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Teresa Haigh Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy r DIELECTROPHORETIC INVESTIGATIONS OF HAEMATOLOGICAL CELLS PROCEDURES AND APPLICATIONS Teresa Haigh Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of York Department of Biology March 1995 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my family and friends for all their support. 11 ABSTRACT The dielectrophoretic phenomenondescribes the translationalmotion of a particle such as a biological cell, in responseto a non-uniform electric field. Both the magnitude and the direction of the induced movementare dependentupon the electrical properties of the cell with respectto its surroundingsand thus are a function of cell composition, and vary according to the alternation frequency of the electric field. Quantification of the responsein terms of the number of cells which exhibit positive dielectrophoretic behaviour, i. e. towards greatestfield intensity, as a function of field frequency,enables characteristicspectra to be compiled. Exploitation of a dielectrophoretic technique for biological analysis offers several advantages; notably that measurements are non-invasive and require no pre- modification of the cell, thus potentially permitting the separation of populations of viable cells. The clinical applications of this phenomena have to date been restricted, since methods for investigating dielectrophoretic response have relied upon manual quantification and been limited by cell sample size. Such difficulties have been minimised by the development of automated detection and analysis systems, enabling a typical collection spectra to be generated within an hour. The development of a dielectrophoretic technique for rapid analysis of haematological cells has been described. A computer-based system was used to control voltage application to a micro-electrode chamber through which a cell suspension was circulated. The response of the cells to the electric field was detected by various optical methods and the proficiency of each experimental system evaluated. Optimal quantification of positive dielectrophoretic behaviour exhibited by haematological cells was achieved using an image-analysis system to detect cell release from electrodes subsequent to electric field application. This system permitted parameters affecting the dielectrophoretic response of physiological samples to be identified; these included electric field properties, suspension composition and the method of treatment of cells prior to experimentation. A standard protocol for investigating the dielectrophoretic response of haematological cells was defined. iii Investigations were undertaken using the image-analysis experimental system to determine the dependence of the dielectrophoretic response upon bio-electrical characteristics of the cell suspension. Various treatments were carried out using the human erythrocyte as a simple membrane system. Conductivity of the suspension medium was observed to be proportional to the minimum characteristic frequency of the dielectrophoretic response, in accordance with published research. Membrane conductivity was shown to affect the maximum characteristic frequency of the response and supported theoretical descriptions of the phenomenon. The potential applications of the technique to haematological procedures was investigated using clinical blood samples from leukaemic patients, in association with Leeds General Infirmary. Results suggested that the phenomenon could be exploited to distinguish between different cell populations, B and T lymphocyte sub-sets, and normal and malignant cell types. Recommendations have been made for exploiting the potential of a dielectrophoretic technique in haematological analysis and as a separation method to facilitate autologous bone marrow transplantations in leukaemia treatment. IN, TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page 1 Dedication 11 Abstract 111 Table of Contents V Acknowledgements xi Declaration X11 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The physical principles of dielectrophoretic behaviour 2 1.1.1 Characterisation of materials by their response to an electric field 3 1.1.2 Permanent and induced dipoles 3 1.1.3 The behaviour of neutral and charged particles in static and alternating electric fields 4 1.1.4 Relaxation of dipoles 6 1.1.5 Dielectric dispersions and the implications for biological structure 7 1.1.6 Other electric field induced phenomena 12 a) Mutual dielectrophoresis (pearl chain formation) 12 b) Cell orientation 14 c) Electro-rotation 14 d) Electro fusion 15 1.2 The bio-electrical structure of the cell 15 1.2.1 Polarisation processesof a cell in aqueous solution 17 1.2.2 Electrical behaviour of abnormal cells 19 1.3 A brief commentary upon dielectrophoretic investigations of biological cells 20 1.3.1 An historical overview 20 1.3.2 Measurement of biological dielectrophoresis 21 1.4 The dielectrophoretic