunteer," "pep", "popular," "pleasant face," and "good figure." The researcher explained each of these terms to the subjects during the test. There were problems with some of the test items. The statements "I would rather work alone than with a group" and "I am different from other people" are ambiguious. These questions may have a positive or negative connotation. The response which elicited a positive score on the test for these statements was "no." 46* of the subjects answered "yes" on the pretest and 54* of the subjects answered "yes" on the post-test for the former statement. 68* of the subjects answered "yes“on the pretest and 75* of the subjects answered "yes" on the post-test for the latter statement. Individialized instruction, individual expression, and being different are emphasized by schools, special 116 education programs, and was emphasized in the dance/movement program as having positive value. Subjects answering these statements with, a "yes" were penalized as having a negative self-concept in this area. There appears to be a conflict between current educational ideals and the educational ideals of the author of the test or of educational ideals at the time that the test was constructed. The statements "I am popular with boys" and "I am popular with girls" are problematic. It is typical for preadolescents to dislike the opposite gender and to deny that members of the opposite gender like them. In addition to this, in low socio-economic environments, it is often socially unacceptable for preadolescent females to be "popular" with males. The response which elicited a positive score on the test for these statements was "yes." 53* of the male subjects and 54* of the female subjects answered “no" on the pretest and 33* of the male subjects and 69* of the female subjects answered "no" on the post-test for the former statement. 47* of the male subjects and 31* of the female subjects answered "no" on the pretest and 40* of the male subjects and 31* of the female subjects answered "no" on the post-test for the latter statement. Subjects answering these statements with a "no" were 117 penalized as having a negative self-concept in this area. Another problematic statement was "I am a leader in games and sports." The response which elicited a positive score on the test was "yes." However, most children are not leaders in games and sports, but are members of the team. 57* of the subjects answered "no" on the pretest and 54* of the subjects answered "no" on the post-test for the former statement. Subjects answering "no" to this statement were penalized as having a negative self-concept in this area. It is obvious that this test has some inherent problems. However, it appears to be the best test available. The test statements cited and perhaps others that were not cited, resulted in points being deducted from the subject’s self-concept score. These findings indicate a need for periodic updating of the test items. Updating of the test is necessary in order to keep it relevant and current so that the most reliable data possible may be obtained. B. Qua!itative Data The researcher observed selected subjects on a daily basis in order to collect qualitative data 118 relative to their attitude toward dance/movement. The Attiutude Rating Scale was designed by the researcher as an instrument for collection of the data. The unbiased obseserver observed the selected subjects on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of week one and on Tuesday and Friday of week two. The Movement Profile Scale was designed by the researcher as an instrument for collating the data. Selected Sub.iect »1 was a male. He received a score of 57 on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale pretest, ranking in the 60 percentile. He received a score of 47 on the post-test, dropping to the 33 percentile. There was a significant difference between his pretest score and his post-test score. The change in his scores was in a negative direction. Both his pretest score and his post-test score fell into the adequate self-concept range. The subject appeared to have an indifferent attitude about the dance/movement experience. Although he did not seem to be negative, he was never enthusiastic or positive. The indifferent attitude was consistent throughout the program. He was slow to prepare for class and had to be coaxed almost daily. The first day was the only time that he worked throughout the entire class. He would often go to the side of the room and stand or go to the 119 stage steps and sit. He did not participate at all on three different days. The first three days of the program the subject stayed on task. After then, he fluctuated between staying on task some of the time and none of the time. The first day of the program he willingly performed with his group at the end of the class. He did not perform again. There was a constant decrease in his attitude scores from day two to day five, a slight increase on day seven, another decrease on day eight, and an increase on day ten. During week two, his scores began to show some evidence of upward movement although they remained lower than his score on day 1. His attitude score on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program showed a decrease. The subject’s mean attitude score was 8.44, reflecting an overall indifferent attitude toward dance/movement. Figure 3, page 119, shows scores received by Subject #1 on the Attitude Rating Scale each day. At the beginning of the program, the subject used a wide variety of the aspects of space. He used his near, mid, and far reach. He appeared to have some preference for movement in mid reach in that he was observed to use it more than two times as much as he used near reach and more than seven times as much as he used far reach. His Fig. 3. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject #1. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Rating Attitude 3. Fig. Attitude Rating Scala Scores 10 15 12 6 5 8 9 7 Indifferent Negative Positive Days 121 use of planes was somewhat balanced. He was observed to use movements in the vertical and saggital planes almost an even number of times. He used movements in the horizontal plane slightly less. His use of the effort qualities appeared to be somewhat, one sided in three of the four areas. He was never observed using the quality of lightness, but consistently using a strong quality. Direct movements appeared to be a preference although he did use some indirect movements. He was observed to use both free and bound qualities often, but he used the bound quality a little over two times as much as the free quality. He was observed to have used sudden and sustained qualities almost evenly. On the first day of the program the subject was observed to use ten different aspects of space and effort qualities. On each of the following observation days he was observed to use fewer of the aspects of space and effort qualities. His decreasing class participation is likely to have affected the observation of qualities used. Figure 4, page 121, shows the number of aspects of space and effort qualities that Subject #1 was observed to use on each day of observation. Selected Subject #1’s scores on the Piers-Harris Scale pretest and post-test, on the Attitude Rating Scale score on day one and day ten, and on the Movement i. . oeet rfl Sae crs o Slce Sbet #1. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Profile Movement 4. Fig. Movement Profile Scale Scores 10 11 12 13 15 14 5 6 8 7 9 23456789 Days 10 122 123 Profile Scale on the first and last day of observation reflected a downward trend. The trend appeared to begin to change on the Attitude Rating Scale. During week two it appeared that his scores were beginning to move upward. Selected Subject #2 was a female. She received a score of 49 on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale pretest, ranking in the 38 percentile. She received a score of 58 on the post-test, rising to the 63 percentile. The difference between her scores approached the level of a significant difference according to the test manuel. The change in her scores were in a positive direction. Her pretest and post-test scores fell into the adequate self-concept range. The subject’s general attitude toward dance/movement appeared to be one of indifference. She was not very enthusiastic. The indifferent attitude continued through day eight. On the last two days of the program she appeared to have a much more positive attitude. For the first time she showed some excitement and real interest in the activities. The subject prepared for class at a moderate rate i of speed each day, having to be coaxed only on the day that she did not participate at all. She quickly prepared for class on days nine and ten. She participated in the entire class five days, 124 participated in part of the class two days and did not participate in the class one day. She was generally on task when she participated. The two days that she participated in only part of the class she had a tendency not to stay on task. The subject willingly performed at the end of class on the first two days and on the last two days of the program. On the days between these days, she had to be coaxed by the researcher and her classmates to perform. There was a decrease in her attitude scores on day three and five with a constant increase for the remainder of the days. Her attitude score on the first day of the program and the last day of the program showed an increase. The subject’s mean attitude score was 11.67, reflecting an overall positive attitude toward dance/movement. Figure 5, page 123, shows scores received by Selected Subject #2 on the Attitude Rating Scale each day. The subject began the program using a limited variety of the aspects of space and effort qualities. She was observed to use about one half of the aspects and qualities that were listed for observation. She used her near and mid reach regularly, rarely using her far reach. She seemed to prefer movement on the saggital plane, although she used the vertical plane often and the horizontal plane only about one third as i. . tiue aig cl Soe fr eetd ujc #2. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Rating Attitude 5. Fig. Attitude Rating Scale Scores 5 I 234567 Indifferent Negative Positive Days 89 10 125 126 much as the saggital plane. Subject #2 appeared to use strong, direct qualities of movement about two times as much as she used light and indirect qualities. The subject was observed to use free and bound qualities almost evenly. She used some sudden movement, but was not observed to have used any sustained movements. On the first day of the program, the subject was observed to use eight different aspects of space and effort qualities. On the last day of the program, she was observed to use twelve of the aspects of space and effort qualities. Figure 6, page 126, shows the number of aspects of space and effort qualities that Subject #2 was observed to use on each day of observation. The scores received by Selected Subject #2 on the Piers-Harris Scale pretest and post-test, on the Attitude Rating Scale on day one and day ten, and on the Movement Profile Scale on the first day and the last day of observation indicated an upward trend. Although there was upward movement, the difference in her pretest and post-test score on the Piers-Harris Scale approached, but did not reach, the level of a significant difference. Selected Sub.iect #3 was a female. She received a score of 50 on the Piers-Harris pretest and a score of 65 on the post-test. Her pretest score ranked in the 41 i. . oeet rfl Sae crs o Slce Sbet //2. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Profile Movement 6. Fig. Movement Profile Scale Scores Days 127 128 percentile and her post-test score ranked in the 82 percentile. There was a significant difference in her pretest and post-test scores according to the test manuel. Her pretest score fell into the adequate self- concept range. Her post-test score fell into the high self-concept range. She began the program with an indifferent attitude. On day three she had a positive attitude that continued through the end of the program. A1thought the subject appeared to have a positive attitude, she was slow in preparing for class and had to be coaxed on four occasions. On the seventh, nineth, and tenth day she prepared for class quickly. The subject participated the entire time every day. She was generally on task, but at some points she would just stand in her space and watch the others. On the first three days of the program she had to be talked into performing. From day four through the end of the program, she performed willingly. Her attitude score increased on day three, remained the same through day six, increased on day seven, remained the same on day eight, increased on day nine, and remained the same on day ten. Her attitude score on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program showed an increase. The subject’s mean attitude score was 13.00, reflecting an overall positive attitude toward 129 dance/movement. Figure 7, page 129» shows scores received by Subject #3 on the Attitude Rating Scale each day. The subject was observed as using a very limited variety of the aspects of space and effort qualities. She used her near reach almost exclusively. She did use her mid reach on occasion and was never observed using her far reach. She almost always performed movement in the saggital plane. She exhibited a very limited use of movement in the vertical plane and no movement in the horizontal plane. The subject appeared to be very one sided in her use of weight. Although she did use some strong effort qualities, she used light qualities about four times more often. Her use of direct and indirect effort qualities was almost equal. She used free and bound qualities frequently, with a somewhat more frequent use of.Jihe bound quality. She was not observed as using any sudden movement and she very rarely used the sustained quality. On the first day of the program, the subject was observed to use six different aspects of space and effort qualities. On the last day of the program, she was observed to use nine of the aspects of space and effort qualities. Figure 8, page 130, shows the number of aspects of space and effort qualities that Subject #3 Fig. 7. Attitude Rating Scale Scores for Selected Subject Subject Selected for Scores Scale Rating Attitude 7. Fig. Attitude Rating Scale Scores 10 12 11 14 15 13 5 6 8 9 7 Indifferent 5 6 5 4 Positive Negative Days //3. 10 130 i. . oeet rfl Sae crs o Slce Sbet #3. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Profile Movement 8. Fig. Movement Profile Scale Scores 10 11 12 13 14 15 5 6 7 8 9 Days 5 10 131 132 was observed to use on each day of observation. The scores received by Selected Subject #3 on the Piers-Harris Scale, on the Attitude Rating Scale, and on the Movement Profile Scale reflected an upward trend. Her score on the Piers-Harris pretest ranked in the adequate self-concept range. Her score on the Piers- Harris post-test ranked in the high self-concept range, reflecting an upward trend in her self-concept. Selected Sub.iect #4 was a male. He received a score of 41 on the Piers-Harris pretest and a score of 55 on the post-test. His score ranked in the 21 percentile on the pretest and in the 55 percentile on the post-test. There was a significant difference in his scores according to the test manuel. The change in his scores was in a positive direction. His pretest score fell into the low self-concept range. His post test score fell into the adequate self-concept range. The subject was absent on day six and day seven of week two. This subject exhibited a very positive attitude throughout the program. The first four days of the class he was not quick to prepare for class, but he did not have to be coaxed. The remainder of the days he quickly prepared for class. On three days he participated in only part of the class. The remaining days he participated the entire class. The subject was easy to get off task. He was 133 consistently rated as on task some of the time. He did not perform at the end of the class on two days, performed with encouragement on one day, and performed willingly on two days. His attitude score decreased on day two, remained the same on day three, increased on days four and five, decreased on day seven, and increased on days nine and ten. His attitude score on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program showed an increase. The subject’s mean attitude score was 12.00, reflecting an overall positive attitude toward dance/movement. Figure 9, page 133, shows scores received by Subject #4 on the Attitude Rating Scale each day. The inconsistent participation pattern of this subject and the fact that he was absent on the last day of observation by the unbiased observer resulted in a limited amount of data relative to his movement patterns. He used his near, mid, and far reach. It appeared that he preferred movements using his far reach. He was observed as performing movement only in the horizontal plane. He used a variety of effort qualities, including all of the listed qualities except light quality. His use of weight qualitiy was very one sided in that he only used the strong quality. He used both direct and indirect qualities, with more frequent use of the i. . tiue aig cl Soe fr eetd ujc #4. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Rating Attitude 9. Fig. Attitude Rating Scale Scores 10 12 n 15 5 6 8 9 7 Indifferent Negative Positive Days 134 135 indirect quality. He used bound qualitiy more than two times more than free quality. He used sudden and sustained qualities on a limited basis, using the sudden quality four times as much as the sustained quality. On the first day of the program, the subject was observed to use three different aspects of space and effort qualities. On the last day that he was observed, he used eight of the aspects of space and effort qualities. Figure 10, page 135, shows the number of aspects of space and effort qualities that Subject #4 was observed to use on each day of observation. The difference in Selected Subject #4’s scores on the Piers-Harris Scale pretest and post-test, on the Attitude Scale on day one and day ten, and on the Movement Profile Scale on the first day and last day of observation indicated an upward trend. His pretest score on the Piers-Harris Scale ranked in the low self- concept range. His post-test score on the Piers-Harris scale ranked in the adequate self-concept range, indicating an upward movement in his self-concept. Selected Subject f1. <2. #3. and #4 scored 57, 49, 50, and 41 on the Piers-Harris pretest and 47, 58, 65, and 55 respectively on the post-test. There was a difference of ten or more points between the pretest scores and the post-test scores for 755(5 of the selected subjects. The 25* who did not have at least a ten point Fig. 10. Movement Profile Scale Scores for Selected Subject #4. Subject Selected for Scores Scale Profile Movement 10. Fig. Movement Profile Scale Scores Days 36 1 137 change in scores had a nine point change, approaching a significant difference. 75* of the subjects had a positive change in scores while 25* of the selected subjects had a negative change in scores. These scores indicated a change in the self-concept of 75* of the selected subjects. The pretest score for 75* of the selected subjects fell into the adequate self-concept range. The pretest score of 25* of the selected subjects fell into the low self-concept .range. None of the pretest scores feel into the high self-concept range. The post-test score for 50* of the selected subjects fell into the adequate self-concept range. The post-test score of 25* of the selected subjects fell into the high self-concept range. None of the post-test scores fell into the low self-concept range. The scores of 50* of the selected subjects moved from a lower self-concept range on the pretest to a higher self-concept range on the post-test. 25* of the selected subjects had an increase in scores from the pretest to the post-test, but did not move from one self-concept range to another. 25* of the selected subjects had a decrease in scores from the pretest to the post-test, but did not move from one self-concept range to another. 138 The t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the pretest scores and the post-test scores of the selected subjects. The result of the t-test indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in the scores. Scores on the Attitude Rating Scale indicated a change in the attitude of the selected subjects from day one to day ten of the program. 75% of the selected subjects had an increase in their score. 25* of the selected subjects had a decrease in the score. Table 12 shows scores on the Attitude Rating Scale for the first day and last day of the program for each selected subject. Table 12 Attitude Rating Scale scores for day one and day ten for selected subjects Selected Attitude Rating Scale Score Subject Day 1 Day 10 # 1 13 9 #2 13 15 #3 10 15 #4 13 14 139 50% of the subjects began the program with a positive attitude toward dance/movement and ended with a positive attitude toward dance/movement. 25% of the subjects began the program with a positive attitude toward dance/movement and ended with an indifferent attitude toward dance/movement. 25% of the subjects began the program with an indifferent attitude toward dance/movement and ended with a positive attitude toward dance/movement. It appears that the selected subjects did develop changes in their attitude toward dance/movement as observed by the researcher. The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program. Results of the t-test indicated that there was no significant difference between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program. Scores on the Movement Profile Scale indicated a change in the movement pattern of the selected subjects on day one and on day ten of the program. 