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Iran is currently the country experienc- the goals and aims of the NEF, along with ing the largest loss of human resources in its characteristics and its beneficiaries, Nurturing Asia: at the end of the 1990s, economists addressing the question of whether the Intellectuals estimated Iranian brain drain to be at fif- Islamic republic successfully nurtures its teen percent (Carrington and Detragiache own intellectuals. in the Islamic 48). This emigration of highly skilled pro- fessionals and academics has become a Defining Elite Republic. vitally important issue for the leaders of the Modern elites can be divided in functional Islamic Republic of . Over the past sev- sector elites and partial elites. Following The National eral years, active efforts have been made Gächter (7-8), one can also distinguish be- to deal with this challenge, which greatly tween different categories of elites, such Elites Foundation affects the Iranian economy, as well as as birth elites, value elites, functional elites, the country’s scientific and technological power elites, position elites, political elites, Julie S. Leube role in the region. One of the measures and counter-elites. In most classical cases, implemented is the establishment of the different forms are combined in a system, In the past decades, constant brain drain National Elites Foundation (Bonyad-e i.e. birth and power elites accompany a has become a serious challenge for the Melli-ye Nokhbegan, hereafter referred monarchy, power and position elites go Islamic Republic of Iran. Since the be- to as NEF) in 2005. Since most research with a totalitarian regime, while functional ginning of the 1990s, awareness of the on Iranian brain drain is based on data ac- elites may also demonstrate characteristics problem and hence measures to counter quired from outside of the country, exist- of performance elites. The constitution of this trend have increased. After some ef- ing research must be considered incom- and affiliation between elites in a particular forts to attract Iranian expatriates’ inter- plete and reflective of a highly external socio-political system is related to historical est in investment in—or even remigration view on the subject. Due to this deficit, the and social change (Gächter 8). to—Iran, in 2005 the National Elites Foun- present study aims to make a contribution Adapting and modifying Perthes’ model dation was established. The foundation through examining and evaluating for the on changing elites in the Middle East focuses on identification of highly gifted first time the statutes, documents, and (“Einleitung” 18) and Buchta’s model of individuals, and support and preserva- reports of the NEF, and the country’s ef- Iranian informal power structures (9), Re- tion of the domestic elites to which they forts to stop or even reverse further migra- iss-ner puts Iranian elites in three concen- belong. Both material and non-material tion of elites from Iran. The main question tric circles: (1) an inner-circle elite, which support are granted to select groups of raised in this article is: What is the Iranian consists of high-ranking clerics and reli- beneficiaries, thus reflecting the Islamic government’s perception of elite, and how gious laymen, with the latter having en- Republic’s attempts to support and care is this definition influenced by brain drain? tered this circle only since the election of for its citizens’ public and private lives.1 Furthermore, this article seeks to introduce President Ahmadinejad. The inner-circle

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elite determines the course of the Islamic of “decision-makers,” but rather incorpo- Iranian Brain Drain republic—but contrary to during the first rates “opinion-makers” as well (Rakel 16; What factors and conditions have influ- ten years after the revolution, no longer Perthes, Arab Elites 5). enced this definition of elite? The Islamic dominates discourse, rather only reacts The Iranian government and respective- Revolution of 1979 represented a major to it. (2) Members of the administrative ly the NEF defines elite in its Statute of turning point. Starting in the 1950s, Iran’s elite who participate and advise in the Recruitment and Preservation of Elites prospering economy, increasing oil rev- political decision-making process. They (“Āʾin-nameh-ye jazb va negahdari-ye enues, and a change in Iranian society are predominantly state employees who niru-ye ensani-ye nokhbeh”) as a group from traditionalism to modernism led an largely work in secular professions, and of persons intelligent, capable, creative, increasing number of upper- and middle- the group has greatly increased since the and endowed with a brilliant mind. They class families to send their children to revolution. (3) An outer circle consisting are said to contribute to the acceleration schools and universities abroad, mainly of the discourse elite is the most hetero- of the country’s growth and develop- in the US, Great Britain, West Germany, geneous group: its members participate ment with their intellectual activities and France, Austria, and Italy. With the Islamic in discourse on political, economic, and creations (Āʾin-nameh-ye jazb va negah- Revolution, and closure of Iranian Universi- socio-cultural issues. Along with journal- dari), while having a noticeable influence ties in 1980 that was to last for three years, ists, academics, and writers, members of on the output and spread of science, art, a mass emigration of Iranian professionals this circle may come from the previous technology, culture, and administration of began. The new government considered two circles, and it could be considered the country (Āshnayi ba zavabet 12). Re- Western-educated professors and schol- an intellectual elite (191-99). In addition, ferring to the categorization presented ars gharbzadeh, which can be translated Rakel—based on Perthes—argues that the by Gächter (8), these state-defined elites as “indoctrinated by the West” or “wes- politically relevant elite not only distin- can be classified as “performance elites” toxicated,” and did not mind them leaving. guishes itself through positions in state who are distinguished by above-average This attitude towards the emigrated elites institutions, decision-making on domestic achievements in their respective profes- remained predominant until the end of the and foreign policy, or active involvement sional fields. In the current power system Iran-Iraq War and the start of a new agen- in policy formulation—but also through its of the Islamic Republic, according to the da of economic policies under President participation in defining norms and val- models offered by Perthes and Reissner, Rafsandjani in 1989. In order to rebuild the ues. From this perspective, the definition such elites are part of the third and outer- war-torn country and its economy, the gov- of elite is hence much wider, including most circle. They therefore belong to the ernment called for Iranian specialists and politicians of the opposition, journalists, intellectual-discourse elite as “opinion- professionals to return home to Iran. How- high bureaucrats, leading economists, makers” in the Iranian socio-political field ever, until 1993, only 2,600 highly skilled members of the security agencies, intel- of discourse. professionals and scientists answered this lectuals, etc. Therefore, the politically rele- call. In light of an estimated diaspora of vant elite in Iran is not made up exclusively one to four million people of Iranian origin

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worldwide, including relatively high edu- social insecurity, limited freedom of the Purpose and Practices of the cational qualifications among this group, press, and living conditions in a political Foundation the efforts of the Iranian government until and social system saturated by religious- The foundation regards its own task as the then must be seen as highly unsuccessful moralistic rules set the stage for a further identification, guidance, and financial and (Torbat 276, 280; Hakimzadeh). outflow of know-how. The Iranian Ministry spiritual support of elites with the purpose The term brain drain (farar-e maghz-ha) of Science, Research and Technology as- of accelerating scientific and technologi- did not emerge in the official rhetoric of sessed the financial loss caused by brain cal productivity and the country’s develop- the Islamic Republic of Iran until the late drain at about 38 billion US dollars each ment. With the foundation, an advanced 1990s. Awareness of not only a lack, but year. In past years, four out of five Iranian scientific, technological, and economic even a constant loss of know-how in the winners of international science Olympi- position in the Middle East is to be at- country emerged only during this decade. ads have chosen to leave the country for tained. These defined goals lie within the One of its consequences was the demand better opportunities abroad (Hakimza- framework of a perspective paper issued for more academic freedom in 1997 by deh).2 by the Expediency Discernment Council Mostafa Mo’in, then-President Khatami’s In 2004, the Iranian government initiated a (Majmaʿ-e Tashkhis-e Maslahat-e Nezam), education minister. President Khatami’s new approach to safeguard the country’s which came into effect in 2005. The paper visit to the Unites States in 2000, during human resources: the focus shifted from outlines a distinct development of the which he attended the UN Millennium recruitment of highly qualified specialists country in the fields of economy, science, Summit and expressed his concern over abroad, to the identification and support politics, culture, and society in four five- Iranian brain drain, along with an interest of professionals and experts already in the year plans until 2025, and shows that the in attracting wealthy Iranians to invest in country. In September 2004, the council Iranian government is well aware of the their home country, can be considered of ministers (heyʾat-e vaziran) passed the significance of highly qualified profes- another landmark. Two years before, while Statute of Recruitment and Preservation of sionals in worldwide competition for new addressing an Iranian audience in New Elites (Āʾin-nameh-ye jazb va negahdari- technologies and development. In fact, the York, he promoted financial engagement ye niru-ye ensani-ye nokhbeh), and on 31 NEF in its 2011 annual report expressly de- in Iran (Torbat 293-94). Considering the May 2005, the NEF was founded by the clared the migration of elites to be one of limited response and the small numbers Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolu- the fundamental challenges of the country of expatriates returning to Iran, scholars tion (Shura-ye ʿAli-ye Enqelab-e Farhangi). (Gozaresh-e barnameh-ha 27). tend to declare this attempt a failure (Tor- With the establishment of the NEF, a foun- The NEF has released and published more bat 295; Hakimzadeh)—or at least, as not dation for the support of more than 9,500 than 30 documents to date, including successful enough to have had an effect intellectually gifted individuals by 2011 guidelines on the identification of elites at on the increasing brain drain. was laid (Bonyad-e melli-ye nokhbegan, universities and research centers, financial In present-day Iran, an economic crisis and Gozaresh-e barnameh-ha 33). support for academic travel and research subsequent high unemployment rates, trips, establishment of science competi-

