South Afflam Joum;J1 of BO/;Jny 2001. 67 393-398 Copynghl tJ NISC Ply LId Pnnred in South Alnel'! - All fights reserved SOUTH AFRICAN JOU RN A1 OF BOTANY ISSN 0254-6299

M inireview

Status and distribution of in

FMA Barbosaa- , CC Cuambe2 and SO 8andeira1

, Department of Biological Sciences, Eduardo Mondlane University, PO Box 257, Maputo, Mozambique , Forest Inventory Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, PO Box 1406, Maputo, Mozambique ". Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Received 9 March 2001 , accepted in revised form 5 May 2001

The status of forests in Mozambique is pre­ Potential threats are oil pollution, uncontrolled coastal sented. Mangroves in Mozambique cover an area of migration and industrial development along the coast. approximately 396 080 hectares and occur mostly in The rate of mangrove deforestation is estimated as sheltered shorelines and river estuaries. The highest 1 821 hectares year\ and is highest in Maputo and concentrations of mangroves occur in central Beira. Conservation and management of mangroves in Mozambique, in the deltas and estuaries of large rivers. Mozambique falls under the Forests and Land There are nine mangrove species in Mozambique. The Legislation Act, which envisages community participa­ major use is in building and as firewood. Major threats tion in the protection of natural resources. Proposals to mangroves include over exploitation for firewood and are still under way for a national mangrove management clearing of mangroves for solar salt production. plan,

Introduction Study area

Mangroves are defined as characteristic littoral forma­ Mozambique is located on the eastern coast of Africa tion of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines (Hughes between latitudes 10020'S and 26°50'S. The cl imate is and Hughes 1992). Th ey have been described as 'coastal essentially tropical, with a rather sub-tropical climate in the woodlands', 'tidal lorests' and 'mangrove lorests' (Berjak et south. Two main seasons can be distinguished: A warm ai, 1982, Saenger et al. 1983). In Mozambique mangroves rainy season from October to March and a cooler dry sea­ occur in protected shorelines, deltas and estuaries distrib­ son lrom April to October. The average annual rainfall in the uted all along the coastline. They are important coastal coastal areas is around 1 173mm - data provided by the ecosystems providing ecological, economical and environ­ National Institute lor Meteorology (1998- 2000). The 2 770km mental benefits to the peopl e oil Mozambique. Mozam bi can coastl ine can be divided into three main Current studies on Mozambican mangroves can be divid­ regions; the sandy coastline in the south, estuarine in the ed into two major groups . Studies investigatinl the biological central region, and coraline with coral limestone in the north­ and physical aspects and studies concerning socio-econom­ ern reg ion of the country. Mangroves occur mostly in the ics . Research on biological and physical aspects include: central estuari ne region. In this study, the main areas vis ited , distribution, fauna and flora associations and bio­ were Maputo Bay and Inhaca Island in the southern reg ion; physical requirements (e .g. Cuambe 2000, Vilanculos and Beira, Zambezi Delta and Qu elimane in the ce ntral reg ion Marquez 2000, Kalk 1995, Saket and Matusse 1994, Hatton and Lumbo, Mussoril, Nacala, Pemba, Ibo and Mecufi in the and Couto 1992, Hughes and Hughes 1992) . Socia-eco­ northern region. nomic studies cover demographic profiles as well as source and destination of mangrove products, mainly firewood and Material and Methods building poles (Chande 2000, Hatton and Massinga 1994, Sitae et al. 1994). Th is paper is chiefly a review work on the distribution , uses The objective 01 this paper is to outline the current knowl­ and threats on mangroves, and is based on published and edge on th e mangroves of Mozambique, in terms of dis tri­ technical reports produced in Mozambique. Data concerni ng bution, uses and threats. species diversity and identification of we re obtained larg ely from the herbarium voucher specimens at Eduardo Mondlane University and the Herbarium 01 the National 394 Barbosa , Cuambe and 8andelra