75% of the selected subjects increased the number of aspects of space and effort qualities used. 25% of the selected subjects decreased the number of aspects of space and effort qualities used. The scores for Selected Subject 1 40 #2, #3, and #4 changed from 10 to 6, 8 to 12, 6 to 9, and 3 to 8 respectively. It appears that the selected subjects did develop changes in their movement pattern as observed by the unbiased observer. Table 13 shows the Movement Profile Scale scores for the first day and last day of observation for the selected subjects. Table 13 Movement Profile Scale scores for first and last day of observation for selected subjects Selected Movement Profile Scale Score Subject First Day Last Day #1 10 6 #2 8 12 #3 6 9 #4 3 8 The dependent t-test was applied to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the scores on the Movement Profile Scale on the first day of the program and on the last day of the program. Results of the t-test indicated that there was no significant difference between the scores on the Movement Profile Rating Scale on the first day of the 141 program and on the last day of the program. The pretest and post-test scores on the Piers- Harris Scale were analysed according to the Manuel for the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Results of the anslysis indicated that there was a significant difference between the scores in 54% of the experimental group and in 75% of the selected subjects. The results also indicated that the scores of 16% of the experimental group and of 50% of the selected subjects moved from a lower self-concept range on the pretest to a higher self-concept range on the post-test. These scores fell in the low self-concept range or adequate self-concept range on the pretest. The scores increased and fell into the adequate self-concept range or the high self-concept range respectively on the post-test. An analysis of the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale indicated that there was a change in the attitude of the selected subjects from day one of the program to day ten of the program. An analysis of the scores on the Movement Profile Scale indicated that there was a change in the movement patterns of the selected subjects from the first day of observation to the last day of observation. Because this was an exploratory study, without complete laboratory controls, it is possible that changes in the attitude and behavior of the subjects were the result of the Hawthorne Effect. The 142 Hawthorne Effect is a psychological effect in which knowledge of participation in an experiment, extra attention, experimental manipulation or the absence of mauipulation, or any special treatment may cause the subjects to change. C. Correlation of the Quantitative Data and the Qua!itative Data The selected subjects received three sets of scores. They received one set of scores each on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, the Attitude Rating Scale, and the Movement Profile Scale. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was applied to determine if there was any correlation between the scores. The correlation was computed using the mean of the pretest scores on the Piers-Harris Scale, the mean of the post test scores on the Piers-Harris Scale, the mean of the difference between the day one and day ten scores on the Attitude Rating Scale, and the mean of the difference between the first day and last day observation scores on the Movement Profile Scale. The t-test was then applied to determine if there was a significant difference between each set of scores. The correlation test was applied to the scores on the Piers-Harris pretest and the Attitude Rating Scale yielding a coefficient of -.80. The correlation test 143 was applied to the scores on the Piers-Harris pretest and the Movement Profile Scale yielding a coefficient of -.88. This indicated a strong negative linear relationship between the variables. There would be a tendency for the scores on one of the scales to increase while the scores on the other scale would decrease. The correlation test was applied to the scores on the Piers-Harris post-test and the Attitude Rating Scale yielding a coefficient of .85. This indicated a very strong linear relationship between the scores. There would be a tendency for the scores to increase together. The correlation test was applied to the scores on the Piers-Harris post-test and the Movement Profile Scale yielding a coefficient of .70. This indicated a fair linear relationship between the scores. The correlation test was applied to the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale and the Movement Profile Scale yielding a coefficient of .94. This indicated an excellent linear relationship between the scores. The t-test scores indicated that there was not a statistically significant relationship between any of the scores except between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale and the Movement Profile Scale. The t-score, .0525, indicated that these scores were approaching a statistically significant relationship. Table 14 shows the Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the Piers-Harris Scale, the Attitude Rating Scale, and the Movement Profile Scale for selected subjects. Table 14 Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the Piers-Harris Scale, the Attitude Rating Scale, and the Movement Profile Scale for selected subjects Pretest Post-Test Attitude Movemi Pretest 1.0000 -.3771 -.8048 -.8850 .0000 .6229 .1952 .1151 Post-Test 1.0000 .8532 .7009 .0000 .1468 .2991 Attitude 1.0000 .9475 .0000 .0525 Movement 1.0000 .0000 145 Researcher’s Log General Observations Participation by the subjects was the major area in which the researcher made general observations. Participation was of particular concern to the researcher because many of the subjects were very reluctant to get started on the first day of the study. One male and one female in . /the experimental population officially chose not to participate in the study intitially. They brought a note from home exempting them from participation. On day eight of the study these students asked if they could participate. They were allowed to participate in the remaining dance/movement activities, but were not included in the pretesting or post-testing process. They continued to participate through the end of the study. During the course of the study, several subjects fluctuated in their participation. Only one female exhibited this participation pattern, while five of the males exhibited the pattern. This may have been due to: orientation to sports, perception of dance, lack of self confidence, fear of peer rejection, having to take off their shoes. The males were highly sport oriented. On several occasions they asked to play basketball or kickball. 146 Many of their sequences reflected sport activities. When props were used, both balls and elastic bands, more males participated and most of them were willing to show their sequences at the end of the class. Generally, they appeared not to be very comfortable with activities in which they had to rely upon their body for expression. It appeared to be difficult for many of them to adapt to the emphasis on exploration and they were inhibited in their movement. Males, particularly those in the lower socio economic class, often perceive dance to be an activity for girls. Some of the male subjects commented that dance was for girls. Participation in such an activity may have been contrary to their perception of their role as a male. The females generally did not appear to have problems with participating in the activity. Both the males and females were hesitant about performing in front of the group at the end of the sessions. Many of them were worried that their work was not correct or not good enough to present. They also feared that the other students would laugh at them. As the study progressed, more of the subjects were willing to perform their sequences for the class. They appeared to become more confident in their ability to accomplish tasks and to produce an acceptable product. Many of the subjects appeared to have a problem 147 with removing their shoes and socks. Removal of the socks and shoes tends to create an informal and free atmosphere, different from the normal school atmoshpere. It may have been that they somehow feared the different atmosphere that it created. This continued to be a problem throughout the study. Specific Observations Individual subjects caught the attention of the researcher for different reasons. Some attracted attention because of their lack of participation, some because of their consistent participation, some because of their initial introverted behavior, and some because of isolated incidents. On the first day of the study, three of the male subjects did not participate at all. At the end of the session, one of the subjects approached the researcher and said that he might participate on the next day. He asked if he could be second to present his sequence on the third day of the study. This subject participated sporadically throughout the study. On Monday of the second week, he did not actively participate in the class, but he helped another couple with their sequence. He was dropped from the study on the last day because he refused to take the post-test. The researcher asked the second subject who did not participate to remain after the session ended. The 148 subject was asked what his favorite activity was. His response was basketbal 1. He was asked to show some of his favorite moves, and he did. He was then asked to change the speed of the movements as he did them, he did and commented that that was hard but it was fun. He also said that his sister took dance lessons and he proceded to show the researcher some of the movements that she did when she danced. He agreed that he would participate. He participated consistently for the remainder of the study. On the second day, both of these subjects participated with no problems. The two of them worked together in the latter part of the class. They developed an excellent sequence, but were unable to perform it in front of the class. A third male who did not participate sat quietly and observed the entire first week of the study. He was invited to participate by the researcher each day. On Monday of the second week, he participated. This was the first time that the researcher saw him smile or interact with any of the other subjects. He continued to participate for the remainder of the study. One of the female subjects caught the attention of the researcher. She appeared to be very quiet and reserved. She said that she couldn not think of any movement to accompany her name. She moved her toes 149 while she talked. The researcher picked up on that movement and had her us it as her movement. Later in the class, she used a hitch-kick to accompany her name when her group performed. She began to smile as the class progressed. Her school attendence was irregular, making it hard for the researcher to observe her on a consistent basis. On one other accasion, the subject brought her partner who was a male over to show their sequence and to ask if it was good. Three male students attracted the attention of the researcher on isolated occasions. On the fifth day of the study balls were used with the theme of