response of haematological cells 25 1.4.1 Relevance of studies 25 1.4.2 Properties and composition of human blood 26 V 1.4.3 Characteristics of haematological cell populations 26 a) Erythrocytes b) Granulocytes 29 c) Lymphocytes 29 d) Monocyles 30 e) Thrombocytes 30 1.4.4 The erythrocyte as simple membrane structure 31 1.4.5 Bio-electrical properties of haematological cells 33 1.5 Research aims 35 1.5.1 System development 35 1.5.2 Reliability of measurements 36 1.5.3 Experimental procedures for haematological cells 36 1.5.4 Sensitivity of dielectrophoretic measurements 37 1.5.5 Potential applications for haematological procedures 37 CHAPTER TWO: THE STANDARD AUTOMATED DIELECTROPHORETIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 38 2.1 Criteria for developing a standard system to measure dielectrophoresis 38 2.2 Basic components of the experimental apparatus 38 2.3 Specifications of the micro-electrode array 39 2.3.1 Electrode design 39 2.3.2 Electrode manufacture 39 2.4 Construction and usage of the electrode chamber 41 2.5 System description 42 2.6 Supplementary sample measurements 44 2.7 Summary of standard experimental procedure 46 CHAPTER THREE: A SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DIELECTROPHORETIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 47 3.1 System description 47 3.2 Evaluation of the spectrophotometric method to measure dielectrophoretic phenomena 51 3.2.1 Sample preparation 51 a) Use of detergent to promote release of cells from electrodes 51 b) Preparation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae samples 54 c) Preparation of latex bead samples 54 d) Preparation of rapid test samples 55 V'1 3.2.2 Comparison of dielectrophoretic collection spectra of test particles 55 3.2.3 On-line diagnosis of collection/release abnormalities 57 a) Interpretation of absorbance changes as a finnction of lime in response to a single pulse 5- h) Comparison of collection and release patterns for 2 and 16 bar electrode arrays 58 3.2.4 Assessment of variability between dielectrophoretic spectra 59 a) Effect of repeated measurement upon the same sample 59 b) Variation in dielectrophoretic measurementsas a consequenceof the experimental system 61 3.2.5 Concluding remarks from preliminary investigations 63 3.3 Investigation of the dielectrophoretic behaviour of human erythrocytes using the spectrophotometric method 64 3.3.1 Sample preparation 64 3.3.2 Preliminary dielectrophoretic investigations of human erythrocytes 65 3.3.3 Difficulties encountered whilst attempting to measure the dielectrophoretic response of human erythrocytes 69 3.4 Conclusion 70 3.4.1 System performance and limitations 70 3.4.2 Concluding remarks regarding the utilisation of the dielectrophotometric spectrophotometer for measurement of haematological cells 71 CHAPTER FOUR: A VIDEO TECHNIQUE TO MEASURE DIELECTROPHORESIS 73 4.1 System description 73 4.2 Preliminary investigations to detect dielectrophoretic response 75 4.2.1 Investigations using microorganisms 75 4.2.2 Investigations of the dielectrophoretic response of human erythrocytes 77 4.3 Conclusion 82 4.3.1 System performance and limitations 82 4.3.2 Evaluation of the video technique for dielectrophoretic measurementsof haematological cells 84 vii CHAPTER FIVE: AN IMAGE-ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM TO STUDY THE DIELECTROPHORETIC RESPONSE OF HAEMATOLOGICAL CELLS 86 5.1 System description 86 5.2 Specific modifications to the standard electrode and chamber design 90 5.3 Preparation of the image-analysis system for an experimental investigation 92 5.4 Consideration of system-basedvariability in measurements 93 5.4.1 The requirement for standardisation 93 5.4.2 Use of fixed human erythrocytes as calibration particles 94 a) The effect of sample concentration upon the resolution of detection 95 b) Establishing a procedure for the use of fixed human erythrocytes as calibration particles 96 5.4.3 Investigation of variability between unused electrode sets 99 5.4.4 Electrode chamber maintenance and durability 102 5.4.5 Summary of system-basedvariability in measurements 103 5.5 Modifications to standard procedure for operation of the image- analysis system 104 5.6 Evaluation of an image-analysis experimental system to investigate dielectrophoretic collection 105 5.7 Conclusion of system development 106 CHAPTER SIX: DIELECTROPHORETIC MEASUREMENTS OF HUMAN ERYTHROCYTES USING THE IMAGE ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM 107 6.1 Preparation of blood samples for dielectrophoretic investigations 107 6.1.1 Basic protocol for experimental procedures 107 6.1.2 A suspension medium for investigating cellular dielectrophoresis 108 a) Specifications for the experimental medium 108 b) Effect of suspension medium upon erythrocyte integrity 110 c) Effect of low-ionic strength suspension medium upon resistance of erythrocytes to haemolysis using the osmotic fragility test
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