Institute for Agronomic Research. The species diversity and populnea (L.) Soland. ex Correa. The transition zone comparison between regions was based large ly on site (between the mangroves and the ter restrial vegetation) is observation and literature . Site observation were conducted occupied by grasses and herbs such as Chenolea diffusa during seve ra l visits to the study sites, carried out during the Thunb. , Salicornia perrieri A. Chev., Suaeda maritima past eight years. Dumont, Paspalum dislichum L. , Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth, Arthrocnemum sp. The herb Sesuvium portulacas­ Results trum L occurs in saline areas (salt des erts) and is occasion· aUy haNested as a vegetable. Mangrove habitats and distribution Pemphis acidula was only found in northern Mozambique (e.g. Mec"fi). This species occurs close to the terrestrial Mangroves occur along most of the Mozambican coast vegetation in areas subjected to extreme high tides. (Figure 1) . A total of 396 080ha of mangroves occur in the Sonneratia alba was on ly recorded from Incomati River country (Saket and Matusse 1994). The northern reg ion, (25°40'48"S, 32°39'36" E) northwards. This is a very com­ located between the River Ruvuma (10' 30'S, 40730"E) mon species in northern Mozambique where it thrives and Angoche (16" 12'36"S, 39"54'E), has numerous istands together with seagrass species in upper coraline intertidal (mainly Ouinmbas archipelago) th at provide protection to areas. All nine mangrove species occur in parts of northern mangroves and coral reefs. Here, the topography is highly Mozambique. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of man~ indented, the coastal plain is narrow, the rive rs are non· tidal grove zonation in central Mozambique. The seawa rd side is and the mangrove forests are mostly confined to the vicini­ occupied by Sonneratia alba. This is fo llowed by tall ties of the river mouths (Hughes and Hughes 1992). Rivers Avicennia then Ceriops-Rhizaphora-Bruguera communi· such as Megaruma and Montepuez are seasonal. The north­ ties. Avicennia ex hibit double zonation, growing as tall trees ern coast has we ll developed creek mangroves in Lumbo , on the seaward side and as scrub vegetation on the land~ Mec"fi, Ibo Island and the mainland areas north of Pemba ward side. The diversity of mangroves decreases south~ City (Whittington et al. 1997, Saket and Matusse 1994, ward. Semesi (1998) pOinted out that Heritiera littoralis, Hughes and Hughes 1992). Luminilzera racemosa and Xylocarpus granatum decline in The cen tral region , located between Angoche abundance in the vicinity of lnhambane Province. (16"12'36"S, 39' 54'E) and the Save River (20"52'12"S, 35 Cl 30E) has extensive and well established mangroves. Mangrove uses This is because of the alluvium and freshwater discharge that is received from 18 rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean . Mangroves are utilised by the people of Mozambique fo r The estuaries of the big rivers such as the Zambezl , building materials, firewood , fen ci ng, fish traps and for m ed ic~ Pungue, Buzi and Save are all in this central region. The inal purposes (Table 1). Ecologically mangroves play an mangrove of the Zambezi delta extends inland approximate* important role as nursery and feeding grounds for many Iy 50km . This mangrove is continuous from areas in the important commercial fish and crustacean species. south to Ouelimane (17"46'48"S, 36"54 'E) covering almost Mangrove deforestation is a serious problem in urban cen­ 180km of coastline. This mangrove is one of the single* tres such as Maputo and Beira . In Incomati Benguelene largest mangrove forests in Africa and represents close to Island mangrove poles are harvested at an annual rate of 50% (185 757ha) of Mozambican mangrove. 9 234 metric tones/year (Sitoe et al. 1991 ). The southern region , from the Save River (20"52'12"S, 35 ' 30'E) southward to Ponta de Duro (26°30'S, 32"24'36"E) Threats to mangroves in Mozambique on the Mozambique/South Africa border, has extensive man ~ groves in the Morrumbene Estuary, Inhambane bay, Maputo Major threats to the mangroves in Mozambique include: (i) bay and Inhaca Island. Maputo bay with its four main rivers uncontrolled exploitation for firewood, ch arcoal and poles; flowing into the bay, is one of the major mangrove areas in (ii) clearance of mangroves for agricu lture (mainly for rice southern Mozambique . At Inhaca, mangrove covers approx~ fields) and salt production; (iii) pollution and (iv) decreased imately 50% of the entire island coastline constituting one of flow of freshwater to mangroves caused by construction of the largest vegetation types. dams (Saket and Matusse 1994, Doddema 1997, Doddema and Manjate 2000). In addition, the uncontrolled influx of Diversity people from the inte rior regions to the coast has resulted in increased exploitation of mangroves (Saket and Matusse There are nine species of mangrove trees in Mozambique. 1994). Change in mangrove area per province between The dominant species are Avicennia marina (Forssk.) 197.2 and 1990 in shown is Table 2. Vierh. , Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam., Ceriops tagal (Per.) Crude oil and heavy metals have also affected man~ C.B. Robinson , Rhizophora mucronata Lam . and Sonneratia groves. FAO/UNEP(1982) mentioned a total of 14 minor and alba Smith . Others are Heritiera !illaralis Aiton , two major crude oil spills in the Mapu to harbour which affect­ racemosa Willd., Xylocarpus granatum Koenig and Pemphis ed mangroves. In 1992, a heavy fuet oil spill apparently acidula Forst The fern mangrove, Acrostichum aureum L., is affected part of the Macaneta peninsula including man­ also common. Other plant associates found close to the groves (northern Maputo). mangrove areas include Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Roxb. , Transformation of mangrove areas into salt pans is com~ Hibiscus filiaceus L. , Phoenix reclinata Jacq ., Thespesia mon in the coastal regions of Mozambique. In Mossuril South AIr-can Journal 01 Botany 2001, 67: 393-398 395