levels. One of the male students showed a very different movement style. He used a stylized type of movement that flowed and connected very well. He began and carried the sequence through with confidence and commitment. The other subjects verbally encouraged him as he performed. When he finished the other subjects were sincerely clapping for him. A second male subject, who had previously appeared to lack self-confidence, gave an exceptional performance on day five. He used a combination of near and far reaching movements, extending his arms and legs, and lunging. This subject had consistently said that he could not do the activities and would often sit out. 150 His performance was well received by the other subjects and he continued to participate and perform for the remainder of the study. On day eight of the study the theme was time. A couple of the male subjects did an exceptional job at solving the problem and developing a sequence. When it was their turn to perform, one of the partners would not perform. The remaining partner chose to perform the sequence alone. He, again, solved the problem and made an excellent presentation. Changes in the movement patterns of individual subjects were beginning to show. The subjects were beginning to critique each other, commenting on whether the performer was concentrating or whether an element was omitted from the sequence. The quality of participation appeared to improve, though the overall amount of participation may not have improved. Summary The results of the statistical data indicated that a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program did not change the general self- concept of fourth and fifth grade development!y handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. However, there was a significant difference in the pretest scores and the post-test scores of (a) 54X of the experimental group, 151 (b) 2% of the control group, and (c) 75* of the scores of the selected subjects as interpreted by the Manual for the Piers-Harris ChiIdren’s Self-Concept Scale. Statistical analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in the self-concept of male and female developmentally handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris Scale. Tests showed no significant difference between the scores of the males and females on the pretest or on the post-test. The analysis of the scores of the total male population and the total female population, by the test manual, indicated: (a) there was no significant difference in the self-concept of the male and female subjects as a group, (b) there was a difference in the self-concept of the males and females in the experimental group on both the pretest and on the post test, and (c) there appeared to be a significant difference in the self-concept of the males and females in the control group on the post-test. It appeared that the selected subjects did develop changes in their attitude toward dance/movement and in their movement patterns as observed by the researcher and the unbiased observer. Although these differences were apparent in the qualitative data, they were not found to be statistically significant. 152 It also appeared, as recorded in the researcher’s daily log, that other subjects in the experimental group developed positive changes in: (a) their attitude toward dance/movement as demonstrated by their increased participation, (b) their self-confidence as demonstrated by their willingness to perform sequences for the class, and (c) their ability to concentrate as demonstrated by their ability to complete tasks. The qualitative data strongly suggests that the two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program did change both the attitude of the experimental subjects toward dance/movement and their movement patterns. The results of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicated strong linear correlations between the qualitative and quantitative data. The t-tests indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between any of the scores except between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale and the Movement Profile Scale. It was indicated that these scores approached a statistically significant relationship. Chapter V Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations This chapter is organized into three sections. The first section summarizes the research study. The second section presents conclusions drawn from the results of the study. The third section lists the researchers recommendations for future research. Summary of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement education program on the self-concept of developmental!y handicapped fourth and fifth grade students as measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale. The significance of the study lies in its potential to contribute to the body of literature in dance research and to the development of a more effective elementary education and special education curriculum. The review of literature revealed no studies relating dance/movement to the development of 153 154 self-concept in developmental!y handicapped public school students. Evidence indicating that dance/movement improves aspects of the self that contribute to the development of an adequate self- concept was presented. The evidence was based upon qualitative data gathered by observation. The Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale was used to measure the self-concept of the subjects. A rating scale designed by the researcher was used to record and measure the attitude of selected subjects toward dance/movement. A movement coding sheet was used by the unbiased observer to record the movement pattern of the selected subjects. Qualitative data that was generated from the use of the rating scale and the movement coding sheet was presented in the form of case studies. The study took place in two elementary schools. The schools were located in communities that were characterized as low to lower-middle socio-economic class. The sample population consisted of twenty-eight subjects, 15 males and 13 females, in two self contained developmentally handicapped classes at each school. The ethnic origins of the subjects were African-American, Caucasian, and Cambodian. The subjects ranged in age from 9.11 years of age to 15.3 155 years of age. Their IQ scores ranged from 63 to 80. Two males and two females were randomly selected for observation by the researcher and the unbiased observer. The treatment consisted of a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program, ten school days in length. The experimental group spent one hour each morning with the researcher in daily dance/movement experiences. The control group received no treatment from the researcher. The dance/movement education program consisted of a series of ten lessons based on Laban’s sixteen basic- movement themes. The concepts of body awareness, space awareness, and effort qualities were used as a basis for content development. The independent t-test or the dependent t-test was used to determine if there were statistically significant differences between scores. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to determine if there were statistically significant relationships between scores. The results of the statistical data indicated that a two week intensive dance/movement education program did not change the general self-concept of fourth and fifth grade developments handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. However, analysis of the the pretest and post-test y >■ m 156 scores on the Piers-Harris Scale according to the Manual for the Piers-Harris ChiIdren’s Self-Concept Scale indicated that there was a significant difference between the scores of 54% of the experimental group and 75% of the selected subjects. The results of statistical analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in the self-concept of male and female developmental!y handicapped students as measured by the Piers-Harris. It appeared that the selected subjects did develop changes in their attitude toward dance/movement and in their movement patterns as observed by the researcher and the unbiased observer. Although these changes were apparent in the quantitative data, they were not found to be statistically significant. The results of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicated strong linear correlations between the qualitative and quantitative data. The t-tests indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between any of the scores except between the scores on the Attitude Rating Scale and the Movement Profile Scale. It was indicated that these scores were approaching a statistical significant relationship. 157 Conclusions Hypothesis: A two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program will affect change in the self- concept of fourth and fifth grade developmental! y handicapped elementary school students. The hypothesis must be rejected based upon the results of the statistical data. The pretest and post test mean scores for the experimental group on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale and sub scales were statistically tested for a significant difference. The result of the test indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean scores. The post-test mean scores for the experimental group were also tested against the post-test mean scores for the control group. The result of the test indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean scores of the two groups. It must be concluded that a two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement program did not affect change in the self concept of fourth and fifth grade developmental!y handicapped students. The failure of this study to produce statistically significant changes in the self-concept of fourth and fifth grade developmentally handicapped students possibly could be the result of several factors. The length of the dance/movement program may have been insufficient to affect the self-concept level of the 158 students. The fact that the program was only ten days in length may have affected the results of the study. It may be that the size of the population was too small to obtain a statistically significant picture of the effect of the program. The nature of the self-concept construct may have influenced the outcome of the study. The fact that the self-concept is multidimensional and is affected by such a variety of variables which cannot be easily identified or controlled could have affected the study. The attitude of the classroom teacher toward the program and/or toward the students could be another factor affecting the results of the study. * The fact that statistical tests cannot take into consideration humanistic variables such as attitudes, emotions, and behaviors or individual differences may also have affected the outcome of the study. The pretest and post-test scores on the Piers- Harris Scale were analysed by the Manual for the Piers- Harris ChiIdren's Self-Concept Scale. The results of the analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in the scores of 54* of the subjects in the experimental group, 75* of the selected subjects, and 2* of the control group. The experimental group had a much higher percentage of significant differences in the pretest and post-test scores than did the control group. 