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tions, and procedural instructions for the a vice . The head of state country” (Bonyad-e melli-ye nokhbegan, assessment of international science con- himself, currently , Āshnayi ba zavabet 16). Beneficiaries at tests. both presides over the foundation com- the university level qualify though univer- The foundation’s structure consists of the mission and is a member of the Supreme sity entrance exams (konkur), national and office of the president, a board of directors Court of the Cultural Revolution, which ap- international science olympiads, inven- (heyʾat-e omana) that is in charge of the proves modifications of the foundation’s tions, creative and artistic activities, and budget and accounting and includes the constitution. Such changes are in turn sug- top performance in their respective dis- president of the Islamic Republic as one of gested by the board of directors, while the ciplines. The assistance includes financial its members, and the elites’ council, which foundation president presents them to the aid and travel allowances. Inventors repre- is responsible for interpretation of the Supreme Court of the Cultural Revolution. sent another important group of beneficia- foundation’s statutes and principles. The That the president wields considerable in- ries. An essential condition of admission position of the president of the NEF is cur- fluence in supporting elites and allowing is the marketability and practicability of rently occupied by Nasrin Soltankhah. As them to apply their skills could be consid- their projects and inventions. The promo- president of the foundation, she becomes ered an accurate estimation. The fact that tion of junior researchers and research as- titular vice of the country. Soltankhah has the foundation was established during the sistants working in scientific centers and worked as a presidential advisor on sci- presidency of former President Khatami universities is linked to how innovative entific and technical affairs since 2005, raises the question of the previous presi- their research field is, and their former and also acts as president of the Center dent’s involvement in the development beneficiary status (i.e. as undergraduates for Women’s and Family Affairs (Markaz-e and implementation of the NEF. or graduate students). Lecturers and re- Omur-e Zanan va Khanevadeh). To ensure searchers connected to scientific centers coverage for the whole country, the foun- Types of Beneficiaries and Selection and universities can profit from different dation is not only located in the capital, but Criteria types of assistance. They qualify by mea- also maintains offices in two-thirds of the Among the beneficiaries of the founda- surement of their academic achievements country’s provinces, with several offices tion’s privileges and grants are students, and publications against the criteria of na- still in the planning stages. They serve as undergraduates, graduate students, and tional and international scientific centers. the outposts of the central office in , doctoral candidates; along with lecturers, Accordingly, grants consist of bestowing covering educational and research institu- inventors, research scientists, junior re- an academic chair, financial support for the tions in the respective provinces. searchers, winners of Quran competitions, acquisition of research equipment, travel Upon examination of the structure of the and artists. allowances for domestic research trips and foundation, the close interaction and inte- Support starts from elementary school, research-related journeys abroad, funding gration of the institution’s committees with where talented students are assisted and of a research assistant, and introduction to the presidential office is particularly strik- backed in the “responsibility of performing a number of ministries and committees. To ing. The foundation’s president is always their task in the construction and rise of the facilitate beneficiaries’ access to interna-

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tional research and new technologies, the to newlywed couples who have received a doctoral candidate status, as well as to in- foundation furthermore seeks to establish grant benefits, accompanied by atten- ventors, artists, and winners of Quran com- a network of scientists on a national and in- dance of the foundation’s president at the petitions. In practice, university students ternational level. Another group of benefi- ceremony. Apart from financial support, are exempted from military service for ciaries are artists: Every year eight individ- the foundation has also set up programs the duration of their studies; a large part uals who stand out due to their innovative, for the moral, spiritual, and religious en- of their military service can be replaced creative work and their contribution to the couragement and edification of the ben- by research relevant to the armed forces development of Iranian-Islamic society are eficiaries, so they would “always feel in the (Bonyad-e melli-ye nokhbegan, Āshnayi chosen. The benefits they receive include service of the nation, the holy order of the ba zavabet 45-6). reduced or eased military service (applying Islamic Republic and its noble goals; not Beside these efforts for the identification only to male beneficiaries) and allowances to remain in expectations but learn to pay and development of domestic elites, the for the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca (also their tax of knowledge and giftedness, and Iranian government continues to devote granted to other groups, see below). Win- put it in the service of Islam and the Islamic attention to Iranian expatriate elites. A stat- ners of national and international Quran nation” (Bonyad-e melli-ye nokhbegan, ute passed in 2009 expressly addresses recitation competitions represent a fur- Gozaresh-e