+ + + + + + ."

R OVi./ n1a

" + + + " r-'r

" . + + + + " \, ~-\ { !

\ , aT t' + t:::t'1 + ' ~ J+ " .~ ~ {\ " ~ , :t"J.o1!'I \", ;: '-, ~ (j \, I .,..".:i! "",,'" ! 0:,, / " + + \ + 'r- .,. + + ." .y

N + + ~-; J+ , /+ + + ."

l'~ ~< B,. S2.-.re~ /~ ''- ~ /' ~_..r- 1. '0 u - + "+, + \ ~' + + + '...t"t " ~ Legend

11 "9" ,. + \ 1~ ~ + "l), , ~ ." .. o•• '" ' .. , " o .-__ / - 11'r)'r ~ · ,. ,. + tE + + + +

Figure 1: Distribution of mangroves in Mozamb ique

(northern Mozambique), 50% of the mangroves have been water in the Zambezi detta apparently presently ascends transformed into salt production areas. 80km upstream (Doddema 1997), The constru ction of th e Cahora-Bassa dam on the Tourism can potentially affect mangrove vegetation, espe­ Zambezi River has resulted in a reduced flow of freshwater. cially when it takes place without sound planning. This has altered water conditions causing the sh ri nking of Sustainable tourism will have to tackle mangrove conserva­ mangrove areas and accelerated bank erosion. The salt tion wherever mangroves occur. 396 Barbosa, Cuambe and Bandetra

j Coconut I I Av~ann~ I

X~h' ''I'I'' L"~ "'''' I c.""" I I """'f''''''' I A.

Figure 2: Mangrove transect a\ Zambezi delta (after Sweco 1982)

Eros ion, which can be caused by wave action, storms or motes mangrove recolonisation as observed in areas such wi nds, can aHeet mangroves. Some areas of the coastline, as Portuguese Island and northern Inhaca Island . e.g. Portuguese Island in the south and Dando region in Present industrial development along the Mozambican central Mozambique, show natural mangrove die-back and coast is a threat to mangroves. Projects for iron smelter an d drying up, due to sand accretion and to watercourse dive r­ gas/oil drilling in central Mozambique are potential th reats to sion respectively (Hatton and Cou to 1992, Dodderna and mangrove stands. The proposed construction of a new dam Manjate 2000). The diversion of the watercourse in the on the Zambezi River will exacerbate reduced water flux Portuguese Island mangrove channel was a result of sand downstream thereby affecting mangrove forests and their accretion (Hatton and Couto 1992). Sand accretion pro- associated fauna.