159 The results of the analysis also indicated that 77* of the experimental group and 67* of the control group scored in the adequate or high self-concept range on the pretest. 85* of the experimental group and 67* of the control group scored in the adequate or high self- concept range on the post-test. There was ..an 8* increase in the percentage of the subjects in the experimental group scoring in the adequate or high self- concept range on the post-test. Whereas, there was no increase in the percentage of subjects in the control group scoring in the adequate or high self-concept range. These results imply that the two week (ten school days) intensive dance/movement eduation program did have an effect on the the self-concept of the subjects in the experimental group. The scores of the male and female subjects were also analysed by the test manue.l. The results indicated that 67* of the males and 100* of the females in the experimental group scored in the adequate or high self- concept range on the pretest. 78* of the males and 100* of the females scored in the adequate or high self- concept range on the post-test. These results imply that there was a significant difference in the self- concept of the males and females in the experimental group. 160 The results of the analysis of the data by the test manual were not subjected to statistical analysis. However, the data was subjectively analyzed and the results of the analysis lends support to the hypothesis. The qualitative data presented a somewhat different picture of the results of the study than did the quantitative data. The analysis of the Attitude Rating Scale scores indicated a change in 75% of the scores of the selected subjects. It can be concluded that the selected subjects apparently began to show changes in their attitude toward dance/movement. The scores on the Attitude Rating Scale showed a decrease in the first week of the program and an increase in the second week of the program for 7558 of the selected subjects. The scores for the remaining 25% of the selected subjects showed an increase and a plateau in the first week, and an increase in the second week. The Researcher’s Log reflected a trend similar to that of the Attitude Rating Scale and the Movement Profile Scale. The trend implied that during the first week of the program, the subjects had to go through a period of adjustment. It was their first experience with creating their own dance/movement sequences and having to present them to their classmates. Many of the subjects began with feelings of embarassement or inadequacy, not 161 comfortable about having to perform in front of the group. The second week, the subjects began to accept and respond more positively to performing in front of the group. They appeared to have more confidence in themselves and in their work. The trend appeared to be prevalent in the entire experimental group. The tendency toward change indicated an extended dance/movement program could increase the self-confidence, the self-esteem, and the self-concept of developmental!y handicapped students. The analysis of the Movement Profile Scale indicated a consistent increase in the movement patterns of 75% of the selected subjects. It can be concluded that changes did occur in the movement patterns of the selected subjects. The subjects began to use movement, space, and effort more diversely. Such changes may have been the result of the nature of the lessons during week two. These lessons directly addressed the effort qualities as reflected on the Movement Profile Scale. The changes could have been the result of subjects becoming more relaxed and comfortable with the new activity. It could also be the result of having the opportunity to use their creativity in a way that they had not been able to do so previously. It is possible that the non-threatening and 162 accepting atmosphere of the class allowed the subjects to express themselves without fear of failure. The qualitative data indicated tendencies toward significant change among the experimental group in: (a) attitude toward dance/movement, (b) level of self confidence, (c) ability to express themselves creatively, and (d) level of concentration. These tendencies toward change indicated progression toward a more positive self-concept among the experimental group. It is possible that because this was an exploratory study, without complete laboratory controls, that changes in the attitude and behavior of the subjects was the result of the Hawthorne Effect. The Hawthorne Effect causes changes in the subjects as a result of any extra attention or knowledge of special treatment. This study could provide further support for the literature which states that dance/movement contributes to the development of an adequate self-concept as based upon observation of attitudinal and behavioral changes in subjects. Recommendat i ons The researcher makes the following recommendations: 1. that further studies of this nature be conducted in an effort to support the theoretical claims that dance/movement contributes to the total development 163 of the individual — including the physical, mental, intellectual, and emotional realms and their relationships 2. that the studies be longitudinal in nature, at least two times a week for one entire school year 3. that the research population include a larger sample size 4. that the research be conducted with a variety of populations 5. that subjects be interviewed for more indepth and personal reactions about themselves and to dance/movement 6. that teacher, parent, and peer reports be included as a part of subject evaluation 7. that videotape be used in addition to a live observer to evaluate movement patterns 8. that the researcher devise some control for the Hawthorne Effect 9. that the researcher does not administer the treatment This study was a beginning attempt at filling the void in the research concerning the relationship between dance/movement education and the developmentally handicapped in the public school setting. Much more research needs to be conducted before any broad conclusive statements can be made. APPENDIX A LETTERS OF PERMISSION 164 165 COLUMBUS PUBLIC SCHOOLS DEVELOPMENTALLY HANDICAPPED PROGRAM April 4, 1989 Dear Parents, Beverly Allen, a graduate student at the Ohio State University, has been given permission to conduct a study described on the attached sheet with students in the Developmentally Handicapped Program. I support her project and hope that the r e su lts w ill help the Columbus Public Schools serve students more effectively. You, as the parent, will determine whether your child w ill participate by completing and returning the attached form. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, // - " /ja y X?. Kay Teagardner, Supervisor Developmentally Handicapped Program Attachment (l) Neil Avenue Center 2571 Neil Avenue • Columbus, Ohio 43202 166 School of Health, Physical 337 West 17th Avenue OHIO Education, and Recreation Columbus, OH 43210-1284 SIAIE UNIVERSITY Dear Parent: I am a graduate student at the Ohio State University working toward a doctorate degree in Physical Education. The focus of my dissertation is on the effect of dance/movement on the self-concept of developmentally handicapped fourth and fifth grade children. I am requesting your consent for your child to participate in the two week project. Your child will complete the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, participate in a dance/movement class, and retake the test. The scale consists of questions to which the children respond with a yes or no answer, indicating whether the item describes the way they feel about themselves. The names of children will not be used in connection with the study or its results. The dance/movement class will not pose any physical or mental risk for the children. College of Education 167 Your cooperation in allowing your child to participate in this study will be deeply appreciated. Please sign and return the cut off below as soon as possible. Sincerely, Beverly J. Allen ______has my permission to Child’s name participate in the dance/movement study. I understand that my child may cease to participate in the study at any time that I/we choose to do so. Signed ______Parent or Guardian APPENDIX B DANCE/MOVEMENT UNIT PLAN 168 169 Lesson 1: Introduction Objectives: 1. To have students explore movements that are non threatening. 2. To promote a feeling of safety and comfort. 3. To allow students to become familiar with each other. 4. To encourage a sense of community among students and teacher. 5. To allow students to have fun and enjoy the class. Equipment: Hand drum Procedure: Introduction (Students gathered, sitting on floor.) You have been selected to participate in a dance/movement class. For the next two weeks we will explore and experiment with some ideas. You will be moving around a lot and you’ll be on the floor some too, so you may want to wear clothes that are comfortable and that you can lay on the floor in. Girls may want to wear pants or sweats. There are some rules that you must follow: 1. you must take off your shoes and socks and place them neatly by the wall every day. 2. you must not talk when others are talking. 170 3. you must concentrate on what we are doing. 4. you must listen and respond to the drum signals (one beat means begin to move, two beats means freeze and listen). 5. you must be very careful so that no one gets hurt (explain self space and general space). Warm-up (in a self space) 1. Stretching - students select their own method Creative Exploration - Name Game (standing in circle) 1. Begin with teacher saying her own name and executing a simple gesture. 2. Everyone repeats the name and gesture. 3. Continue until everyone has said their name and executed a gesture and it has been repeated by the group. 4. In groups of three or four, have group members learn the name and gesture of each member of the group, then put the names and gestures together in a sequence. 5. Each group shows their name sequence to the class. Warm-down (sitting in self space) 1. With eyes closed, take slow, deep breaths. 171 Lesson 2: Body Parts Objectives: 1. Students will identify different body parts. 2. Students will explore movement using different body parts. Equipment: Hand drum, tape player, taped music of choice Procedure: Warm-up (In self space) 1. Stretching - students choose their own method 2. Lay on the floor and close your eyes. Let’s take some deep breaths and relax. Relax your feet, relax your legs, relax your stomach and your chest, relax your arms, relax your fingers, relax your neck, relax your head. Think about your feet. Hold your feet very tight, hold them, hold them, and let them go. Hold your feet tight again. Let the go. (Procede with the legs, stomach and chest, arms, fingers, neck, and head.) Now think about your feet again, move your feet. Only your feet. (Procede with the legs, stomach and chest, arms, fingers, neck, and head.) Slowly open your eyes. Sit up and listen. 