Pacific Ocean Synthesis Scientific Literature Review of Coastal and Ocean Threats, Impacts, and Solutions May 2009 This literature review was completed as of October 2008. The authors comprehensively reviewed the literature, but may have missed important reports and papers. If you know of a report or paper we have not included in this literature review documenting Pacific Ocean threats, impacts, or solutions please send the reference to [email protected]. Center for Ocean Solutions. 2009. Pacific Ocean Synthesis: Scientific Literature Review of Coastal and Ocean Threats, Impacts, and Solutions. The Woods Center for the Environment, Stanford University. California. © 2009 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University The Center for Ocean Solutions is a collaboration between Stanford University (including the Hopkins Marine S Station) (www.stanford.edu), the Monterey Bay Aquarium, and the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) (www.mbayaq.org). The Center for Ocean Solutions is administered by the Woods Institute for the Environment at Stanford University. Primary authors: Margaret Caldwell, Tegan Churcher Hoffmann, Stephen Palumbi, Jessica Teisch, Chelsea Tu. Contributors are listed in Appendix A. EAN SOLUTION OC Cover Photo: Schooling Tuna (Danilo Cedrone, Courtesy of United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization) Photo on the right: School of fish in Palau (David Burdick) CENTER FOR B Abstract The objective of this Pacific Ocean synthesis is to comprehensively and systematically survey the published scientific literature, government publications and other peer-reviewed reports to identify Pacific Ocean and regional threats as well as the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of those threats. In addition, the report highlights select regional and Pacific Ocean solutions presented by the literature. This report summarizes and distills the scientific literature and highlights common trends in and around the Pacific Ocean regarding threats, impacts and solutions through the review of more than 3,400 scientific articles and reports. It also reveals gaps in knowledge and areas where more natural and social science research is needed that could inform coastal and ocean policy and management. For this analysis, the Pacific Ocean was organized into seven regions representing 50 countries or territories. Results from this synthesis were vetted and verified by over 30 natural, physical, and social scientists from around the Pacific who convened in Honolulu, Hawaii in August 2008 (Appendix A). The meeting, which used the synthesis as the foundation for discussion, resulted in the creation of the document, “Ecosystems and People of the Pacific Ocean—Threats and Opportunities for Action: A Consensus Statement.” This statement, which has been signed by more than 400 scientists, identifies and prioritizes key threats to the health and productivity of the Pacific Ocean, many accelerated by global climate change, for which broad consensus exists in the scientific community. It also highlights the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of these threats and outlines a “road map” that identifies available solutions for these threats. In both the synthesis and the consensus statement, a review of environmental threats across the Pacific Ocean shows remarkable similarity between the major problems experienced in poor and rich countries or territories alike, in densely settled areas and in rural zones, in populous coun- tries and on small islands. Across these diverse areas, there are three pervasive and serious local threats: pollution from sewage and land runoff, habitat destruction, and overfishing and exploi- tation. We classify invasive species, which can be considered under both pollution and habitat destruction, as a fourth threat, in a category of its own. Finally, climate change imperils all Pacific ecosystems. These threats interact with each other to damage natural ecosystems, reduce biologi- cal and human economic diversity, reduce productivity, and hinder human use of the sea. Key findings from the synthesis, as well as important themes from the consensus statement, include: 1. Pollution: The literature identifies nutrients (in 36 countries or territories) as an overall “severe” impact threat throughout the Pacific. Chemical pollution is also a large, “moderate” threat, but the research does not document the extent of such pollution, nor identify all of the chemi- cal inputs that could affect marine coastal systems. This category includes nutrient pollution from fertilizer runoff and organic pollutants from sewage, plastic marine debris and solid waste disposal, toxic dumping and oil spills, and urban runoff. These forms of pollution can create dead zones, algal blooms, and acidic areas, alter the basic ecosystem structure, pose human health risks, and stress economies. 2. Habitat Destruction: Productive marine habitats are lost to destructive fishing practices, poor agricultural land use, and inappropriate coastal development. Such practices can reduce fishery productivity, create erosion, reduce coastal ecosystem health, and limit livelihoods. Sedimentation is an overall “severe” impact threat, identified in 35 countries or territories throughout the Pacific. Coastal development and land reclamation have been 1 identified as an overall “moderate” impact threat, leading to 5. Invasive Species: While few countries and territories have the destruction of critical ecosystems that produce invaluable documented research on invasive (non-indigenous) species, services and products for society in 35 countries or territories. evidence suggests that marine invasives, identified in 18 locations, can adversely affect the habitats they invade 3. Overfishing and Exploitation: Commercial, industrial both ecologically and economically. Invasives compete with fishing is identified in 40 countries or territories as an other species for habitat and food and can induce disease; overall “severe” impact threat. Across the Pacific, commer- already disturbed habitats are prone to invasions. Invasive cial fishing has some of the greatest impacts on both the species can, in fact, alter the functions of entire ecosystems. environment and society. Unsustainable resource use reduces fish stocks throughout the Pacific, limiting fish 6. Multiple Stressors: When marine life is subjected to catches and often causing ecological shifts that further multiple stressors, including pollution, habitat destruction, reduce biodiversity and productivity. By-catch further overfishing, and climate change, populations of ecologically reduces fish stocks. Artisanal and recreational fishing suffer and economically important species can collapse, from when local needs outstrip local supply, causing displace- coral reefs to kelp forests to cold water deep seas. In this ment of fishing activity, reduced income, and insecure food sense, global climate change is coming at the worst pos- supply. Habitat destruction exacerbates overfishing by sible time, when many communities around the Pacific— reducing fishable areas and productivity. both human and ecological—are threatened by other major problems. 4. Climate Change: Increasing sea surface temperature (an overall “moderate” impact threat, identified in 36 countries 7. Solutions: Maintaining ecosystem health and sustainability or territories), sea level rise (an overall “moderate” impact should be as fundamental a goal as economic develop- threat, identified in 30 countries or territories), and ocean ment. New technologies, innovative market mechanisms, acidification (an overall “low” impact threat, identified in and financial tools that promote adoption of sustainable seven countries or territories), all resulting from climate practices can empower local communities, help maintain change, threaten the Pacific. Although it has become an the cultural richness of Pacific Ocean countries and territo- increasingly important issue, many countries and territo- ries, and reduce the human footprint on the Pacific. Climate ries lack research documenting place-based, present and change mitigation is a global task, and yet a united Pacific future impacts of climate change. Pacific countries and can be instrumental in promoting frank global dialogue territories have already identified strong effects of ocean about establishing and achieving mitigation targets. In addi- warming, changes in ocean circulation, and abrupt shifts tion to mitigation, each region within the Pacific must adopt in precipitation patterns. The bleaching and subsequent sustainable adaptation strategies for ecosystems and deaths of reef-building corals caused by warm water pulses human communities in the face of climate change. Effective have destroyed reef ecosystems. Some ocean areas have and enduring solutions require capacity building within the already acidified to levels known in laboratory studies to Pacific Ocean community and integrated problem solving. cause harm to ocean life. The rates of current environmen- tal change far outpace anything seen in human history, 8. Research Gaps: This synthesis identifies key gaps of and are likely to accelerate in the near future. Many areas knowledge in such areas as multiple threats, climate of the Pacific Ocean may become uninhabitable due to change, chemical pollution, marine invasives, and studies S sea level rise. These changes will increase the numbers of regional and country/territory-specific policies and of impoverished people and reduce the stability of many management. All regions could better link threats, countries and