Table 1: Uses of mangrove species in Mozambique (after Barbosa 1995, De Boe r 2000, Doddema 2000)

Bo tanical name Mozambican names Uses Avicennia marina Musso, N'tsQWQzi , Txamahati , Invede, Firewood, fishing poles, dugout canoes, animal fodder, Mpedge, Mangal branco materials used in the construct ion af beehives Bruguiera gymnorhiza Ikapa, Nkandala, M'Piria, N'kandaia, Good firewood, fishing stakes, materials used in the M'fumansL Setaka or Xitaka, M 'rinse construction of houses Ceriops tagal Ikapa, Nsangi. NkandaJa , Mucandala, Good firewood, charcoal, fishing stakes , po les used Nhakandala, Hlohlotxwani, Hlohlodjani, in house construction , timber far boat building Mangal indiana

Heritiera littoralis Mucolongo, Necolongo. Manga !- Mo~ am biqu e Lumnitzera racemosa Piripita, Mpiripito, Mangal prelo Good firewood, poles for building Pemphis acidula Mavuvu!a, M'zama Rhizophora mucronata Nhantanzira, Mtanganda, Sinkaha, Ikapa Good firewood, fishing stakes, fish traps, poles used in Mangal vermelho house construction, bark used for dying nets Soneratia alba Mpiria, Tjindiri , Mangal ma ~a Poles, firewood Xylocarpus granatum Murrubo, Marrubo, Nse!i , Shukuliha Good firewood, fish smoking, materials lor boat building, Mangal boJa-de-canhao medicine for stomach ache Th espesia populnea Mulola Rope is made from the bark at young plants Hibiscus tiliaceus Lilolo, Nolo, Swombe, Muloladenbe Bark used in th e making of straps and belts Phoenix reclinata Kindzu, Tchindo, Muchindo Edible fruits, sap used for making alcoholic beverage, brooms Sesuvium portulacastrum Secilii, Serisiri Green vegetable South Alrlcan Journal of Botany 2001. 67 393-398 397

Table 2: Cilanges In mangrove cover (hectares) In Mozambique between 1972-1 990 (Saket and Malusse 1994)

Provinces Year 1972 Year 1990 Area depleted New area of mangroves Deforestation ra le (°0) Maputo 14605 12599 2 21 7 211 15.2 Gaza 387 387 0 0 0 Inhambane 20094 19848 246 0 1.2 So/ala 129 997 125317 6334 1 654 4.9 Zambezla 159 41 7 155757 3766 106 24 Nampula 55 849 54336 2006 493 3.6 Cabo De19 27730 27836 0 106 0 Total 408079 396080 14569 2570