172 Introduction (Sitting in self space) In our warm-up, we relaxed our body one part at a time. Then we concentrated on different body parts, then we tightened and released body parts, then we moved body parts. Now we are going to work even more with moving different body parts. Who can name a body part for me? I see that we all know our body parts, so now let’s find a personal space and listen for some more di rections. Creative Exploration 1. In your own self space, find different ways to move your body parts to the beat of the music. Can you move a body part up high, down low? How about in a circle? Can you stretch a body part? Can you bend a body part? Swing a body part. Shake a body part. What body parts can you move if lay on your back, on your side, on your knees? Freeze. 2. As you move in general space, find different ways to move your body parts. What can you do with your arms? Can you make different shapes with them? Use your legs in a different way. Find another way to travel around the room. Can you leap, skip, hop, jump? Can you make a zigzag pathway? Try traveling in a circle. 173 3. Now we are going to make a dance to the beat of the music. If you are not in a self space, get in one. Your dance is going to consist of three parts: moving body parts in self space, moving body parts as you travel in general space, and moving body parts in self space again. Right now I want you to choose one or two movements that you can do with your body parts in self space. Practice the movements until you can do them the same way each time. Freeze. Show me the one or two movements that you have practiced. Freeze. Now choose and practice one or two movements that you can do with your body parts while you travel in general space. Freeze. Show me the one or two movements that you have practiced. Now you are going to put your dance together. You’re going to practice so that you can move your body parts in self space, move your body parts as you travel in general space, and move your body parts in self space again without stopping. Practice your dance so that you can do it the same way each time. 4. Show dances to the class. Warm-down - Laying on floor with eyes closed, take deep breaths and relax. 174 Lesson 3: Body Shapes Objectives: 1. Students will become familiar with the body shapes: curved, straight and narrow, straight and wide twisted, angled, symmetrical, and asymmetrical. 2. Students will explore movement with different body surfaces. Equipment: Drum, elastic bands, tambourine, tape player, fast music of choice Procedure: Warm-up (In self space to fast music) 1. Stretching - students choose their own method Introduction (Sitting in circle) 1. Review body parts. 2. We can make shapes with our body. They can be curved, straight and narrow, straight and wide, twisted, angled, symmetrical, or asymmetrical. Who can show us a curved body shape? A straight and narrow shape? A straight and wide body shape? A twisted body shape? Can anyone tell us what angled means? can you show us an angled body shape? What does symmetrical mean? Show us how a symmetrical body shape looks. What does 175 asymmetrical mean? Show us how an asymmetrical body shape looks. (Pass out elastic bands) Creative Exploration 1. In your self space, see how many different body shapes can you make as you stretch your elastic band to the beat of the drum. Change your shape quickly on the beat of the tambourine. Change your shape slowly as I shake the tambourine. 2. With a partner in self space, repeat #1. Partners must stay connected at all times by touching a body part or the elastic band. 3. Four couples at a time, repeat #2 while others sit and watch. Warm-down (sitting) Deep breathing Lesson 4: Relationships (One person to another) Objectives: 1. Students will exlpore the relationships that occur when working with a partner. 2. Students will explore the relationships that occur when working with a group. Equipment: Tape player, taped music (slow music of choice) Procedure: Warm-up (to slow music) 1. Stretching Find different ways to stretch to the music with your partner. Introduction (sitting in a circle) 1. Review body shapes. 2. Did anyone notice anything that we did differently today? When we work with a partner or a group of people we form relationships. Relationships is our theme for today. We’re going to begin by mirroring our partner. When you mirror someone you must imitate their movements exactly the same way that they do them and you must do them at exactky the same time that they do them. Find a partner, move to a space where the two of 177 you can work together, freeze, and listen. Creative Exploration 1. Face your partner. Smile at your partner. Decide who is number one and who is number two. Look directly into your partner’s eyes. Imagine that you are looking in the mirror. Number one will lead first while number two imitates the exact movement at the same time as number one. Slowly begin to move. Can you move different body parts. Can you chan your level. Freeze. (Repeat with number two leading.) 2. Stay in your self space with your partner. Now you’re going to find different ways to form relationships with your partner by holding their weight. You must remember to be very careful so that no one gets hurt. Number two will take the weight of number one first. Let’s begin. (Repeat with number one taking the weight.) Freeze. 3. Choose two of the ways that you found to hold your partner’s weight then find a way to connect the movements by smoothly going from one to the other. Begin again with number two. (Repeat with number one.) 3. Sit on the floor right where you are. Each 178 couple will show us some of the ways that you found to hold your partner’s weight. (Choose couples until everyone has had a turn.) 4. Group sculpture a. Have one person near the center of the room be the center of the sculpture. b. Have each student add to the sculpture, one at a time until one big sculpture is formed. As each student adds to the sculpture, they are directed to connect in front of, behind, beside, under, or over a part of the exsisting sculpture. 5. We are going tochange our relationships by slowly changing our position. Move very slowly. (Repeat) Freeze. Warm-down Slowly melt to the floor. Slowly, slowly. Take some deep breaths and relax. 179 Lesson 5: Levels Objectives: 1. Students will become familiar with levels: high, medium, and low. 2. Students will explore movement on high level. 3. Students will explore movement on medium level. 4. Students will explore movement on low level. Equipment: Drum, cymbol, gong, triangle, balls, tape player, music of choice Procedure: Warm-up 1. Stretching - students choose their own method Introduction (Sitting in circle) 1. Review relationships. 2. Our theme for today is levels. Does any on think that you can tell us what we mean when we say levels? Levels refer to areas in space in terms of high, medium, and low when we are standing. It also refers to the height of movement in relation to the floor. We can stand, kneel, sit, and lay on the floor. Listen to the sound of these instruments and tell me which ones have a high sound and which ones have a low sound. 180 Creative Exploration 1. In self space, find an as many different ways as you can to move with your ball on a low level to express the quality of the drum? Can you find ways to move your ball when you lay on your stomach? On your side? How many different ways can you find to move your ball on a high level to express the quality of the triangle? What happens when you stretch with your ball? How about twist with your ball? Can you find different ways to move with your ball on a medium level to the beat of the rhythm sticks? Can you use different body parts? Make some very large movements, make some very small movements. 2. As you travel in general space, find ways to do movements with your ball on a high level. Can you use free flowing movements? How about bound movements? 3. Create a three part dance with your ball to the rhythm of the music. Choose three movements that you can do in self space on the middle level (on knees), choose a movement that you can do on a high level as you travel in general space, and choose three movements that you can do in self space on a low level (sitting or laying down). 4. Show dances to the class. Warm-down Starting in a crouched position, breath in slowly and simultaneously roll up to standing with arms over head. Breathing out, melt down to the crotched position. Repeat several times. 182 Lesson 6: Directions Objectives: 1. Students w i n explore directions: forward, backward, upward, downward, and sideward. Equipment: Drum Procedures: Warm-up (to beat of drum) 1. Stretching - students choose their own method Introduction (To the beat of the drum) Let’s stand in a self space. Walk forward, walk backward, melt down to the floor, stretch way up toward the ceiling, slide to the right, slide to the left. Repeat once. In what directions did we just move? That’s our theme for today, directions. Creative Exploration: 1. Let’s form four lines at the end of the room. One row at a time, and moving to the beat of the drum, find different ways to get to the other side of the room going in a forward direction. Backward, sideward. This time its going to be a little harder, you have to move upward and downward as you travel across the room. 2. Find a partner. Create a dance in which you 183 use at least four of the directions that we discussed. 3. Show dances to the class. Warm-down Repeat warm-down from lesson 5. 184 Lesson 7: Pathways Objectives: 1. Students will explore the concept of pathways. Equipment: Hand drum Procedures Warm-up (To beat of drum) 1. Stretching - students choose their own method, alone or with a partner. Introduction (sitting in circle) Pathways are imaginary lines that we make on the floor or in the air when we move from one place to another place. The lines can be straight, curved, or zigzag. Today we are going to explore the use of pathways. When you walk in the snow or in the sand on the beach, you can see the pathway that you make. Find a self space and freeze. Creative Exploration 1. Moving in general space, find different ways to move using different pathways. How about using some different forms of locomotion as you make your pathways. Try a leap, a skip, some turns. Freeze. See how many different ways you can make a curved pathway. Can you change your level as you make your curved pathway? Freeze. Find different ways to make 185 a zigzag pathway. Change your speed as you make your zigzag pathway. Freeze. Find different ways to make a straight pathway. Freeze. 2. Find a partner and freeze. With your partner find different ways to make pathways. You and your partner must work together and you must include two or three of the pathways. 3. Show sequences to the class. Warm-down Sitting Indian style in self space, breath in making the back very long and breath out making the back curve. Repeat several times. 