barnameh-ha 98). The stated expatriates by granting financial support ther group among the foundation’s ben- aim of the NEF is to nurture a performance for the acquisition of real estate and con- eficiaries. So long as they are enrolled at elite that is in the service of the Islamic re- struction of buildings in Iran. Conditions a university or theological seminary, they public and acts as one of its supporting include, of course, a return to Iran and tak- may receive undergraduate and graduate pillars. Although the NEF’s elites would ing up employment at a national science study or doctoral grants. Researchers in be located only in the outermost circle or research center (Bonyad-e melli-ye the field of theology have the possibility to in the above-discussed elite model, the nokhbegan, Gozaresh-e barnameh-ha 38). obtain fellowships, innovation credits, and Islamic republic’s leaders are well aware funding for Quran research, along with es- of the elites’ future influence as part of the Conclusion tablishment of Quran classes (Bonyad-e country’s discourse elite. One of the mea- The Islamic Republic’s official perception melli-ye nokhbegan, Āshnayi ba zavabet; sures to ensure a proper attitude of these of elite demonstrates a strong focus on a Āshnayi ba āʾin-nameh-ha; Gozaresh-e elites toward the Iranian-Islamic state is scientific target group. This group, which barnameh-ha). interweaving the country’s national inter- can be referred to as a performance elite, With this category of beneficiaries, the ests with religious state ideology through belongs to the Iranian discourse elite, with character of the foundation as an institu- its diverse programs. Other non-material its members acting as “opinion-makers” in tion embedded in a political system that benefits include special privileges regard- Iranian socio-political discourse. Examin- regards religion as a self-evident part of ing military service and a onetime allow- ing how the elites issue has developed its members’ lives becomes clear. Another ance for the hajj. The former is offered to all over the past decades, a definitional focus element of this are cash donations given beneficiaries holding university student or becomes comprehensible. After a revolu-

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Julie S. Leube tion and almost a decade of war, the Irani- ing that those in charge of the NEF are not Notes an leadership and the country’s economy only interested in nurturing a technically 1 This article is based on BA, studied in Marburg and Tehran, and have experienced the consequences of and scientifically highly professionalized research conducted in the is currently completing her master’s the emigration of predominantly highly elite, but also the beneficiaries’ religious course of the author’s bachelor degree in Iranian studies at Marburg educated and professionalized Iranians. and moral education. This stems not only thesis: Leube, Julie S.: “Migration und Braindrain University. In her bachelor’s thesis she Since the tendency of emigration from Iran from Islamic holistic anthropology, which im Iran.” BA thesis. Philipps- examined the Iranian National Elites has not stopped or reversed since then, includes care and responsibility for the Universität Marburg, 2011. Foundation as a governmental reaction the government continues to struggle mental well-being of the members of Is- Print. to the country’s increasing intellectual against ongoing brain drain, which cur- lamic society, but also from a calculated 2 A positive aspect of brain brain drain. rently represents the largest loss of human aim to mold the Islamic Republic’s future drain and migration that resources in the region. Confronted with cadres and elites. has long been neglected is challenging global competition, especially A dominantly technical understanding of the backflow of migrants’ in the field of technology, the Iranian gov- intellectual elites disregards the influence resources, namely of knowhow and remittances to the ernment thus hopes to catch up in the of opinion-making intellectuals and might home countries (Gibson and international struggle for highly qualified turn out to be one of the major handicaps McKenzie 16). Given the lack specialists. The long-range objective is ac- of such an approach. Regardless, the of information and research on this issue with respect to quisition of an advanced scientific, tech- Iranian government is well aware of the the Iranian case, one can only nological, and economic position in the elites’ influence as part of the country’s speculate. Furthermore, the Middle East. One of the measures taken discourse elite. The foundation’s inclusion country’s isolated political and in this respect was the establishment of of religious-ideological allowances likely economic situation makes Iran a special case deserving of the NEF in 2005. Its programs aim at the reflects this. To what extent the efforts of further investigation. recruitment and preservation of highly the NEF will pay off remains to be seen. qualified professionals in order to accel- Since all programs and privileges provid- erate the scientific, artistic, technological, ed by the foundation focus on pull factors and cultural growth and development of and almost completely neglect the social the country. The target group includes and political dimensions of the problem, scientists, students, inventors, artists and whether this will ease the situation and for- winners of Quran competitions, to whom ward the country’s struggle against brain the foundation grants financial and mate- drain remains questionable. rial support. Beside material allowances, the foundation provides non-material ben- efits, which stand in contrast to material in- ducements and benefits by demonstrat-

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