Mangroves conservation and JegisJaUon Discussion

The conservation of mangroves In Mozambique falls under Uses of mangrove resources in Mozambique are similar to the general legislation for terrest"al forests (controlled by the those observed in other African countries (e.g. Semesi 1998. National Directorate Tor Wildlife and Forestry). The Bazaruto Salm 1995). The pressure inflicted by the growing popula­ Archipelago Natronal Park and the Inhaca and Portuguese tion and the economic development of the coastal region Islands reserves are currently the only existing marine pro­ seem to be the main factors causing mangrove depletion. tected areas with mangrove forests. The Pomene. Contrary to the negative effect of aquaculture development Marromell and Maputo special reserves also contain man­ In places such as the (Christensen 2000) such groves. Tllere are proposals to protect mangrove forests in activity IS still new and is mostly periormed in former salt ~ the Primeiras and Segundas archipelago, the QUlrimbas extraction areas in Mozambique. The development of large archipelago, the Nacala-Mossunl region. the Bartolomeu scale aquaculture in Mozambique will result in negative Dias area, parts of Pemba bay. tile Save River mouth and Impacts such as: Further depletion of mangrove regions, the San Sebastian penrnsula (Gove 1995, Kelleher et a/. pollution of mangrove habitats through aquaCUlture chemi­ 1995) cals, depletion of faunal resources traditionally used in sma!1 A new land legislation was approved in 1998. In article 5 scale fis heries. resulting in reduced livelihoods for the local of the new legislation. all mangroves are subject to partial people. protection together with other living resource occurring with­ A general decrease in mangrove coverage was observed In areas from the coastline to 1 00 metres inland of the coast­ for Mozambique (Table 2). However, a localised increase in line. This land legislation envisages comm unity participation coverage seems to be mainly due to regeneration. As stat­ In the protection of natural resources (including mangroves) ed, in the previolls section, sand accretion seems to be the and In conflict resolution. Development projects with poten­ main reason for the increase obseved in mangrove regener­ tial impacts on mangroves are subject to environmental ation , Limited accessibility to remote regions has assisted in impact assessments. Under this legislation. mangrove the preservation of the mangroves in the central (Doddema exploitation for commercial purposes must be licensed. 2000) and northern areas of Mozambique. A pilot study aimed at providing baseline data for a nation­ The distribution of different species of mangroves and al mangrove management plan has been conducted 111 cen­ their abundance should be related to different factors such tral Mozambique. This management plan envisages aspects as air and water temperature, salinity versus freshwater and such as (i) classification and mapping of mangrove areas. sediment (e.g. Ellison and Farnsworth 1996). The success­ according to the biological diversity, ecological and econom­ ful implementation of the national mangrove management ic functions; (ii) planning and zonation of land use: (iii) refor~ plan will require further research on management and con­ estation or rehabIlitation of mangrove areas; (iv) control of selVation issues. Specific re search should also consider the mangrove resources exploitation; (v) the creation of alterna­ possible relationship between mangrove abundance/distri­ tive sources of income besides mangroves: (vi) creating a bution and river floods. Research on infestations by boring national mangroves management committee. Th iS pilot proj­ caterpillars (Semesi 1998) has not been quantified lor ect has defined intact and degraded mangrove areas and Mozambique. The effects of caterpillar on mangroves has urban and rural mangrove communities. Different applica­ been observed around Inhaca Island and northern Beira. tions can be derived from mangrove vegetation including: To conclude, mangroves in Mozambique, are an important Exploitation of the fauna (e.g. fish. crabs). utilisation of man~ asset. providing direct. and indirect benefits. Law inforce­ grove trees (e.g. firewood. building materia!. ropes) and con­ ment is reqUired in order to enforce conservation practices verSion of mangroves Into development areas (e.g. urban and the sustainable use of mangroves. Such enforcement is expansion. sa/t-extrac1ton plants. aquaculture). Mozambique to be considered within the national mangrove management will need to find a compromise between development and plan. conservation. Mangrove areas with the highest species diver­ sity and productivity of overall habitat and mangrove areas Acknowledgements - We gratefully acknowledge Aurelio Bechel. adjoining major river mounts are recommended as priority Ernesto Nacamo (University Eduardo Mondlane) and Samlra lzidine areas for conservation. Urban areas with high rates of man­ (National Institute lor Agronomic Research) lor helping with speci­ grove deforestation (e.g. Maputo, Berra, Nacala-a-Velha) are men search in the Herbanum. Priority areas for mangrove reforestation. B9B Barbosa. Cuambe and 8andeira