186 Lesson 8: Time Objectives: 1. The student will explore the use of sudden movement. 2. The student will explore the use of sustained movement. Equipment: Tambourine, tape player, music of choice Procedure: Warm-up - Stretching - students choose their own method alone or with a partner Introduction (sitting in a circle) Movement can be sudden, sustained, or somewhere in between the two. Sudden movement is quick. Sustained movement is slow. Today we’re going to explore sudden movement and sustained movement. Find a self space, make a pose and freeze. Creative Exploration 1. In your self space, see how many different sudden movements you can do to the beat of the tambourine. Try balancing on three body parts, what kinds of sudden movements can you do with the free body part? Can you make very small sudden movements? Big sudden movements? 2. See how many different sustained movements you can do to the to sound of the tambourine. 187 Move slowly, slowly. Change your level. Can you use different body shapes? Freeze. 3. See how many different ways you can do sudden movements as you travel in general space to the beat of the tambourine. Use different body parts. Can you change your direction. How about moving in a zigzag pathway? Freeze. 4. Find ways to do sustained movements as you travel in general space to the sound of the tambourine. Can you vary the way that you travel? Try moving wery lightly as you travel. Freeze. 5. We’re going to make a three part dance sequence in our self space. In the first part you will use sustained movements to the sound of the tambourine. In the second part you wi11 use sudden movements to the beat of the tambourine. In the third part you will use sustained movements to the sound of the tambourine again. 6. Show sequences to the class individually. Warm-down Sitting, do a short sequence of sustained arm movements ending with melting the arms and upper body into a curved relaxed position. Take deep breaths. 188 Lesson 9: Weight Objectives: 1. The students will explore the use of light movement. 2. Students will explore the use of strong movement. Equipment: Tape player, music of choice for warm-up, music with strong wind sounds and with light sounds to represent leaves Procedure: Warm-up 1. Stretching - students choose their own method. Introduction Today were going to explore the use of strong movements and light movements. Let’s imagine a fall day when the wind is blowing the leaves from the trees. Can anyone describe the wind? How about the leaves, who can describe them. I ’m going to read a poem (with music). The poem is about the wind and the leaves on a windy fall day. Listen very closely. *Come little leaves, said the wind one day. Come over the meadow with me and play. Put on your dresses of red and gold, For summer is gone and the days grow cold. 189 So soon as the leaves heard the wind’s loud call, Down the came fluttering, one and all. Over the brown fields they danced and flew, Singing the soft little songs they knew. Dancing and twirling the little leaves went, Winter had called them and they were content. Soon fast asleep on their earthy beds, The snow laid a blanket over their heads. ♦Author unknown. We’re going to interpret the poem through dance. But first we’re going to explore strong movements and light movements. Then, on the first part of the poem, you will use strong movements as if you were the wind. On the last part of the poem, you will use light movements as if you were the leaves. Find a self space and freeze. Creative Exploration 1. Traveling in general space, find as many different ways as you can to move to the music as if you were a strong wind. Can you try using different body shapes as you move? Try a change of level. Freeze. 2. As you travel in in general space, find as 190 many different ways as you can to move to the music as if you were a leaf blowing in the wind. Can you use different body parts? Can you try some different forms of locomotion? Freeze. 3. As I read the poem with the music, find as many different ways as you can to move as if you were a strong wind. When you hear the music change, find as many different ways as you can to move as if you were a leaf blowing in the wind. (Read poem with music) Freeze. 4. You are going to show your dance to the class in groups of four. Warm-down Sitting, take deep breaths. 191 Lesson 10: Flow Objectives: 1. Students will explore the use of free flow in movement. 2. Students will explore the use of bound flow in movement. Equipment: Tape player, music of choice, rhythm sticks Procedure: Warm-up 1. Stretching - students choose their own method. Introduction Who remembers how to do the robot dance? Will you demonstrate the dance for us? How can you tell that that is the robot dance? Who can show us some dance movements that would be the opposite of the robot dance? What makes it different? Today our lesson is about the flow of movement. Flow connects movements. Flow can be bound as in the rodot dance or free as in the second dance we saw. In bound flow, you get a feeling of control in which the movement can be stopped at any moment. In free flow, you get a feeling of frredom in which there is continuous movement. Creative Exploration 1. In self space, find as many different ways as 192 you can to move with bound flow to the beat of the rhythm sticks. Try using different body parts. Change your level. 2. See how many different ways you can do free flowing movements as you travel in general space to the beat of the rhythm sticks. Use some different pathways. How about changing directions? 3. Let’s choreograph a three part dance to the beat of the rhythm sticks. In part one, use bound movement in self space. In part two, use free flowing movement in general space. In part three, use bound movement in self space. 4. Show sequence to class individually. Warm-down Slowly melt to the floor. Take some deep breaths and relax. APPENDIX C ATTITUDE RATING SCALE, MOVEMENT PROFILE CODING SHEET, MOVEMENT PROFILE SCALE 193 Attitude Rating Scale OLUueni it Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Positive uensrdj. - - Attitude Indifferent Negative Quickly Preparation Moderately • for Cl ass Needs Coaxing Entire Class PaiLxti.^Lxuu part of Class None of Class I Most of Time On Task Some of Time None of Time Willingly Performance Unwillingly Did Not Perform TOTAL 195 4 V>« 1 I i? (| qI IP f if H1 i X' 0 to0 ft0 ft aI ft it 4 VA0 a! 4 *s B xw 4 jS I -i CO U X z V fcj c 1 fS 2 (O p- I o ^ lu U. LL O p c K 196 Movement Profile Scale Student # 1 2 3 4 5 Tot Near Mid Use of Reach Far Space Vertical Sagittal Plane Horizontal Light Strong Weight Di rect Effort Indi rect Space Free Flow Bound Sudden Sustained Time # of Aspects of Space and Effort Qualities Used v 197 LIST OF REFERENCES Ammon-Gaberson, K. and Piantanida, M. Generating Results form Qualitative Data. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 1988, 20(3), 159-161. Barrett, K. Educational Dance. In B. Logsdon, (Ed.). Physical Education for ChiIden: A Focus on the Teaching Process. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977. Bartenieff, I. How is the Dancing Teacher Equipped to do Dance Therapy? In Music Therapy (Vol. 7). Lawrence: National Association for Music Therapy, 1957. Bartenieff, I. Dance Therapy: A New Profession or a Rediscovery of an Ancient Role of the Dance. Dance Scope. 1972-73, 1(1), 6-18. Bender, L. and Boas, F. Creative Dance in Therapy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 1941, H , 235- 254. Bernstein, P. Theory and Methods in Dance-Movement Therapy: A Manuel for Therapists. Students, and Educators (2nd ed.). Dubuque: Brown, Kendall, Hunt Publishers, 1975. Bernstein, P. Eight Theoretical Approaches to Dance- Movement Therapy (2 vols.). Dubuque: Brown, Kendall, Hunt Publishers, 1979. Best, J. Research in Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hal1, Inc., 1981. Bloom, B. Affective Outcomes of School Learning. Phi Delta Kaooan. 1977, 59(3), 193-198. Boorman, J. Creative Dance in the First Three Grades. Ontario: Longman, Ltd. 1969. Brookover, W. Self-Concept of Ability, and School Achievement. East Lansing: Michigan State University Educational Publication Services, 1966. 198 Brookover, W., Shailer, F. Self-Concept and Ability in School Achievement. Sociology of Education. 1964, 31, 271-278. Brown, L. Psychology and Mental Retardation. In W. Cruickshank (Ed.), Psychology of Exceptional Children and Youth. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hal1, Inc., 1980. Bruce, V. Dance and Dance Drama in Education. Oxford: Pergamon, 1965. Buros, 0. The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook. Highland Park: The Gryphon Press, 1972. Caldwell, S. Towards a Humanistic Physical Education. Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation. 1972, 43, 9-10. * Caplow-Lindner, E., Harpaz, L., Samberg, S. Therapeutic Dance Movement Expressive Activities for Older Adults. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1979. Carroll, J., Friedrich, D., Hund,J. Academic Self-Concept and Teacher’s Perceptions of Normal, Mentally Retarded, and Learning Disabled Elementary Students. Psychology in the Schools. 1984, 21. 343-348. Cassidy, R. New Directions in Physical Education. Journal of Health. Physical Education. and Recreation. 1940, 1_1, 408-409. Chapman, S. Movement Education in the United States. Philadelphia: Movement Education Publications, 1974. Collins, A., ed. Development During Middle Childhood the Years from 6-12. Washington: National Academic Press, 1984. Combs, A., Snygg, D. (Eds.). Individual Behavior (Rev. ed.). New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959. Coopersmith, S. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1967. Delaney, W. Dance Therapy: Selected Materials for Professional Preparation. Unpublished master’s thesis, Texas Woman’s University, 1977. 199 Dimondstein, G. ChiIdren Dance in the Classroom. New York: MacMillian Co., 1971. Dunn, L. Special Education for the Mildly Retarded-Is Much of It Justifiable. Exceptional ChiIdren. 1968, M , 5-21. Engel, M. The Stability of the Self-Concept in Adolesence. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1959, 58, 221-215. Felker, D. Building Positive Self-Concepts. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co. 1974. Fisher, S., Clevelend, S. Body Image and Personality. New York: Dover Publications, 1968. Fitts, W. , Adams, J., Radford, G., Richard, W., Thomas, B., Thompson, W. The Self-Concept and Self-Actualization. Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests, 1971. Fleming, G. Creative Rhythmic Movement. Englewood: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976. Franklin, M., Duley, S., Rousseau, E., and Sabers, D. Construct Validity of the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1981, 41, 439-443. Friedman-Wittkower, E. The Influences of Movement on Culturally Deprived Children. Gymnasium. 1971, 8, 9-11. Frostig, M., Maslow, P. Learning Problems in the Classroom: Prevention and Remediation. New York: Grune and Stratton , Inc., 1973. Gergen, K. The Concept of Self. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1971. Gilliom, B. Basic Movement Education for ChiIdren: Rationale and Teaching Units. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970. Goldstein, H. and Siegle, D. Characteristics of Educable Retarded Children. In J. Rothstein (Ed.), Mental Retardation. Readings and Resources. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, Inc., 1971. 200 Gorman, W. Body Image and the Image of the Brain. St. Louis: Warren H. Green, Inc., 1969. Gotts, E. Assessment of Affective Development. In T. Miller & E. Davis (Eds.), The Mi Idly Handicapped Student. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1982. Groves, L., (Ed.) Physical Education for Special Needs. London: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Gulliford, R. Special Education Needs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971. Hawkins, A. Modern Dance in Higher Education. New York: A. S. Barnes & Co., 1954. H ’Doubler, M. Dance as an Educational Force. Arts in Society. 13. 324-334. Higgins, T., Eccles, J. Social Cognition and Social Behavior. In T. Higgins, D. Ruble, and W. Hartup (Eds.), Social Cogni tion and Social Development. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Humphrey, J. Chi Id Learning. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1965. Jersild, A. in Search of Self. New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications, 1952. Jersild, A. Child Psychology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hal1, Inc., 1960. Johnson, G. Psychological Characteristics of the Mentally Retarded. In W. Cruickshank (Ed.), Psychology of Exceptional ChiIdren and Youth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. Jones, R. Labels and Stigma in Special Education. Exceptional ChiIdren. 1972, 38» 553-564. Joyce, M. First Steps in Teaching Creative Dance. Palo Alto: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1973. Karnes, F. and Wherry, J. Concurrent Validity of the Children's Personality Questionnaire 0 Factor as Suggested by the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Psychological Reports. 1982, 50, 574. Laban, R. Choreutic. London: MacDonald & Evans, 1966. 201 Laban, R., Lawrence, F. Effort. London: MacDonald and Evans, 1948. LaBenne, W., Greene, B. Educational Imp!ications of Self-Concept Theory. Pacific Palisades: Goodyear Publishing Co., 1969. Lawrence, E. and Winschel, J. Self Concept and the Retarded: Research and Issues. Exceptional ChiIdren. 1973, 39, 310-319. Little, A. The Meaning of Dance for Young Children. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation. 1977, 48. 35-38. Lishman, J. Movement Education and Severely Subnormal Children: A Review of the Literature. Early Chi Id Development and Care. 1985, 21, 135-253. Litton, F. Education of the Tranable Mental 1v Retarded: Curriculum. Methods. Materials. St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1978. Logsdon, B., K. Barrett, et.al. Physical Education for Childen: A Focus on the Teaching Process. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1977. MacMillian, D.; Jones, R.; Aloia, G. The Mentally Retarded Label: A Theoretical Analysis and Review of Research. American Journal of Menrtal Deficiency. 1974, 79(3), 241-261. Markus, H. & R. Nurius. Self-Understanding and Self- Regulation in Middle Childhood. In A. Collins (Ed.), Development During Middle ChiIdhood The Years from 6-12. Washington: Nathional Academic Press, 1984. Maslow, A. Some Educational Implications of the Humanistic Psychologies. Harvard Educational Review. 1968, 38. 685-696. Mason, K. (Ed.). Dance Therapy. Washington: American Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, 1974. McCandless, B. Children: Behavior and Development (2nd ed.). Chicago: Holt, 1967. McCloy, C. Philosophical Basis of Physical Education. New York: F. S. Crofts & Co., 1940. 202 Mead, G. Mind. Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. Meier, J. Developmental and Learning Disabi1ities. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1976. Mettler, B. Ten Articles on Dance. Tucson: Mettler Studios, no date. Miller, T. & Davis, E. The Mildly Handicapped: A Rationale. In T. Miller & E. Davis (Eds.), The Mi Idly Handicapped Student. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1982. Murray, R. Dance in Education. New York: National Press Books, 1963. Newland, T. Psychological Assessment of Exceptional Children and Youth. In W. Cruickshank (Ed.), Psychology of Exceptional ChiIdren and Youth. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hal1, Inc., 1980. North, M. Movement Education. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973. Ohio Department of Education. Rules for the Education of Handicapped ChiIdren. No date. Oshuns, M. An Exploratory Study of Creative Movement as a Means of Increasing Positive Self-Concept. Personal. and Social Adjustment of Selected Seventh Grade Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, The Ohio State University, 1977. Parish, T. and Taylor, J. A Further Report on the Validity and Reliability of the Personal Attribute Inventory for Children as a Self-Concept Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1978, 38. 1225-1228. Parks, C. The Effects of Creative Dance on the Body-Image and Self-Esteem of ChiIdren with Severe Speech Defects. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1974. Patterson, C. Program Evaluation. Review of Educational Research. 1963, 33, 214-224. Phelps, D. Quest for Self Identity. Journal of School Health. 1966, 36. 296-299. 203 Piaget, J. The Psychology of Intel 1igence. New York: Harcourt, 1950. Piers, E. and Harris, D. Age and Other Correlates of Self-Concept in Children. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1964, 55, 91-95. Piers, E. Manuel for the Pier’s-Harris Children's Self- Concept Scale. Nashville: Counselor Recording and Tests, 1969. Platten, M. and Williams, L. Replication of a Test-Retest Factorial Validity Study with the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1981, 41> 453-461. Porter, R. A Comparative Invertigation of the Personality of EMR Children and Those of a Norm Group of Children. Exceptional Chi Idren. 1965, 3JL> 457- 463. Puretz, S. A Comparison of the Effects of Dance and Physical Education on the Self-Concept of Selected Disadvantaged Girls. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1974. Purkey, W. Self-Concept and School Achievement. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Raimy, V. The Self-Concept as a Factor in Counseling and Personality Organization. Ohio Office of Educational Services, Ohio State University Libraries Publications Committee, 1971. Ralston, N., Thomas, G. The Role of the Physical Educator in Developmental Guidance. Journal of Health. Physical Education. Recreation. 1970, 41_» 44- 47. Reinert, H. The Development of Affective Skills. In T. Miller & E. Davis (Eds.), The Mi Idly Handicapped Student. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1982. Robinson, J. and Shaver, P. Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes. Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1973. Rosenberg, M. Conceiving of Self. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1979. 204 Rubin, R. Body-Image and Self-Esteem. Nursing Outlook. 1968, 16, 20-23. Russell, J. Creative Movement and Dance for Children. Bolton: Plays, Inc., 1975. Schilder, P. The Image and Appearance of the Human Body. New York: International University Press, 1950. Schmais, C. and White, E. Introduction to Dance Therapy. In APTA Workshop in Dance Therapy. Baltimore: Cord Publications, 1968. Secord, P, and Gerard, S. The Appraisal of Body- Cathexis: Body-Cathexis and the Self. Journal of Consulting Psychology. 1961, 8, 170-178. Shavelson, R. and Bolus, R. Self-Concept: The Interplay of Theory and Methods. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1982, 74» 3-17. Shaw, M., Alves, G. The Self-Concept of Bright Academic Underachievers: II. Personnel and Guidance Journal. 1963, 42, 401-403. Sherborne, V. Movement for Developmental!y Retarded Children. In L. Groves (Ed.), Physical Education for Special Needs. London: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Smith, A. and Rogers, C. Item Instability on the Piers- Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale for Academic Underachuevers with High, Middle, and Low Self-Concepts. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1977, 37, 553-558. Strichart, S. & Gottleib, J. Characteristics of Mild Mental Retardation. In T. Miller & E. Davis (Eds.), The Mi Idly Handicapped Student. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1982. Stringer, C. The Sense of the Self. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1971. Sullivan, H. The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1953. Taylor, L. Developmental Dance in the Education of the Educable Mentally Handicapped Chi Id. Unpublished master’s thesis, University if Illinois, 1964. 205 Teagardner, K. Supervisor of Developmental!y Handicapped Program, Columbus Public Schools, Personal interview, November 8, 1988. Thornton, S. Laban *s Theory of Movement. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1971. Trigg, M. The Effects of Varying Amounts of Creative Modern Dance Activities on Creative Thinking Abi1itv and Self-Concept. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1978. Twillie, G. The Effect of Creative Dance on the School Readiness of Four and Five Year Old Children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Woman’s University, 1980. VanDalen, D., Mitchell, E., Bennett, B. A World History of Physical Education. New York: Prentice-Hal 1 , Inc., 1953. Vanderschoot, M. Dai 1v Physical Education for Junior Kindergarten ChiIdren. Unpublished master’s thesis, Brock University, 1979. Venson, G. The Effects of Time Related Modern Educational Dance Programs on the Self-Concept of Fourth. Fifth. and Sixth Grade Girls in a Southern Urban City. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1977. Wallock, S. Creative Dance and Self-Concept: Attitudinal Effects of Dance Movement Therapy. Unpublished master’s thesis, United States International University, 1975. Wattenberg, W., Clifford, C. Relationship of Self-Concepts to Beginning Achievement in Reading. Chi Id Development. 1964, 35, 461-467. Williams, R. , Cole, S. Self-Concept and School Adjustment. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1968, 46. 478-481. Winne, P., Marx. R., and Taylor, T. A Multitrait- Multimethod Study of Three Self-Concept Inventories. Chi Id Development. 1977, 48, 893-901. Wright, J. Physical Disabi1ities: A Psychological Approach. New York: Harper and Row, 1960. 206 Wylie, R. The Self Concept. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961. Wylie, R. The Self-Concept: A Review of Methodological Considerations and Measuring Instruments (Rev. ed., Vol.1). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974. Yauman, B. Special Education Placement and the Self- Concept of Elementary School-Age Children. Learning Disabi1itv Quarterly. 1980, 3, 30-35. Zion, L. Body-Concept as it Relates to Self-Concept. Research Quarterly. 1965, 36* 490-495.