References Workshop and Policy Conference on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Eastern Africa and Island States. Coaslal Barbosa FMA (1995) Uma avaliac;:ao do valor das arvores para a Management Centre (CMC), Conference proceedings, Metro populaQao da tlha da Inhaca. Ucenciatura Thesis, Eduardo Manila, Philippines, pp 251-273 Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique (in Portuguese) Hatton JC, Couto AL (1992) The effect of coastline changes on Serjak P, CampbelJ GK, Huckett 81, Pammenter NW (1982) In the mangrove community structure, Portuguese Island, Mozambique. Mangroves of Southern Africa, 71 pp. ISBN: 0 949966 10 x Hydrobiologia 247: 49- 57 Boer WF (2000) Between the tides; impact of human exploitation on Halton Je, Massinga A (1994) The natural resources of mecufi dis­ an intertidal ecosystem, Mozambique. PhD Thesis, Universal tricL Mecufi Coastal Zone Management Project. Mmistry of Co­ Press, Veenendaal, The Netherlands ordination of Environmental Affairs, Technical report Chande B (2000) Socia-economic survey of the mangrove depend­ Hughes RH , Hughes S (1992) A Directory of African Wetlands. ent villages in the coastal districts of Dando, Marromeu and UNEP Nairobi, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland & WCMC, CambTJdge Northern part of Beira city, Province of 80lala In: Ooddema M Kalk M (1995) A Natural History of Inhaca Island, Mozambique. (ed.) Baseline Data And Evaluation Procedures For The Third Edition Witwatersrand University Press. ISBN 1868142086 Formulation O f Mangrove Resources Management Plan. Kelleher G. Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative Mangroves Resources Management Pilot Project. Volume I, System at Marine Protected Areas. Volume III, World Bank. DNFFB. Technical report, 121pp Washington, 147pp Chri stensen B (2000) Mangroves: What are they worth? Unasylva Saket M, Matusse R (1994) Study for the determinatio n of the rate 139: 1-21 of deforestation of the mangrove vegetation in Mozambique. Cuambe CC (2000) Mangrove forest and mangrove associated DNFFB. FAO/PNUD/MOZl921013. Technical report, 9 pp vegetation inventory of the coastal districts of Dando, Marromeu Saenger P, Heger! EJ, Davie JDS (1983) Global status of mangrove and northern part of Beira city, Province of Sofara In: Doddema M ecosystems. Commission on Ecology Papers , number 3. IU CN , (e d.) Baseline Data And Evalu ation Procedures For The Gland, Switzerland Formulation Of Mangrove Resources Management Plan. Salm R (1995). Marine biodiversity of the western Indian Ocean: Mangroves Resources Management Pilot Project, Volume I, status and conservation framework. In: Linden 0 (ed.) Workshop DNFFB. Technical report and Policy Conference on Integrated Coastal Zone Management Doddema M (1997) A Preliminary Exploratory Survey of Mangrove in Eastern Africa including the Island States. Coastal Vegetation in Northern Part of Sofara, Mozambique: Methods and Management Center. Metro Manila, The Philippines, 101-130pp In formation Requirement for Planing and Management Purposes. Semesi AK (1998): Mangrove Management and utilization in SAREC-Sida Regional workshop on Mangrove Ecology, Eastern Africa. Ambia 27: 62()-626 Physiology and Management Zanzibar, , December 3- 14 Sitoe A, Hatton J , Valoi M, Boaventura T (1994) The environmental Doddema M (2000) Perfil ambiental e Proposta de plano de maneio status of Benguelene Island, N'komati estuary - a proposal for para areas sereccionadas de mangal nos distritos lilorals de the creation of a conservation area . Technical report, 19pp Dando, Marromeu e parte nordeste da Cidade da Beira, Sweco (1982) Preinvestment Report Part 5. Ecology. Stockholm, Prov incia de Sofala. Vol. II . Projecto Pilato de Gestao dos Sweden,177pp Recursos de Mangais. DNFFB, Technical report, 45pp ViJankulos M, Marquez MR (2000): Physical characterization of the Ooddema M, Maniate J (2000) Valuation of the mangrove areas in coastal zone of mangrove areas in the districts of Dondo and the coastal districts of Dando. Marromeu and the northern part of Marromeu, Sofala, based on interpretation of aerial photographs. Beira city, Province of Sofala, In: Doddema M (ed.) Baseline Data In: Doddema M (eds) Baseline Data And Evaluation Procedures and Evalualion Procedures for the Formulation of Mangrove For The Fo rmulation of Mangrove Resources Management Plan. Resources Management Plan. Mangroves Resources Mangroves Resources Management Pilot Project, Volume I. Management Pilot Projecl, Volume I, DNFFB. Technical report DNFFB. Technical report, 121pp Ellison MA, Farnsworth JE (1996) Anthropogenic Disturbance of Whittington MW, Carvalho M, Corrie A, Gell F (1997) Technical Caribbean Mangrove Ecosystems: Past Impacts. Present Trends, report 3: central islands group - lbo , Quirimba, Sencar and and Future PredictIOns. Biotropica 28: 549-565 Quilaluia Islands. Marine biological and resource use surveys of FAO/UNEP (1982) Marine Pollution in East African Region. UNEP Quirimba archipelago, Mozambique. Society for Environmen t Reg. Seas Rep. Stud. 8. UNEP, Nairobi Exploration (London) and The Ministry lor Co-ordination of Gave DZ (1995) The coastal zone in Mozambique. In Linden 0 (ed) Environmental Affairs (Maputo)

Edited by M Bjork and RN Pienaar